General Slides
Slide 2.2
Title: Detail of Botticelli's "Death of Lucretia."
Lucretia was raped by a noble. She tells the story of what happened and then kills
herself. Brutus slays him and rids Rome of the Monarch. This was the beginning of
the Republic, and the tradition of the apprehension of a monarch over Rome. This
piece shows Brutus lamenting over Lucretia's body. Brutus later uses this event as
propaganda on a coin to prove he is a defender of the Republic and that his actions
against Julius Caesar should be justified.
Slide 2.3
Roman republican man holding the portrait busts ["imagines"] of his ancestors.
This speaks of the fiber of roman politics. It was tradition to raise your authority in the
eyes of politicians by accentuating your associations with already powerful or well
respected individuals. Here the roman politician is broadcasting his ancestry to add to his
own validity. The importance of this procedure relevant to Augustus is how he in his
early years in order to gain validity and influence accentuated his relations with Julius
Caesar. Virgil furthers these glorified associations in the Aeneid by emphasizing the
emergence of the Julian family from the original founders of Rome.
Slide 2.4
View of the Senate house ' Curia ' in the Roman forum
The Senate was a pillar of the Republic tradition of Rome. They embodied the believed
superiority of the Roman governmental style. This type of government and tradition was
challenged many times but unsuccessfully until Augustus. He pursued his way into a
monarch position while at the same time supplying the appearance of a return to the
original traditions of the Republic. This is what is so amazing about the reign of Augustus.
He was able to accomplish two totally opposing agendas for his gain with little notice in
the Senate.
Slide 2.6
Portrait bust of Cicero, most famous of the "new men" of Rome and most famed orator of
the late Republic.
Full Name: Marcus Tullius Cicero
Lived 106BCE - 43BCE. His career in politics is remarkable b/c he did not come from
the usual line of top leaders. His family was not of immense wealth or fame. He remained
a true supporter of the Republic through the times of Julius Caesar. A law was passed
stating any man who killed a roman would be exiled automatically and was to be
retroactive. This was specifically called upon in order to rid the Senate of Cicero by a
loyal Caesar follower. Orated the Philippics in support of the senate after the death of
Caesar. He supported Octavian to use him as a puppet to get back the senate. After
Antony was defeated Octavian had him killed.
Slide 2.8
Portrait bust of Julius Caesar.
Sim. to Zanker fig. 5.
Julius Caesar laid the foundation to the upset of the senate and the emergence of a
monarch type leader that Octavian would soon take advantage of. He adopted Octavian in
his will issued after his murder on the ides (15th) of March 44 BCE. Born in 100BCE.
After his death Octavian took the opportunity to defeat Antony and "restore" the republic.
His line was commemorated in the Aeneid by Virgil.
Slide 2.9:
Portrait bust of Pompey the Great (55 BC)
Interestingly, in this bust, Pompey’s hairstyle resembles that of
Alexander the Great from whom he borrowed his title, “the Great.” This bust
was created after the creation of the first triumvirate in 60 BC (along with
Caesar and Crassus) and before Pompey’s defeat at Pharsalus following a war
with Caesar in 48 BC. Professor Tarrant cited the conflict and competition
between Caesar and Pompey’s personal ambition and military success (as
exemplified here with Pompey’s comparison to Alexander the Great) as one of
the major forces bringing Rome to its “breaking point.”
Slide 2.12:
Coin of Julius Caesar (45 BC)
As we learned from our section papers, coins were an extremely
powerful form of propaganda. Both of these coins issued by Caesar exemplify
his desire to express his own authority. The wreaths worn in each coin by
Caesar are a symbol of authority. On the top coin, the inscription
reads “Dictator for the fourth time” and on the bottom “Dictator forever” (a
claim Caesar made after defeating all opponents in 44 BC). Octavian followed
Caesar by making coins in order to increase his popularity among the Roman
populace but learned from his father’s mistakes as well. Octavian used his
coins to portray himself as a ruler among and for the people, rather than the
supreme dictator (the year Julius Caesar proclaimed himself “Dictator forever”
happened to be the same year he was assassinated).
Slide 3.2:
Coin of Brutus (44 BC)
Brutus, the man who led the conspiracy against Caesar, in what he
termed as a fight for freedom and “liberty,” is pictured here on his own coin
following the overthrow and assassination of Julius Caesar. In other coins he
has the inscription “Cap of Freedom.” Essentially he tries to free himself
from the dictator role which Caesar had assumed (much like Octavian does
later) and instill a belief that he has brought liberty to the people. There
is much controversy surrounding Brutus’ and the conspirator’s true motives
since Julius Caesar had gained the support and love of the majority of the
people (the issue was probably the liberty of the Senate). Also of note,
Octavian will openly hate Brutus and all others involved in his father’s
murder throughout his entire life.
Slide 3.3:
Coin of Octavian (38 BC)
In this coin of Octavian, two important methods of propaganda employed
by Octavian are shown. First, on the obverse Octavian is pictured with the
inscription with “Son of the deified one” and the Julian Star. These
references and connections to Julius Caesar by Octavian are meant to further
his own status by association. For, by declaring Caesar to be divine in 42
BC, Octavian hoped to get rid of his prior reputation as a dictator, as well
as use his father’s “new status to enhance his own” (Lecture III notes). On
the reverse, there is a similar reference to Caesar in addition to the
inscription, “the civic crown.” As seen in the Res Gestae and other sources,
Octavian loves to stress how he has been elected and is serving the people in
as many ways as possible – therefore, it seems fitting for him to refer to his
position as the “civic crown.”
Slide 3.5:
Triumviral coins of Octavian and Lepidus
Octavian, Lepidus and Antony composed the second triumvirate created in 43
BC. Just another way in which coins served as a means of political
propaganda – in a sense, solidifying the formation and promoting the future
success of the triumvirate. Of note, these coins do not exist for members of
the first triumvirate because that was “a wholly unofficial arrangement,”
while the second triumvirate was a “legally sanctioned office that could be
publicly advertised” (Lecture III notes).
COINS: Certainly not neutral representations, but tools of propaganda
3.1 Obverse: Head of Brutus, Inscription
Reverse: Cap of Freedom, daggers
 Interpretation of the assassination of Caesar. Printed under the auspices of Marcus
Brutus. Gives the traditional republican view of Caesar’s assassination. Obverse bears
inscription “IMP” for Imperator, holds the office of general or military commander. On
reverse, inscription refers in abbreviated form to the Ides of March, the season known for
Caesar’s assassination. Two daggers represent the act of the conspirators (assassination).
The cap of freedom or liberty, representative of the transition of a man from slavery to
freedom, was used in the ceremony to mark a man’s freedom. In this symbol we get the
assertion that the Senators who killed Caesar transformed Romans, who had been slaves
under Caesar, had been set free.
“How can you be against freedom?” But we must ask ourselves who was being set free. It
was a subsection of the Senators whose interests were endangered by Caesar who were
most “enslaved” by Caesar.
-Senate had ultimate authority to authorize coinage. Senate would then set up a
triumvirate to oversee production and distribution of coins. Those triumvirs might have
strong political ties and loyalties, which would guide the coinage they saw produced.
Plutarch tells us that Caesar, when he died, fell at the foot of Pompeii’s statue.
Pompeii depicted as guardian of senate Caesar as violator of Senate’s rule
BUT, in reality, Pompeii was as much a symptom of the breakdown of the Republican
system as Caesar. If Pompeii had one, the Republic still would not have persisted.
Pompeii took office prematurely, skipped curses honorum.
3.2 Obverse: Head of Woman, “Libertas”, Reverse Brutus and his attendants, inscription
“Brutus”
Marcus Brutus issuing a warning in the mid 50’s that the Brutus clan, the first to establish
consul, is still going to act to protect libertas and freedom. Probably a warning directed
towards Pompeii.
 Caesar was the first to put his image on a coin. After his death, EVERYONE does it,
follows suit. The anonymity that once tempered the use of images on coin was never
pursued.
Now that Caesar was gone, what next? VACUUM where Caesar had been, strong
loyalties to the man and the name persisted. POWER of the name, of the figure.
Hundreds of Senators would have remained loyal to Caesar, owed their positions to him.
There was a Caesarian power base that existed in wait of a leader. Two potential leaders
step forward to claim it.
MARC ANTONY: The Obvious successor, defender of Caesar’s legacyAlready had the loyalty of the army, served as co-consul with Caesar. At the time of
Caesar’s death, Antony is the man to watch. Cicero transferred his hatred and opposition
of Caesar to Antony. Started attacking Antony in speech after speech “philippic
oration”
GAIUS OCTAVIUS: age 19 when Caesar is killed in 44- was a great-nephew of Caesar
Was in Albania in a mix of study and military training at time of assassination. Had
started to become close to J.C.
MARC ANTONY in the prime of life
OCTAVIUS still a kid
2 things happen to turn the tables in Octavius’ favor:
1) The will of Caesar is revealed with Octavius as the heir to his enormous fortune.
and as his adopted son. He takes the name of Caesar, becoming Octavianus and
Caesar. His friends and allies call his Caesar, while opponents like Cicero
continue to call him Octavian.
2) Change in Julius Caesar’s position divine association. In his final years he had
a priest responsible for his image, with sacrifices made to him. Summer of 44
(after assassination) a comet was observed during games in his honor. His
supporters took that as a sign of his divinity, and were able to get an official
proclamation of divinity, with J.C. as divus.
 Thus, Octavian is now the son of a deified one.
All coins Octavian produces from here on make reference to this divine element, with
Octavian as “Divi Filius,” son of the divine one. Sometimes with J.C. on obverse and
Octavian (Caesar) on reverse.
 Octavian portrayed at times with beard, sign of MOURNING. Depicts him in
mourning of father, as loyal, devotional son.
Octavian associates himself with Caesar on coins when it is useful
3.3 Obverse: bearded head of Octavian, Divi Filius inscription, sidus Iulium: the star or
comet that was evidence of J.C’s divinity.Reverse: Laurel (“corona civica” the civic
crown) with inscription DIVOS IULIUS, “the deified Julius. From 38 BC.
3.4 (Series) Octavian on obverse, Venus on reverse. Venus as ancestress of Octavian.
Venus victorius, “victrix,” with shield, helmet, spear. On the shield of Venus is the star,
sidus Iulium. From before 31 BC.
 in 43, an official alliance of triumvirate is established to manage the state. Is a form of
three-person dictatorship. Third person is Marcus Lepidus, one of Caesar’s army
commanders. Authorized for five years, to be a temporary situation. Was renewed in 37.
One of more notorious moves of triumvirate is proscription list means of paying back
scores. Lands and fortunes seized. Antony demands that Cicero be a prominent victim of
proscription.
Alliance of Octavian and Antony was a shaky and difficult one. Each wanted sole power.
Fought as much as they were in accord.
Antony expansive
Octavian calculating, cautious
3.6 Octavia featured on reverse of coin of Antony. REVOLUTION had only been five
years since first appearance of a living Roman on coinage. Now a woman is on a coin.
Commemorates Antony’s marriage to sister of Octavian, Octavia. Octavia is the cement
meant to link Antony and Octavia. On other coins, depicted as superimposed faces. 40
BC.
Even so, Antony is cultivating a relationship that had already formed between Antony
and Cleopatra.
 Coins are the venue used to shape the purely Roman image of Octavian and the
changing Egyptian image of Antony.
3.6
This coin shows Octavia, the sister of Octavian and the wife of Antony. At that time,
there was a triumvirate in which Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus ruled the state, and
Antony and Octavian did not get along. Marriage was a traditional Roman practice for
creating a link between people, so in 40 BC, Antony married Octavia. Only five years
before this coin, Caesar was the first person to place any Roman man's portrait on a coin,
and so this was a revolution in Roman coins because now a woman was featured on the
obverse.
3.7
This is a portrait of Fulvia, the second wife of Mark Antony. Antony was married to
Fulvia and married Octavia after she died. In the war of Perugia, Octavian's forces
beseige Fulvia and Antony's brother Lucius. War would have begun between Antony and
Octavian, but the troops refused to fight (many had fought together earlier) and so they
reconciled--Treaty of Brundisium. Then, after Fulvia died, Antony married Octavia to
"seal the arrangement"
3.8
Superimposed, overlapping images of Antony and Octavia in a way similar to that in
which the king and queen of egypt might have appeared on a coin. Shows the link
between Antony and Octavian that was created through this marriage. The reverse is
difficult to see.
3.9
Jugate coin of Ptolemy and Arsinoe. This coin shows Ptolemy and his wife and sister,
Arsinoe. Brother-sister marriages were accepted in Egypt and the Ptolemeis did it for
many generations. The coins read "Divine Siblings". The relation of this coin to Octavian
is, most likely, that the style of the jugate coin is used by Antony and Octavia in many
coins to show their relationship (for example, 3.8).
3.10
This coin shows Antony on the obverse and Cleopatra on the reverse. Even while Antony
was married to Octavia, he was pursuing a relationship with Cleopatra, and as the 30s
progressed, his interests in Egypt were becoming more and more prominantly displayed
on coins. This coin is one of many depicting Cleopatra and Antony. Although some
"admirers of romantic poetry" were thrilled that he had the courage to put Octavia and
Cleopatra on coins, his depiction of Cleo also fueled the propaganda of Octavian and his
followers.
3.11 The capture of Egypt. On obverse, Octavian. On reverse, Egyptian crocodile and
inscription AEGYPTO CAPTA (“with Egypt captured”). Coin from after 31, when
Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.
 most dangerous moment in a person’s life is the moment of triumph and victory, when
power is at its peak. This is visible in the life of Caesar.
By 32, Octavian is in the position that Caesar was at the time of his death in 44.
3.11
Coin of Octavian minted after the Battle of Actium in 31 when Octavian defeated Antony
and Cleopatra.
Inscription on the obverse: CAESAR COS VI, “Consol for the 6th time.” Shows how
Octavian still used the names of traditional republican offices.
On the reverse: a Nile crocodile and the inscription: AEGYPTO CAPTA ("with Egypt
captured") Important because battle is depicted as foreign victory, not civil war, since
Antony had so fully associated himself with Cleopatra.
4.1
Aureus (gold coin) from 27 BC, the year Octavian becomes Augustus. Inscription reads:
CAESAR DIVI F[ILIUS] COS VII = "Caesar, son of the deified one, consul for the
seventh time." Advertises that consulship is a traditional position (though Octavian held it
many times more than was traditional).
4.2
Coin of Augustus, 27 BC.
Obverse: portrait.
Reverse: eagle carrying corona civica, a wreath given to him by the Senate as a military
decoration for saving the lives of citizens, and inscription AUGUSTUS, showing that he
incorporated his name into the coinage as soon as the name was conferred to him by the
Senate. (for more info, see similar coin in Zanker fig. 76)
5.2 Portrait bust of Marcus Agrippa, c. 30-20 BC.
This is a portrait bust of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, one of the main
advisers to Augustus. Agrippa had been the admiral in charge of Augustus'
forces at the Battle of Actium - indeed, by most accounts he won the
battle - and was later given the responsibility for most of Augustus'
building programs. For a time, he was Augustus' most obvious successor, and
he was clearly the second man in the state - evidenced from his position on
the Ara Pacis Augustae. When Augustus became princeps of the new principate,
he shaped an administration that relied heavily on a stable group of
advisors, of which Agrippa was probably the foremost. Agrippa was also
significant because Augustus married him to his daughter Julia in 21 BC and
adopted him as his son-in-law, desiring to produce an heir. The marriage
produced five children (Agrippa Posthumous, Agrippina, Gaius, Lucius, and
Germanicus), however none of them became his heir. The existence of this
bust is testament to Agrippa's importance - he was portrayed in art and
immortalized for posterity.
5.3?
Segment of the south processional frieze of the Ara Pacis Augustae showing
members of the imperial family--could that be Maecenas peeking over a
shoulder? 13-9 BC
This picture depicts a segment of the Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan
Peace) monument (dedicated in 9 BC). The monument depicts a procession
following the royal family. The segment shown is of the imperial family, but
the figure in the background, looking over the shoulder of the person in
front of him, may represent Gaius Clineus Maecenas, one of Augustus' chief
advisors. Maecenas was a major behind-the-scenes presence, and was active
mainly in domestic and cultural affairs, famously known as the patron of
Virgil and Horace. Maecenas (as well as Agrippa) were insiders who knew
Augustus from his youth, but as men from non-elite backgrounds they were
typical of many whom Augustus attracted to public life.
5.4 Fragment of a papyrus roll found in Egypt containing elegiac verses of
C. Cornelius Gallus, poet and onetime prefect of Egypt. (70-26 BC.)
This is a fragment of a papyrus roll found in Egypt containing elegiac
verses of C. Cornelius Gallus (70-26 BC), poet and onetime prefect of Egypt.
Those who were successful under Augustus knew not to enhance their own glory
at his expense; Cornelius Gallus did not get this message. He was forced to
commit suicide in 27-26 BC, and his case illustrates the new limitations on
ambition in the new principate. As a poet, he is considered part of the
second generation of poets following the novi poetae, which included Virgil
and Horace. It is ironic to note that the Egyptian obelisk in the center of
St. Peter's Square (in the Vatican, one of the most visited places on earth)
is inscribed with the name of Gallus, who desired to be remembered; his name
is not visible.
5.6 Temple in Ankara, Turkey: site of a bilingual (Greek and Latin) version
of the Res Gestae inscribed on its walls.
This picture depicts a temple in Ankara, Turkey, which was the site of a
bilingual (Greek and Latin) version of the Res Gestae inscribed on its
walls. The significance of the temple is that it represents the fact that
Rome, while a Republic in name, was actually a de facto Empire. The Res
Gestae (the Accomplishments) was written by Augustus and completed in the
last year of his life (14 AD). In it, Augustus glorifies his political and
military endeavors, as well as his service to the people; it's inscription
on a Turkish temple is evidence of Augustus' widespread influence and the
propagandizing that occurred throughout the Roman empire.
Slide 5.7 Temple in Ankara, Turkey: site of a bilingual (Greek and Latin) version of the
Res Gestaeinscribed on its walls
Temple of Rome and Augustus at Ankara, the capital of modern Turkey, contains
the best-preserved copy of the Res Gestae, Aug. statement of his achievements. The
exterior of the wall is covered with a Greek translation of Res Gestae, making it most
accessible to the citizens. The interior of the wall has it in the original Latin text. This is
sign of the political and cultural influence of the Roman Empire spreading to the
provinces outside of Italy. The mode of Roman architecture was very wide spread.
Temples like this is a way of visually recalling the fact that Rome was spreading its
control over much of the Mediterranean world.
Slide 5.9 Aqueduct: Pont du Gard, France. Built perhaps when Agrippa governor in Gaul,
late 1st century
This aqueduct was part of the Aug.’s building program in the provinces to display Roman
control. The Pont du Gard was made by Agrippa, August's son in law, in 9 BC. It was
used to supply drinking water to the city of Nîmes from a hill that's only 90 meters high,
hundreds of kilometers away. The long, slow descent requires the aquaduct to cross the
Gard River, which is the most impressive part of the structure. Here, the structure reaches
a height of over 40 meters over the river, giving it great technical and aesthetic
importance. The bridge is made up of three tiers of arches: the first is made up of 6 arches
(142 meters long), the second has 11 arches (242 meters), and the third has 35 small
arches (275 meters). The entire bridge is constructed of yellow stone blocks weighing 6
tons each.
Slide 5.10 Statue of Augustus from Livia's villa at Prima Porta. Copy in marble of a
bronze statue, after 20 BC
This statue of Augustus at Prima Porta is a very famous image of him. It is the
image of him as an ideal imperator or commander-in-chief. He is wearing a military
breastplate and holding a staff of command in his left hand. He raises his right hand in the
gesture of addressing his troops. On the breastplate is an image that was carefully chosen.
A Roman soldier with a hunting dog at his feet and a more exotically dressed man
wearing trousers, tunic and a beard is holding up a standard with an eagle at the top. The
foreigner is a Parthian and he was depicted kneeling. This relates to Aug. success in
recovering the legionary standard lost to the Parthians by Crassus in 53 BC. This was the
result of diplomatic negotiations, but Aug. depicts it here as a victory over the Parthia, as
if the Romans forced the Parthians to give back the standard. The statue is used as an
advertisement of Aug. as a great command/general; in reality Aug. is not very good with
military matters. Most of the victories won were by Agrippa and Tiberius. But it is
important that Aug. has the image of a military commander, since military success is
directly correlated with political success and it is expected that the imperator as
commander-in-chief will be a great general.
SLIDES
5.11
Breastplate after 20 BC. Depicts Parthian returning the Roman legionary standards
lost by Crassus in 53 BC. Twists real story: diplomatic negotiations occurred, not
victory over Parthia. From statue of Augustus in Livia’s villa at Prima Porta. Military
success part of princeps image. Statue showed Augustus the general as ultimate dux
(leader).
See Lecture V notes, Zanker fig. 148 a-b.
5.12
Coin shows kneeling Parthian returning Roman legionary standards. Inscription:
CAESAR and SIGN[..] RECE[PT..] = "the standards received."
19 BC. Same motive as 5.11.
See Lecture V notes, Zanker fig. 146.
6.1
Portrait bust of Livia, second wife of Augustus. From the proud Claudii family. 1st of a
number of powerful imperial wives and mothers.
See Lecture VI notes.
Slide 6.3 Theater dedicated to Marcellus, adoptive son of Augustus, 13 BC
Marcellus, son of Octavia, making him effectively A's nephew [mirroring
A's own relationship with Julius Caesar] was a clear favorite of A's, and
was his marked heir. A married Marcellus off to Julia [A's daughter] in 25
B.C.; unfortunately, Marcellus died in 23 B.C. The death of Marcellus is
also documented in Virgil's Aeneid -- in Book VI when Anchises is telling
of a young man who grieved the nation when he died, showing the extent to
which A depended on Marcellus to be his heir. The theater of Marcellus was
built in 13 B.C., ten years after Marcellus' death, probably to
commemorate him as A's adopted son. A word on theaters -- the theatre of
Marcellus was the only other theatre in Rome, apart from the theatre of
Pompey; A loved theatres, because when he did go in, he was among the
masses, symbolic of the leader addressing his people directly. It also
gave an image of popular support, since it could seat 12-15,000 people. It
was a center for high culture -- Roman plays and poetry would be read
here, and A attended often [juxtaposed with Caesar, who attended, but read
letters all the time]. Finally -- as with many other objects of
architecture during the Augustan period, by naming buildings after his
family members, A created a ubiquitous presence for his family in Rome -connotations of being dynastic and immortaility.
6.4
Coin with Augustus on obverse and Marcus Agrippa on reverse. Agrippa is
wearing a "naval crown." c. 12 BC. Sim. to Zanker fig. 168. Agrippa, as
other descriptions of him have mentioned, was considered, with maecenas,
one of "those closest to" A. Agrippa was A's star general, helping in the
war of Perugia, Naulochus, and Actium; not only a great general, but also
a faithful supporter, a public benefactor, the author of an
autobiography... he basically devoted all his energies ot the glory of
Rome and its empire, the emperor and the dynasty [becoming part of it
himself, in his marriage to Julia and 21 BC]. He was the chosen heir after
marcellus' death; unfortunately, he died in 12 BC, which is when this coin
was minted, suggesting that the coin was produced in memory of Agrippa,
not only fantastic general [as evidenced by the ship-crown on his head]
and benefactor of Rome, but also good friend and right hand man to
Augustus. The reason for the ship-crown is likely to be commemorating
Agrippa's naval victory against Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. The fact
that Agrippa's profile is feature on the reverse of Augustus' reflects the
closeness of the two men.
6.7
Julia, daughter of Augustus. The woman who helped secure all of Augustus'
heirs, but ended up being a huge pain in his life because of her
adulterous ways [in the face of A's marriage laws and hopes to restore
morals to the republic]. First married Marcellus in 25 BC, then when
Marcellus died in 23 BC, she married Agrippa in 21 BC, and when Agrippa
died in 12 BC, she married Tiberius in 11 BC; finally she was banished by
Augustus in 2 BC. She provided Augustus with more heirs in her short
marriage with Agrippa, producing five children: Gaius, Lucius [both boys
whom A adopted into the Caesarian family], Agrippina, Julia the younger
[who was also promiscuous and was banished as well], and Agrippa Postumus
[apparently a disgrace to the family because he was slow and indolent, and
eventually was murdered during Tiberius' reign to secure T's own position
of power].
6.8
Coin with Augustus on obverse, Julia flanked by Gaius and Lucius on the reverse.
Sim. to Zanker fig. 167b. Julia was daughter of Augustus, married to Marcellus,
Agrippa, and Tiberius. Gaius and Lucius were Julia’s sons, and apparent heirs to
August, until both died young and within two years of eachother. Julia was exiled
for adultery in 2 BCE.
25 Augustus' daughter Julia marries A.'s nephew Marcellus 23 death of Marcellus
21 Julia marries Agrippa; 20 birth of Augustus'grandson Gaius Caesar (son of
Julia and Agrippa); 17 birth of
Augustus' grandson Lucius Caesar (son of Julia and Agrippa), adoption of Gaius
and Lucius by Augustus; 12 death of Agrippa; 11 Julia
marries Tiberius (Livia’s son by previous husband)
5 B.C. Gaius designated as consul five years in
advance;
2 B.C. Lucius designated as consul five years in advance; Augustus' daughter
Julia banished for adultery with Iullus Antonius (son of
Mark Antony) and others; 2 A.D. death of Lucius; 4 death of Gaius, Augustus
adopts Tiberius
6.9
Cameo of Livia and Augustus (14 AD = posthumous). Livia has the attributes-wheat, poppies, and diadem, of the goddess Ceres. Zanker fig. 184. Livia was A’s
third (and final wife). Ceres was the Roman goddess of growth and fertility,
identified with Greek Demeter. Ceres had a cult following in Rome.
Notes on Livia from lecture:
“Livia a clear winner: her son Tiberius now Princeps, her own status enhanced;
given title "Augusta," position somewhat like that of Queen Mother but with more
ability to influence policy. Livia the first of a number of powerful imperial
wives and mothers, cf. Agrippina
the mother of Nero (granddaughter of Julia and Agrippa). Roman ambivalence about
a woman with great power may account for hostile tradition about Livia, image of
her as scheming or murderous.
9.1
Reconstruction of Pompey's theater, dedicated in 57 BC (first permanent theater
building in Rome) in honor of Pompey the Great (of Pompey-Caesar-Crassus fame).
Tarrant discusses this slide in context of comparing poets’ desire for fame and
permanence to that of political leaders. Poets at this time often referred to
their poems as “monuments”. (Catullus refers to Cinna’s Smyrna as a “small
monument,” and Horace compares his poems to the pyramids in Odes.
Slide 9.2
The tomb of a wealthy freedman (a baker), resembling in shape a large
granary. An example of how individuals sought lasting memory through
monuments, even after death. This baker must have worked his way up
through life to create such an expensive very individual celebration of
his job and life. This mentality of trying to reach gloria/fame through
lasting monuments/achievements created tension in the Augustan world:
personal political ambition (example Cornelius Gallus) was not tolerated
by Augustus. Reference slide 5.6, of the obelisk with Gallus' name etched
into it. However, poetic ambition flourished and Latin poets sought their
own immortality through ever-greater poetic works.
Slide 9.3
Reconstructed view of a public library in the time of Augustus. Because
the only medium on which poems could be recorded was the highly fragile
papyrus scroll, Rome wasn't able to print/copy poems so that they were
easily accessible to the public. Instead, they must have been collected
at libraries such as these. Scholars would have been forced to travel
here to study them; it changed the experience of interacting with poetry
in the ancient world, explains why so few of it survives today (fragility
of papyrus). Also, a chance to consolidate great poetic works at Rome,
centralize culture and a chance for Augustus to extol the cultural
superiority of Rome under his reign.
Slide 10.3
Enlarged detail of 5th century BC Greek hydria. Painted scenes depict the
Sack of Troy. Note: Aeneas carrying Anchises in upper left corner. This
is a mosaic of scenes depicting the fall of Troy. Since it is Greek and
predates Augustus and Virgil by 400 years, this jar shows that pervasive
knowledge and celebration of Aeneas and the events related in the Aeneid
already existed long before the Aeneid was written. Thus, Virgil had the
opportunity of formalizing the myth and legends that were already
circulating, and spinning them to comment on the political career of
Augustus. Specifically, the tensions between pessimistic and optimistic
readings of the Aeneid, and how the poet's opinion on the methods and
legacy of Augustus was not clear-cut.
Slides
10.4 – Coin of Julius Caesar: Venus on the obverse; Aeneas and Anchises on the reverse.
Aeneas was the son of Venus and the father of Iulus, traditionally seen as the father of the
gens Iulia to which Julius Caesar belonged and Octavian/Augustus was linked by
adoption. The coin references Caesar’s ties to the divine Venus and the Roman founderfigure, Aeneas; Represents the Roman side of Aeneas (as opposed to the Greek side)
(Lecture 11)
11.1 Manuscript of the late 4th/early 5th c. AD (late Antiquity) of Virgil, the beginning of
the second Eclogue. “Generalized portrait” of “The poet” of Latin Antiquity -Virgil is
pictured at his work with his tools- lectern and papyrus scroll-box (containing rolls of his
poetry). Show the fame that Virgil and the Aeneid achieved (Lecture 11)
11.3 From the fourth book, confrontation between Anna and Dido and Aeneas, debating
poses. Anacrhonistic illustrations of Virgil’s Aeneid to accompany the text show how
important the Aeneid was even to the Catholic Church (Vatican Latium). Virgil seen sort
of as a pagan prophet. Show the fame that Virgil and the Aeneid achieved (Lecture 11)
Slide 12.1: Phallic votive offering
Romans who pray to the gods and subsequently receive benefit would dedicate
monument, identifying the area of help, to express thanks. This monument is to express
thanks for conception of a child, and was first introduced with a decorous fig leaf hiding
the phallus.
Slide 12.3
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This slide is a picture of “The Flying Phallus”.
It is significant because it represents the sexuality that was so prevalent in Roman art. While this
aspect of Roman art is often excluded from exhibits, it was nonetheless a very prevalent and
important part of Roman society.
The phallic symbols represent symbols of fertility.
Slide 14.1
Bernini’s rendition of Apollo and Daphne (from Ovid’s Metamorphoses) – (1624)
Theme of god raping nymph tackled by many Roman wall painters. Image illustrates
transformation of textual into sculptural work --Apollo almost has Daphne; however, the
desperate Daphne (arms outstretched in desperation) has begun to transform into a laurel
tree. Image intended to elicit sympathy for helpless victim? Artist perhaps attempting to
illustrate Ovid’s idea that meaning is a construct- depends on whose point of view one
focuses on. Possible Augustan links could be suggesting Augustus’ tendency to abuse
power, like Apollo, and allow passion to overtake sense of right and decency, victimizing
the helpless, like Daphne. Important to remember that what artist focus on important and
indicative of intent.
Slide 14.3
 A 17th century depiction of the rape of Europa by Titian
 Ovid’s tale of Europa carried off by Jupiter, disguised as a white bull, is an image
frequently explored by artists
 The scene is visualized very clearly, with Europa clutching onto Jupiter’s horn
with one hand
 The action here is advanced, for the bull has moved away from the shore, with the
terrified Europa holding the a streaming garment above her head
 Details of Titian’s rendering correspond to Ovid’s second account of Europa in
the tapestry of Arachne: He precisely shows Europa lifting her legs, and
desperately trying to keep them out of the water
 Also the presence of Erotes (cherubs) indicates that Amor is operating within this
scene
 Titian’s depiction illustrates the richness and diversity of perspectives on Ovid’s
stories from the Metamorphoses
Image 14.4 – “Fall of Icarus” by Pieter Brueghel (16th c.)
- image adapted from Daedalus/Icarus myth in Ovid, Book VIII, pp187-190
- illustrates the importance of myths in Ovid’s work (250+ myths!) to artists
- BUT Ovid’s and Brueghel’s description seem very different: for Ovid, Icarus’ fall
is the central event; for Brueghel, it is a minor detail, easily missed (Icarus is only
seen as a tiny pair of legs on the right bottom corner, sticking out of the splashing
water!)
- Brueghel: everything is calm – the farmer, the ship, the shepherd. Why?
- A: could be interpreted as affirmation of Ovid’s true meaning – that one should
not be too proud or ambitious. (Hence, Icarus not at the center)
- Also, during Renaissance, Icarus myth was often interpreted (following humanist
tradition) that Icarus = hero who risked everything for greatness. However,
Brueghel, creating this work in the Baroque tradition, reacting against the focus
on the humankind, by emphasizing the “smallness” of man relative to the universe.
– Slide 15.2 - Archaic Greek kouros from Sounion in Attica, 600-575 BC.
This image is of a kouros – a young man, in the Archaic artistic style that was
characteristic of Greek art, pre-500 B.C. In the Archaic depiction of people, individuality
was not a priority – the statue presents a generic young man with a typical archaic-style
appearance of a young athletic man: he has a stylized face, large “handle-shaped” ears,
curly symmetrical patterned hair and patterned braids, large blank eyes, (usually, not
really shown here but general about kouros, a typical “archaic smile” on his mouth), and
abstract and geometric muscles on his torso. The statue is in the typical rigid frontal
pose, mid-walk with one leg forward. The archaic style of depicting kouros was so
stylized and predictable that usually there was little difference from one statue to the
next. This non-naturalistic depiction of the human figure began to be softened in the late
Archaic period of the “severe style” which showed greater realism, but this slide shows a
typical, standardized, and non-naturalistic kouros.
We discussed Greek art in this class as preceding Roman art, and the Archaic style was
part of a store of examples of art that could have influenced Roman artists, so it should be
studied. Focus was on depictions of the human form.
Lecture Slide 15.4
The “Kritios boy”; Greek sculture circa 490 BC; example of the “Classical” period
(apprxom 450-350 BC), noted for greater realism in depicition of facial and anatomical
features, yet as in Archaic period, figures do not have individually distinctive features
Image 16.1
This is a bust of the poet Homer, in the late Hellenistic style (1st century B.C.). The
portrayal is realistic, as evident from the “warts and all” style. The poet is depicted with
a wrinkled face, balding head, and tossed hair. This bust, is unlike that of Socrates, who
is portrayed in the more idealistic classical style. In contrast to Socrates’ bust, this
depiction makes Homer appear less dominant and powerful. The style may be attributed
to the desire to portray Homer as a venerable figure, and convey the message of gravitas.
16.2 Alexander the great. Coin of Alexander the Great, showing attributes (ram's horns)
of the god Zeus Ammon.
Alexander was born in 356 BC in Macedonia, the area around present day Thessaloniki in
northern Greece. Though the Macedonians might have considered themselves part of the
Greek cultural world, the other Greeks might have viewed them as half-barbarians.
Alexander's father, King Philip, was an energetic ruler who had started a systematic policy of
expanding his kingdom. Philip's main conquest was that of the Greek mainland, after his
victory at Chaeronea in 338 BC. Alexander, still in his teens, commanded the Macedonian
cavalry during this battle.
This coin’s main features: idealization. the rams horns, suggesting deification (godliness) the
flowing, long upswept hair (anastole) and feminized features. Beauty is close to glodliness.
And damn ain’t he beautiful
16.3 Coin of Ptolemy III of Egypt, with attributes of the gods Helios (sun-ray crown),
Zeus and Poseidon
the trident (three pronged spear) is illustrative of Poseiden (“Neptune,” to you
Greek-educated mythological cats…)
again, take note of the scruffy hair. He looks relaxed. A calm leader.
16.4 the "Terme ruler": Life-size statue of Roman general, 150-125 BC. Zanker, fig. 1.
This is what we call ‘heroic nudity.’ The exaggeration of the perfect human form, the
spear actually helps the statue stand up, so the man can seem to be moving, more
animated, rather than flat on his feet.
16.5 Head of Pompey the Great. See lecture 2 as well. Zanker, fig. 6.
In the year 60bc, remember the unofficial pact (the wrongly named "First Triumvirate")
uniting Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius (= Pompey the Great), and Marcus Crassus
Still, this statue has Pompey with a slightly big nose, a little more realistic.
17.1 Early head of Octavian (37 BC), bearded, from Arles.
Keep in mind: Augustus' coins and statues not so much a record of how he looked at any
particular time as of how he wished or allowed himself to be seen--a freedom not enjoyed
by most modern political figures.
These Early coins and statues show Octavian bearded, a symbol or his mourning for
Julius
17.2 Coin of Octavian, 38 BC. Obv.: Octavian, bearded, with sidus Iulium(Julian star)
and inscription DIVI F[ILIUS] ("son of the deified one.") Rev.: Corona civica ("civic
crown") and inscription DIVOS IULIUS ("the deified Julius.")
take note of the olive leaves symbolizing peace. Very simple coin. What isn’t there?
17.3 Small intaglio (glyptic art consisting of a sunken or depressed engraving or carving
on a stone or gem) showing Octavian as Neptune. Showing him as Neptune, in heroic
nudity, suggests a blatant deification of the leader.
17.4 Denarius showing Octavian with foot on a sphere, holding an aphlaston (stern) and
staff. Between 36 and 31 BC. Honesty, not really of interest. He’s got his foot on the
sphere, great, ‘on top of the world’ we all get the imagery. Not much more to squeeze out
of this one.
17.5 Aureus with head of Octavian, now Augustus. Inscription reads: CAESAR DIVI
F[ILIUS] COS VII = "Caesar, son of the deified one, consul for the seventh time." 27 BC.
He looks young, huh. It’s idealized.
17.6
Prima Porta Augustus.
Now we’re talking. This is pretty important.
The Augustus of Prima Porta, believed to have been commissioned in 15 A.D. by
Augustus’ adopted son Tiberius, is a majestic example of Imperial Roman statuary.
Hair meticulously arranged: note stylized grouping of locks on forehead, the signature of
this type.
One arm outstretched to suggest a look towards the future, change, vision, etc.
Nothing overtly dramatic or superhuman; in Primaporta statue divine connections subtly
suggested by figure of Cupid, chilling under the statue, looking up at him.
Check out the breast plate: lots of good stuff carved in relief.
scenes depicting the Roman victory over the Parthians. These scenes were used by
Tiberius as a form of propaganda so that the viewer would recall the important role his
father played in securing the Roman empire.
17.7
Drawing of statue of Augustus as Pontifex Maximus, with toga drawn up over the head.
After 12 BC. Really not that interesting. Don’t waste your time on this one.
18.1
Theater of Pompey. theater complex (55 B.C.) the first permanent theater in Rome; a
sign of the increased wealth and ambitions of leaders
18.2 Temple of Apollo on the Palatine(mid-20s B.C.); super important!
Augustus' building program larger, more comprehensive, more carefully planned and
integrated than anything earlier. Recent availability of high-quality marble from Carrara
allows for new level of magnificence; this constructed of ‘white luna marble.’
interesting for location, in heart of the old city and linked to Augustus' own new
residence, the ultimate source of the term "palace"; recall Ovid's mischievous reference to
Mt. Olympus as "the Palatine of heaven". Temple complex included a major library of
Greek and Latin literary classics: as building's architecture links Rome to Greek classical
past, union of the two literatures implies Rome's equality with Greece and full
assimilation of Greek culture. Also, Link of Library to Temple avoids a "royal"
connection.
18.3 Forum Augustus model: check this info:
Temple of Mars Ultor (Mars the Avenger) and Forum of Augustus vowed in 42 B.C.,
not completed until 2 B.C.; Res Gestae 21. Located next to the forum of Julius Caesar,
originally a way of proclaiming Augustus’ "avenging" of Julius' death, its message much
expanded as project developed, especially after the Parthian "victory" of 20 and the
recovery of lost legionary standards. In final form a synthesis of Roman history with
Augustus as culmination. Temple itself, elements identifiable through views on coins
and allusions in later monuments, e.g., grouping of Mars, Venus, Caesar on pediment.
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Side "halls of fame" with statues of Roman worthies, based on a simialr feature in
Pompey's theatre. Prominent siting of Romulus and Aeneas in semicircular
exedrae.
Typically eclectic use of Greek decorative elements: classically-styled caryatids,
Corinthian column-capitals, copies of famous Hellenistic paintings originally
associated with Alexander.
18.4 Complex on the Campus Martius which included the Mausoleum, Ara Pacis,
obelisk and ustrinum (funeral pyre base).
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Mausoleum of Augustus; the earliest of all buildings in this district, perhaps a
relic of Octavian's more extravagant self-presentation before Actium.
Bigger than the original "Mausoleum" built by Mausolus in 4th c. BC (one of the
traditional "seven wonders of world"): 130 ft. high, 280 ft. across, i.e., outdoing
the pomp of Hellenistic monarchs
A symbol of Octavian's loyalty to Rome and a counter to Antony's rumored wish
to be buried in Egypt.
During A.'s long life becomes a family resting-place, taking on a dynastic
significance.
Given new meaning when incorporated into larger complex.
Sundial with Egyptian obelisk 100 ft. high as its gnomon ( i.e.,pointer). Dedicated
10 B.C., recalling A.'s victory over Egypt. Theory mentioned by Zanker that
sundial pointed to Ara Pacis on A's birthday no longer seems tenable.
Remember: Ara Pacis is Augustus’ auto-biography, but it leaves out Julia and all her
fuckups
18.5 View of the Forum of Augustus.
This is a contemporary view of what it looks like now. Not nearly as preserved as, say,
the pantheon.
19.1 The "Room of the Masks" in the House of Augustus in Rome
Prominent element in domestic art are mythological scenes relating to "classic" literary
texts: Homer, Virgil, Ovid.
Remember: Emphasis on picturesque or romantic incidents: Odyssey landscapes, Trojan
Horse, ill-fated Ovidian characters such as Pyramus and Thisbe.
--Combinations of subjects in "theme" rooms, integration of mythic scenes into
architectural settings.
19.2 Bronze statue (Greek) of a youth pressed into service as a candelabra
Young Roman boys were known each as a ‘kouros.’ Good word. Score essay points!
19.4 Wall-painting from Pompeii showing the rescue of Andromeda by Perseus. Not
very intersting
19.5 Sacro-idyllic" scene from wall decoaration at the villa of Agrippa Postumus at
Boscotrecase. 10 BC-10 AD.
20.1 (lots to say on ‘oration’ and public speaking) (though not directly related to the
statue itself) Bronze statue from Etruria [i.e. where the Etruscans were from] of an
orator, dressed in high Roman boots and a toga. Nicknamed "L'Arringatore" ("the
haranguer"). 90-70 BC. Museo Archeologico, Florence.
Oratory skill was super-important (think Cicero and how he came from a not-soimportant family and then became a consul, really respected, etc.)
So, what’s so important about this dude?
Oratory the skill most prized by the Republican elite (along with military success).
Oratory considered a form of literature, as shown by the fact that prominent speakers
(e.g.,. Cato, Cicero) often published their best efforts.
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Public speaking central to law and politics: both involve persuading/moving large
groups, many political figures also active in legal system; Roman trials large
public events; overlap of oratory and theater.
Speaking ability also valued in military commanders, cf. Augustus of Prima Porta,
shown addressing an imaginary body of troops; speeches before battles a standard
feature of Roman historiography.
Rhetoric the final stage in the upper-class educational system for men (not for
women), after basic literacy and "grammar," i.e., literature;
Formal speeches prominent in Latin poetry, e.g., Dido-Aeneas confrontation in
Aeneid 4, monologues of Metamorphoses.
Romans' high regard for oratorical skill tempered with suspicion/hostility toward
glibness, mere technical proficiency, perhaps because rhetoric as a discipline was a Greek
product.
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Rhetorical schools focus on two main kinds of exercise, the imaginary legal case
(controversia) where student is given facts and has to argue for one side or the
other, and the speech of advice (suasoria) where student advises a historical or
mythological character in making a critical decision. For examples of both types
cf. Sourcebook, pp. 239-243.
A subcategory of suasoria is prosopopoeia or "role-playing," in which student
assumes part of a historical or mythological character in a given situation and
imagines what that person might have said
21.1
This is from lecture 21 where the professor is commenting on religion in the
Rome of Augustus. This is a picture of the household gods, the lares, the penates, of the
roman family. Here both the human figures and the sanek are representations of the
household gods. In this sense religious practices were pervasive in lives of many-perhaps most—Romans. The household and family would be
embodied/symbolized/protected by household gods (lares, penates). This type of
representation is a painting that would most likely be place in the entrance of a home. We
see a great deal of day to day religious practice of Romans.
21.3
This is a scene on the Ari Pacis of Aeneas offering sacrifice. Significantly
juxtaposed with it, not shown in this slide, is a figure of Augustus. In the Ari Pacis these
two scenes are actually at right angle with each other. Professor says “One of the things
that is being implied is continuity.” It goes to speak to the most important message of the
Ari Pacis, and that is to link the Rome of Augustus to that of the Rome of the past and
here it is shown through the continuity of religious observance of both Augustus and
Aeneas.
21.5
Here we see Augustus on the throne taking the familiar positioning of Jupiter.
This is the same positioning we had seen earlier in the course on an Alexander coin with
Zeus on the throne. The god most natural to affiliate Augustus is Jupiter, b/c of their
similar position over their respective kingdoms. Horace once wrote “Jupiter reigns on
high, Augustus Reigns on earth.”
22.1
This is a Turquoise cameo of Livia and Tiberius. 14-19 AD. in the Museum of
Fine Arts, Boston. I could not find it in the lecture it was supposedly presented in.
23.2
This is a portrait of Livia. It is presented in the lecture where the prof. talks about
the emphasis put on the fertility of Augustus’ family. In doing so they must be careful
showcase Livia without emphasizing her traditional role. This is what the image her is
doing. Otherwise it may be unsettling for Romans to see a woman showcased b/c they
fear the behind the scenes power of the woman.
23.3
This is a possible image of Julia. Though, it has not been clearly identified as
Julia. It is from a Villa owned by her youngest son Agrippa Posthumous. The prof does
not say much else about this image.
23.5
This is the bust of Antonia the Younger, the daughter of Marc Antony and Livia.
She became the mother, grandmother, and great grandmother of future emperors by
Drussus the brother of Tiberius. In contrast to the portrayals of Julia, Antonia is looked
up on as the ideal roman wife. This slide is not mentioned in the lecture though.
24.1
This is an image of Napolean of the revolution. It is presented in a lecture where
the prof is showing the influence of Augustus on the rest of history. His first title is
significant. It was consul. The prof references that both the French and the American
revolutions were influenced by contemplating Roman history dealing with the Republic.
24.2
Be careful here. The slide shown as a thumbnail is actually not the same as the
one that pops up when you click on it.
The thumbnail is oh the Arch of Constantine. This landscape is important b/c at
this time Mussolini wanted this type of open space for the parades of his forces.
The image that pops up is the Proposal for Die Halle der Partei with attached
mausoleum for Hitler. He wanted his mausoleum to be connected to the Hall of the
Fascist Party. Hitler was fascinated with architecture and rebuilding of landscapes as was
Augustus. This is the only real link we can draw between the two figures.
24.10
Here is an image of propaganda used by Mussolini. He covered himself in the
imagery of ancient Rome, like in this picture, the SPQR, the fasces, the wolf, and Latin
terms. This is to recall the greatness of his people and feed form that.