
UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

EDUCATION





EDU 201: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2

Published 2007©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any
form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in
writing from the University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of
Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University of
Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-78-9
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
PREFACE
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do
most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit is
different from that of conventional textbook. The course writers have
made efforts to make the study material rich enough but learners need
to do some extra reading for further enrichment of the knowledge
required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and
where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to guide the
selection of reading materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers
and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help
in improving access to University education.
Professor J. D. Amin
Vice-Chancellor
iii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to
simplify your study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction,
objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be
available at designated contact centers for tutorial. The center expects
you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further you could
supplement the study with more information from the list of
references and suggested readings available in the study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help
you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood
the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the
study unit for you to assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of
examination type questions for you to answer and send to the center.
You are expected to work on your own in responding to the
assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment
(C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In addition,
you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be
added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the
different units of your study.
iv
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
1
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
EDU 201:
UNIT: 2
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNITS: 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
PREFACE
-
-
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
-
-
-
-
-
iii
-
-
-
-
-
iv
-
-
1
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
TOPIC:
1:
TYPES OF QUESTIONS -
2:
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION? 6
3:
COMPONENTS OF PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATION
4:
-
-
-
-
CHILD CENTERED EDUCATION -
- 3
-
- 11
- 15
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
2
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
1.0
TOPIC:
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
1.1
INTRODUCTION
1.2
OBJECTIVES
1.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
1.3.1 TYPES OF QUESTIONS
-
-
-
-
4
1.4
SUMMARY
-
-
-
-
5
1.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
5
1.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
5
1.7
SUGGESTED READING
-
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
-
-
-
3
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
1.0
TOPIC: TYPES OF QUESTIONS
1.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
In this topic, you will be introduced to two types of
questions that are usually asked.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Mention the two types of questions
ii.
Describe the characteristics of the two types of
questions.
1.3
IN-TEXT:
1.3.1
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Man is said to be inquisitive and questioning is the
beginning of any inquiry. We ask questions every day. We ask
ourselves, we ask our parents, we ask our brothers, we ask our
friends, we ask our neighbours, we ask our teachers and so on.
All these questions can be categorized into two and these are the
empirical and philosophical questions.
Empirical questions are the questions that deal with
physical world. In other be classified as an empirical questions.
Empirical questions can be answered by the use of our five
senses. Examples of empirical question are: which is your
hometown? In what year did the federal government of Nigeria
introduce naira currency? Who was the first executive president
of Nigeria? Which of these offices is room B7? Each of these
questions is demanding something from us and therefore to
answer empirical questions, we have to stand up and do
something so that we come up with an answer. Empirical
questions have clues and what is required of us is to look for the
right answer. For examples, the last question which is asking of
office B7. This question suggests that the offices are numbered,
and all you need is to go from door to door and read the number
that is placed against each door.
On the other hand philosophical questions deal with
metaphysical world that is to say beyond physical world. By
contrast, while empirical questions investigate things that can
4
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
be perceived through our senses, philosophical questions
investigate things that cannot be perceived through the five
senses. Another characteristics of a philosophical question is
that it raises a problem. For example, a question may be asked.
Is it right to inflict corporal punishment in schools? The question
be approached from different. This question may be investigated
form the legal point of view, from the medical point of view, and
from the moral point of view. It can even lead to other questions
such as: Is it right that pupils, as humans, be beater? Does
beating them not reduce them to the status of beasts, and no
longer make them persons? And so on. It is only when an initial
question can raise other questions of its nature, which do not
rely on our experience, that it can be termed as a philosophical
question. From this you can also add other characteristics of a
philosophical question such as: philosophical questions require
as to sit down and think, reflect and speculate about the
problem. Lastly, philosophical questions do not have dues
because they depend on individuals interpretations.
1.4
SUMMARY:
The two types of questions that are usually asked as
Empirical and philosophical questions. The former deals
with questions about physical world which can be
answered by the use of our five senses. The latter deals
with questions about metaphysical world which require us
to think, reflect and speculate about the problem.
1.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
Mention the two types of questions that are usually
asked?
2.
Explain briefly the characteristic of the two types of
questions?
1.6
REFERENCES
Ahumibe, C. (2000). Philosophizing In Education:
Beginner’s Handbook Oworri. Water land Prints.
1.7
A
SUGGESTED READING
Ahmibe, C. (1992). Talking About Philosophy. Oworri:
International Publishers.
5
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
6
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 2:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC:
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
2.1
INTRODUCTION
2.2
OBJECTIVES
2.3
IN-TEXT
6
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
2.3.1 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
-
7
2.3.2 WHAT IS EDUCATION
-
-
8
2.3.3 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
-
9
2.4
SUMMARY
2.5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
9
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
9
2.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
10
2.7
SUGGESTED READING
-
-
-
-
-
10
-
-
-
7
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
2.0
TOPIC: WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION?
2.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
As the title of this course suggests, this is an introductory
course in philosophy of education. Our first task in this
course therefore would be to examine what we mean by
philosophy of education itself. To define philosophy of
education, will require us to define what is philosophy?
What is education? And what is philosophy of education?
2.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end
i.
ii.
iii.
of this topic you should be able to:
Define the term philosophy
Define the term education
Define philosophy of education
2.3
IN-TEXT
2.3.1
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION?
What is philosophy? In an attempt to define the term
philosophy, we are going to probe into the etymological
definition and the popular and technical definition as stated by
Akinpelu (1981). The term philosophy etymologically is derived
form the two ancient Greek Words: philosophy which means
Lore and Sophia which means wisdom and when combined
philosophy means love of wisdom. According to Akinpelu (1981)
from this early usage, the word has passed into common usage,
and different people have come to mean different things by it.
For the purpose of this course, we are going to consider two
conceptions, popular and technical conceptions.
In the popular sense of the word philosophy as stated by
Akinpelu (1981) states philosophy is often used to characterize a
person’s or a group of persons’ attitude to life. According to
Akimibe (2002), philosophy is sometimes attributed to peoples
or races or institutions. Thus, we talk of Indian philosophy,
Chinese philosophy, Kanuri philosophy Yoruba philosophy, Igbo
philosophy, Hausa philosophy, Islamic philosophy and so on. In
each case what is implied is a presentation of the word-view of
the particular people or institution. By world-view here we mean
8
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
how people or institutions conceive or look at the world, man,
society, religion, and so on.
Technical or professional conception of philosophy as noted
by Akinpelu (1981) is conceived of as an academic discipline to
which scholars devote their times and energy. It is characterized
by logical, consistent and systematic thinking so as to reach
conclusions that are sound, coherent and consistent in all
ramifications. In other words, it refers to an activity of
philosophy as strenuous activity of thought by professional
philosophers.
2.3.2 WHAT IS EDUCATION?
Education as a concept is a common word and can be
defined in various ways. Education being a common word is
often used in discussions and talking about events and people.
Education according to available sources can be defined form
etymological point of view. There are two schools of thought
with to regard to etymological definition of the concept of
education. One school of though opined that the word education
is derived form a Latin Word EDUCARE which means to train, to
bring up, to bear and to form. The second school of thought
however, propounds that education is derived from a Latin Word
EDUCERE which means to lead or to guide. From education from
the etymological point of view is not tenable as the two root
words are not the same in meaning and scope and so we are left
in a state of confusion.
Another approach is to examine some of the attempts at
defining the concept of education from platonic times to the
present Plato himself defined education as:
The training which is given by suitable habits
to the first instincts of virtue in children,
when pleasure and pain are rightly implanted
in non-rational souls. The particular training
in respect of pleasure and pain which leads to
hate what you ought to hate and love what you
ought to love is laded education.
According to Fafunwa (1974)
Education is the process by which a person
develops abilities, skills, attitudes and other
9
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
forms of behavior of positive values in the
society in which he lives.
The concept of education whether approached from
etymological point of view and other definitions suggest that
education is concept which is difficult to define. Why then is it
difficult to define education? Education is concerned with values
and values vary from individual to individual and from one
society to the other. Thus, one may be highly but completely
uneducated in an Igbo society. Similarly, one may be educated
within his own locality and may find himself uneducated in
another community because what he thinks is education to him
may not be education in the community.
2.3.3 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION?
Having examined the concept of philosophy and education,
we are now in a better position to ask a question as to what is
meant by philosophy of education which is the title of our
course. Philosophy of education is just one aspect of philosophy.
As rightly pointed out by Brickman (1969) that a glance through
a university catalogue will show courses in the philosophy of
History government, law, religion, mathematics, education and
the like. What all these imply is that an enquiry into the
fundamental nature of the field in question is the focus. What,
then, is philosophy of education? When we talk of philosophy of
education, we mean the application of the methods and
techniques of philosophy to examine, probe or investigate the
claims and assumptions made by those involved in the field of
education. In essence, what we are saying is that whoever is
engaged in philosophizing in education should first acquaint
himself with what philosophers do and how they do it, and the
see how these affect educational thought and practice. Thus, by
conceptual analysis, the philosopher of education is directly
involved with examining educational problems, not as spectator,
but participant.
2.4
SUMMARY:
In this topic, an attempt has been made to examine the
concept of philosophy, education both from etymological
10
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
and other definitions. The topic also presented what is
meant by philosophy of education.
2.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
What is education etymologically?
What is philosophy etymologically?
What is philosophy of education?
11
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
2.6
UNIT: 2
REFERENCES
Akinpelu, J. A. (1981). An Introduction To Philosophy Of
Education, London: Macmilan.
Brickman, B. (1969). The meaning of the philosophy of
education In: C. J. Lucas (ed.) What Is Philosophy Of
Education, London: Macmillan.
2.7
SUGGESTED READING
Lucas, C. J. (1969) (ed). What Is Philosophy Of Education,
London: Macmillan.
12
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 3:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
3.0
TOPIC:
COMPONENTS OF PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATION
-
-
-
-
-
11
-
-
-
-
-
-
12
3.1
INTRODUCTION
3.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
12
3.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
12
-
3.3.1 COMPONENTS OF PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATION
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
12
-
-
-
-
-
-
13
3.4
SUMMARY
3.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
13
3.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
13
3.7
SUGGESTED READING
-
-
-
-
-
14
-
13
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
3.0
TOPIC: COMPONENTS OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
3.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
This topic presents the three major components of
philosophy viz metaphysics, epistemology and Axiology and
their significance for the classroom teachers.
3.2
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Explain the three major components of
philosophy and
ii.
Discuss the significance of each to the classroom
teachers.
3.3
IN-TEXT:
3.3.1
COMPONENTS OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
The three most components of a philosophy according to
Akinpelu (1981) are:
1.
Metaphysic
2.
Epistemology
3.
Axiology
3.3.1.1 METAPHYSICS
Metaphysics refers to the theory about the nature of man
and the nature of the universe and the existence of God. The
nature of the soul or the mind and what happens to man’s soul
after death. The relevance of metaphysical questions to the
classroom teachers is that they influence his teaching methods in
the classroom. One of the tasks of philosophers is to examine
such questions and in this way, the teacher is made aware of the
assumptions behind his activities and no longer teachers in
ignorance.
3.3.1.2 EPISTEMOLOGY
Epistemology is the theory of knowledge. It deals with such
questions as: what is knowledge? What is it to know something?
How do we establish that we know when we claim that we know
something? What type of knowledge is of most worth? The
14
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
relevance of epistemology to the classroom teacher is that as
teachers we impart various types of knowledge according to our
disciplines. Teachers therefore need to know the types of
knowledge they impart, what are their sources, and how much
reliance can we place on then. This will help teachers in
selecting what materials to teach, and where to place emphasis
in teaching his subject.
3.3.1.3 AXIOLOGY
Axiology deals with the theory of values. By values w e
mean those objects we cherish, appreciate, want, desire or need.
Axiology is relevant to the work of a classroom teachers because
in teaching his subject, the teacher needs top identify what types
of values his subject supposed to inculcate into his subjects. For
example, a teachers should always ask himself such questions as
why am I teaching this subject? Is it for students to pass their
SSCE examinations?
Form the examination of the three components; it is clear
that all the three components – metaphysics, epistemology and
Axiology have to be taken into cognizance while formulating
national policy on education. It can therefore be argued that the
significant differences that we have in national philosophies,
polices and practices of education are to a large extent
influenced by the issues raised by the three components.
3.4
SUMMARY:
In this course, an attempt was made to examine the three
important
components
of
philosophy-metaphysics,
epistemology and Axiology the relevance of these
components to educational theory and practice and in
particular to the work of a classroom teacher.
3.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.6
Mention and briefly explain the three most important
components of philosophy
Outline briefly the relevance of epistemology to the
classroom teacher.
REFERENCE
15
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Akinpelu, J. A. (1981). An Introduction To The Philosophy Of
Education London: Macmillan.
3.7
SUGGESTED READING
Sharman, A. R. and Hyland, J. T. (1991). Philosophy Of
Education For Nigeria, Ibadan: Gbabeks Publishers
16
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
4.0
TOPIC:
CHILD CENTRED EDUCATION -
4.1
INTRODUCTION
4.2
OBJECTIVES
4.3
IN-TEXT
-
15
-
-
-
-
-
-
16
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
16
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
16
-
-
-
16
4.3.1 CHILD CENTRED EDUCATION
4.3.2 MONTESSORIAN PHILOSOPHY OF PRIMARY
EDUCATION
4.3.3
-
-
-
-
-
17
FOCUS AND METHODOLOGY OF
MONTESSORIAN PRIMARY EDUCATION 19
4.3.4 DEWEY’S EDUCATIONAL FOCUS
-
25
4.3.5 PIAGETS EDUCATIONAL FOCUS -
-
-
25
4.4
SUMMARY
4.5
-
-
-
-
-
29
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
29
4.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
29
4.7
SUGGESTED READING
-
-
-
-
-
29
-
-
-
17
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
4.0
TOPIC: CHILD CENTERED EDUCATION
4.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
This topic examined the works of Marian Montessori, John
Dewey and Jean Piaget. The attempt focus attention on
their educational ideals and methodologies in primary and
nursery school system. These philosophers left a great
influence upon educational practices up to present day
system. Hence the adoption of their methodologies will
improve a lot of our educational methods.
4.2
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the educational ideals of the should be able
to:i.
ii.
iv.
Discuss the educational ideals of the three
philosophers
Discuss the methodologies of the three
philosophers.
Apply the methods in their planning and
teaching in classroom.
4.3
IN-TEXT:
4.3.1
MONTESSORIAN PHILOSOPHY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION
Maria Montessori’s Experimental House Montessori, a
graduate of medical science in 1896 established children’s house
with the sole intention of fashioning out educational programme
for the maladjusted or abnormal children, but later on
transferred her methodology to the normal children with some
perfections. In Montessorian experimentation~ the environment
is given a vital position, as well as focusing training of the child
on practical life situation. This effort was to develop the child
into independent personality. A person that is capable of doing
and deciding things for himself.
Hence, Montessori adopted the fundamental principles of
scientific pedagogy to be able to accomplish her objectives of
providing and developing the skills of liberty and freeness in
child mental capacities. In the same manner, this will permit the
development of individual spontaneous manifestation of the
18
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
child’s nature. Similarly, Montessorian experiment focused
attention on child’s health, physical and moral development.
For the children’s House to adequately functions, Maria
enacted some rules to govern the mode of operation for this
experimental processes, the rules are for parents and children to
adhere to. According to her,
1.
Parents should send their children to the school at
appointed time, clean in body and clothing and provide
them suitable apron or school materials.
2.
To show great respect and deference or obedience and
submission toward the management and all persons
connected with the management in the education of the
child.
3.
Once a week, the mother of the child should meet the
school management to discuss about the child by way of
giving information or receiving advice about the child.
4.
A child may be expelled from the school:
(i) The child present5himself unwashed or in soiled
clothing
(ii) The child showed himself as incorrigible, and
(iii) Parents failed to aspect persons connected with the
school system.
4.3.2 FOCUS AND METHODOLOGY OF MONTESSORIAN PRIMARY EDUCATION
The first principle of Montessori’s educational concern was
the training for self independence in respect of ordinary
practices of life. Thus, Montessorian school identified sensitive
periods for sensory learning of language and for the appreciation
of order. Therefore, it is in order to offer some trainings that
correspond to the need of development felt by that organism of
the child, The emphasis is on self development, therefore, the
exercises or trainings should be for child’s pleasure and
enjoyments of work and not necessarily an economic yield like
the adult.
Similarly, the working materials should lead and connect
the child’s activities. The child’s activities are regarded as self
guided ones, and are based on personal trials and errors that
consequently result into mastery and manipulation of the
learning materials. Montessori sees the link between the mental
and physical powers, postulating mental development must be
19
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
connected with body development. Consequently, educational
theory and practice should become aware this idea. In this
respect, Montessori provided methods and practices in education
in Boyd and King (1988) as follows:1.
Exercises of practical life
2.
Exercises in sensory training
3.
Persuasive and analytical exercises
Hitherto, Montessori advocated that the environment
should likewise be so adjusted as cited by Rusk “to give the child
an environment in which every thing is constituted in proportion
to himself and to let him therein”. In this way the child will
develop an active life. Montessori is of the view that child should
not only persist for a long time in his activity, but that must
persist without making mistakes, Montessori divides her process
of lesson delivery and/or method into three stages.
1.
The association of the sensory percept with the name (i.e)
child is shown two colours, Red and Blue, then the teacher
simply says this is red, this is blue. The lesson in
nomenclature must consist in provoking the association of
the name with the object or with the abstract idea which
the name represents. Thus the object and the name must be
united when they are received by the child’s mind.
2.
The second step involves recognition of the object when the
name is given. Thus the teacher says to the child “Give me
the red” “give me the blue”. This is to find out whether the
name is still associated in the child’s mind with the object.
Thereafter, the teacher asks the child to slowly and clearly
pronounce the name of the adjective as being taught.
3.
The third step involves recalling the name corresponding
with the object. Thus, the child is asked the object being
shown as “what is this” stages in presenting lesson to a
child need practicing both the teacher and the learner, so
that child should be led to associating, recognizing and
recalling systematically.
Montessorian
Education
of
the
Senses.
(Nursery
Methodology) The education of the senses is to lead the
recognition of objects by the use of feelings, through the
simultaneous development of the Muscular senses. This
education of the senses is to help the natural psychic and
physical development of the child to have adequate and
20
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
comprehensive interactions with the outside world, especially
his immediate environment. This prepares the child for the
mastery of his environment and manipulation. Hence, the
development of the senses precedes that of intellectual activity.
Therefore, such education should start during part of child’s life,
since it facilitates the formation of sense activities as relates to
the intellect.
The education of the senses makes children observers.
Which accomplishes the general work of adaptation and
prepares them directly for practical life. Such education should
focus attention on areas like:
a)
Education of the senses of taste and smell: Here, to taste
these should be the activation of the functions of tongue.
The method will be to train the tongue with various
solutions, such as bitter, sour, sweet, salty, and so on.
After
each
exercise,
the
child
is expected to describe his experience or taste feelings.
Similarly, the smell exercise should be arranged to smell
fresh flowers, varieties of perfumes, some other pleasant
smells and even odoriferous substances each exercise, the
child will be asked to account for his experiences of
feelings. The child may enjoy the exercise of recognizing
these various flavours.
b)
Education of the sense of vision: This exercise may involves
differential visual perceptions. In this case, the children
will be trained in identifying and differentiating objects
according their sizes, height, thickness, colours and etc.
c)
Education of the sense of hearing: The central focus of this
education is to be able to discriminate sounds, hence the
exercises are geared toward educating the ear of the child
to various noises. The exercises will be organized the child
identify different kinds of noises and sounds production.
He shall be accustomed and be able to distinguish every
slight noise and sound produced, around him. In addition to
the art of discrimination sound, the child is awaken to a
taste, interest and feeling of rhythm that provide him
impulse toward calm and relaxation.
4.3.3 JOHN DEWEY (1959-1952)
4.3.3.1 DEWEY’S EDUCATIONAL FOCUS
21
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Curtis Dewey’s contribution to method was concisely
summarized in and Burtwood (al) as follows:1.
That the primary business of the school is to train children
in cooperative and mutually helpful living.
2.
That the primary root of all educative activities is the
instructive, impulsive, attitudes and activities of the child
and not the presentation and application of external
materials.
3.
That those individual tendencies and activities are
organized and directed through the uses made of them in
keeping up the cooperative living already spoken of, taking
advantage of them to reproduce on the child’s plane the
typical doings and occupation of the large, maturer society
into which he is finally to go forth and that it is through
production and creative use that valuable knowledge is
secured and clinched.
In an attempt to satisfy these conditions or summaries,
Dewey raised three important questions in Boyd and King. These
include the following:
1.
What can be done to bring the school into closer relation
with the home and the neighborhood life?
2.
What can be done in the way of introducing subject matter
in history, science and arts shall have positive value and
real significance in the child own’s life?
3.
How can adequate attention be paid to individual powers,
and needs?
In Dewey’s perspective, the child learns through social
exchanges and the constitution of the family. This is done by the
child joining the daily conversation, and partaking in the house
hold occupations where he acquires considerable amount of
knowledge and habits of industry, order and regard for the
rights and ideas of others. Hence, Dewey postulated in Boyd and
king that” if we organized and generalized all those we have at
home, we will have the ideal school”. Thus the school is to be
charged to organize and enlarge the family disciplines in a more
perfect form with better equipment and more scientific
guidance. In this direction the Deweyan school is like the home,
where there must be genuine community engaged in common
pursuits that should interest the pupil and make him conscious
that he is a contributing partner to their social progress.
22
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
In this case, a Deweyan school should simplify social life
through gradual growing out of the child’s home life, and
accordingly take it up and continue the activities with which the
child is already familiar in the home. School and education serve
as guide to the child toward developing and acquiring new
values by developing the intelligence in individual child and so
increase society’s potentials for transformations. That is why
Dewey nurse the idea that all knowledge is personal and it is
acquired by each individual for himself, for the purpose of
adapting himself to new situations environment, and
phenomena. Therefore, what matters most for individual child is
the acquisition of the skills of inquiry which make the process of
adjustment between a person and his environment possible and
smooth. Inquiry may enable the growing person modify his
environment and be modified by that environment into a state
more growth and development. In this respect, Dewey argued in
Curtis and Burtwood That:
“The natural method of inquiry, whether
intellectual
or
otherwise
Involves
a
preliminary review of the situation and the
making of an estimate as guide in inquiry. It
may entail the collecting and arranging of
material in intel1ectual activities, a process
probably related to the organism’s purposive
strategy in physical and biological spheres.”
Through these processes, education is gained, therefore
Dewey require his pupil to be given wide opportunity for the
practice of purposive inquiry. Similarly, by this process of
inquiry, individual soul will ha e communion with nature and
natural things. Therefore Dewey tried to show that the “self”
does not grow in solitude, nor in contact with nature alone. An
essential element~ in the natural conditions for the growth of
man is the rest of mankind. As he
of asserted the make up of
an individual includes reflections multitude of men: his thoughts
are their thoughts or at best are a unique fabric woven from
selected parts of their thoughts” (Curt is and Burtwood).
In another dimension, Dewey postulates that individual
hinging on others create result into innumerable barriers
between individuals and groups, barriers of language, time
23
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
distance, caste, nationality, colours, religion superstitution and
of human prejudices, great and small that hold men to the wellwoven path of ignorance, stagnation and some-time
retrogression. Hence, Dewey conceived education to be training
in breaking down barriers of all kinds and forging links.
Deweyan Methodology For Nursery and Primary Education.
First and foremost, Dewey saw the school as a social laboratory
where children learn to subject the received tradition to the
pragmatic test of truth; the accumulated knowledge of the
society must be demonstrably seen to work. The school has to
develop in the children the necessary competence to solve
current problems and to test future plans of action according to
experimental procedures. In this respect, the social laboratory is
symbolized in the likeness of the scientific, inquiries (ie) it is
our when challenged by a problem that a solution is sought. Then
data is gathered to enquire into the conditions causing the
problem, then we think out and for orderly sequence of steps
toward solution or construct hypothesis and test it by
application. When the problem becomes solved, yields
conformation, if not return to the data for re-examination. This
was the process recommended to be operated in Dewey’s social
laboratory.
In a specific method, Dewey focused attention on the
child’s mind. His psychological investigation and observation of
the content of the mind led him to give biological interpretation
and evolution in child’s life. Thus, on such grounds Dewey
divided elementary or primary school life into three periods;
namely the play period from four to eight years, the period of
spontaneous attention from eight to twelve years and the period
of effective attention from twelve years and above.
(a) The Play Period (4 - 8 Years). The child has emerged from
the narrow and limited home social enclave to larger social
horizons. He has no social problems because his central
theme is the life and occupation of the home, but now
emerging into complex and larger social activities with
many problems on which the home is dependent. The child
should have the opportunity to follow natural spontaneous
interest to be active, to talk, to play and to learn about
what seemed continuous with life outside the school. He
now faces the substitution of cooperation, socialized inter-
24
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
child relation for a competitive structure of intrinsic
gratification in accomplishment for extrinsic rewards.
Hence, the child needs new approaches to social life
especially the strategies of problem posing and solving. In
this regard, the child should be provided with opportunity
to become active questioner and experimenter. The subject
matter of the
curriculum should be reorganized
intellectually so that learning within immediate experience
can be a first step toward an orderly organization of study
that makes the knowledge of the past a means of
understanding the present.
(b) The Period of Spontaneous Attention (8 - 12 years). This
is a period of developing techniques. The child is now able
and willing acquire different forms of skills. He begins to
acquire the means and in social life and the capacity for
analyzing details and acting according to rules; the child
should be actively involved in his learning through his own
interaction with things, people and ideas, free to initiate
and partake in activities related to his interest and to the
reality of life outside school., He is becoming acquainted
with his world directly through exercises of physical and
mental energies, acquiring symbolic skills in the functional
context in which they are used, motivated by the
meaningfulness and pleasure of his activities, managing his
impulses so, as to be able to function in an informal
cooperative- mini-society. He can differentiate experiences
of discipline~ and make selection for practical application
and so on.
(c) The Period of Reflective Attention 12 Years Onwards.
Here the growing child has acquired sufficient mastery of
the methods of thought, inquiry and activity appropriate to
the various phases of experience$, to be able to specialize
in distinct studies and arts for technical and intellectual
aims. Similarly the child has acquired the capacity to raise
problems for himself and to seek solution for them.
(iii) Deweyan Teacher in Primary Education. Teaching method
must aim at either moulding the mind to a known pattern
or guiding it to a known end. Therefore the Deweyan
teacher should not look into distant and imaginary
future, but to the present to the pupil who exist, who
25
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
grows, develops, and achieve reeducation of his powers all
the time. The teacher needs not envisage an end for child’s
growth. His task is to guide and foster growth discovering
what they signify.
The teacher must relate the growth of the child to the
society as a whole. This is because Dewey saw both the school
and the community as arena for developing the child through
contact and communication. On a different platform, Dewey saw
the process of education as reconstruction or reconstitution of
experience; therefore teacher must provide comparable material
for the activities of construction.
In performing any constructive activity the child is
presented with provocative elements or problems. In the process
he develops his reasoning powers especially those of judgment.
With the development of these powers, his mind is stimulated to
further growth. This, Dewey said teacher should take into his
mind as a cue, putting problem solving in situations, that are
meaning and purposeful for a child at the centre of method.
According to Dewey growth depends upon the presence of
difficulty in the problem to be solved by intelligence exercise,
but difficulties and problems must be found within the child’s
experience. Thus teacher should provide a situation that will
suggest something to do which is not either routine or
capricious. That is a problematic situation and yet sufficiently
connected with existing habits to call an effective response. The
teacher does this best by allowing the child to perform the
constructive activities. In performing them a child’s problem
becomes real, for real problems are generated before a child’s
interest and curiosity are aroused.
Dewey further had the opinion that the individual has
capacities instincts and impulses. Development or growth occurs
through a modification of these instincts and impulses as the
result of experience. Dewey invokes what he calls the principle
of continuity of experience. Each new experience modifies the
existing impulses, attitudes and ideas, thereby making different
people. The means that our future experience will be further and
so on. The process is one of indefinite modifications of our
experience or what Dewey called growth or development. The
educational implication here is that to secure the maximum
individual growth, the environment must be able to stimulate
26
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
new activities and new interests. An environment that provides
opportunities rather than one which tends to moulding
constraining impulses of the individual is a bad method of
learning.
In this case, what the teacher has to do is to understand
children in general very well child in particular. He has requires
the knowledge of psychology to be able to understand the child
better. The teacher’s knowledge of psychology will make him
understand that children grow from within through the activity
as that are self initiated. The child develops, grows and extends
himself to the degree to which there is activity of the
spontaneous kind. The teacher should understand that part of
the child’s psychology is his interaction with its exploration,
experimentation considering and converting problem within his
surrounding as his personal problems and not his teacher’s
problems. Presenting
problems and solutions involves the
exercise of mental power, observation, framing hypotheses, the
testing these against experiences all of which involve the child in
new experiences of extending kind.
Another important point for a teacher to note is Dewey’
sustained argument that reconstructing of experience comes
about only when the activities spring up to from some
authoritative dictation, but from the child’s own immediate
solution, from his present ideas interests and impulses. Hence,
the artful teacher with mind filled resourcefulness will see
endless stream of educational possibilities in the child’s
immediate environment. Making simple pieces of furniture, or
toys, writing letters, preparing the corner of the room, finding
out what type of grow in the field, what are made in the local
factories, who built the churches, mosques, where the local river
comes from and the like. All these can be presented to the child
as problems which that to be solved, in the solving of these
problems, the child must come into contact with the real world
about him. In this process the child is allowed to use his
intellectual powers in realistic, significant and educative ways
since each solution opens up possibilities for further problems,
as well as further activity and growth.
In another dimension, Dewey emphasises the social nature
of children’s work. Dewey postulates that children should work
in collaborative, and cooperative group, or team work. This
27
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
approach is what Dewey coined as perfect work e.g building a
boat, cooking a meal and so on. By so doing, children ac the skills
and knowledge in an atmosphere of sociality where such social
virtues as cooperation, realization of interdependence and
tolerance are developed. In this process, teacher should not hand
out projects to be carried out, rather suggestion should come
from the children. The teacher’s job will be to arrange things and
to give advice about what might be done and to lend hand in
doing them.
4.3.4 JEAN PIAGET (1896 - 1980)
4.3.4.1 PIAGETS EDUCATIONAL FOCUS
Piaget believes that learning is an active process, whereby
knowledge is a construction from within the learner. Hence, as
far as education is concern the child should be allowed to do his
own learning. In this regard, Piaget postulate in Duckworth that:
“Good pedagogy must involve presenting the child with
situations in which he himself experiments, in the
broadest sense of the term trying things out, to see what
happens, manipulating symbols, posing questions,
seeking his own answers. reconciling what he finds one
time with what he finds at another, comparing his
finding with those of other children.
It is the position, of Piaget that the activity of
intellectualism should be strongly rooted in actual experience
rather than in mere language communication. Therefore, the
process of child intellectual development may be described as set
of organized structures or schemes; as the individual child
encounter, he assimilates, objects and events into these
structures. At first, the child is unaware of himself or the world,
and even the distinction between himself and the world. But
later he becomes increasingly aware as he encounters more and
more, finally he becomes conscious and capable of reflecting
upon his intellectual processes. Thus, he gains a new level of
command over his thought and its growth.
Here, it should be stressed that for Piaget, the growth of
the intellect rather than something that happen to the child from
the outside is a process of self construction, governed by existing
formations of cognitive structures. This happens in relation to
the world and it is a process that has evolved in such fashion
28
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
that its results are biologically and socially adaptive. In this
case, the world plays its regulative functions. The environmental
events are assimilated, the existing structures chewed over and
digested resulting into fundamental changes in such structures.
Consequently Piaget postulates that for intellectual
development to take place, there should be adequate social
interaction among children and as full cooperation among
themselves, as they equally cooperate with the adults. Hence,
Piaget advocated committee work, dialogue or discussion among
the learners. This, will facilitate and encourage children of
similar cognitive ability to exchange views. Piaget objects to the
over emphasis of empty words as means of communicating
knowledge, because, the first goal of education must be to teach
thinking that can be made possible through practical encounters
with the experiences. Therefore, he emphasizes the importance
of concrete experience prior to the use of words. Similarly, he
points out that learning involves actions on things, rather then
listening to the teacher or reading books. Hence, in trying to free
the child from the adult’s interference emphasis should be
placed on sensory - training rather than the development of
intelligence. In this case, certain skills, like structuring,
elaborating and reasoning processes will be targeted and
developed as the foundation for intellectualism. Piaget further
suggests that the child should learn to observe and reason by
playing freely, although some systematization by the adult would
have been helpful. This will assist the child to develop sense of
rationality through deductive activities.
Piaget’s approach to teaching conforms with Pestalozzi’s
general method, where learner’s interests and activities are
focused by characterized schedules, classifications of the content
to be taught. experiences for mental activity and demonstrations
In this endeavour, the task of the teacher is to figure out what
the learner knows and how he reasons in order to pose the right
questions, at the right time, so that the learner develops the
ability to build his own knowledge.
Similarly, Piaget considered education as not only adapting
the child to the social environment of the adult, but also as
transforming his psychological constitution to function in a
society that stresses certain social, intellectual and moral values.
By this, Piaget expected that new knowledge and values will be
29
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
created. As he posited in Golby and West (1976) that “pupil has
to reinvent science rather than merely to follow its findings”.
Similarly, Piaget felt that school should develop personal
autonomy rather than obedience through the learning processes.
The overall focus of Piaget education was not the acquisition of
mere facts of knowledge, but the cognitive processes, which
implies the development of motor (or mechanical) skills and
certain proficiencies, such as penmanship, mathematics, words
and
information
processing.
Others
are
perceptual
discrimination and skills which involve perceptual activities,
hinging on concrete experiences and co-ordinated actions.
Piaget’s Methodology for Nursery and Primary Education
The Piagetian method is patterned along the child’s age
classification which are made convenient for certain planning
and delivery approach. In this sense, Piaget development into
four stages. The first stage is the early childhood (aged 0 -2
years) called Copernican intellectual revolution Peter (1974). At
this stage, the child hardly apprehends the world as one in which
enduring objects exist in time and space stands in causal
relations. The child’s thought is non-rational and egocentric,
since there is no definite differentiation between the self and the
external world. The self is at the centre of all reality. The
Piagetian child has the Freudian child characteristic. This to say
that the child has id characteristics, where there are blind
striving for pleasure, knows no distinction between self and
world, fantasy and reality, wishing and having (Gelitman 1981).
The second the pre-operational stage covering the ages of
stage is concerned with the social aspects of development of
reasoning. It is the stage where language is acquired. In teaching
and acquiring language, children must be allowed to be honest
with themselves. Obviously, language is of great importance to
the child; because, it is a means of formulating rules and device
for teaching children to follow them. Yet the child sees the
function of language as ego centric. On the other hand language
and imagery, enabler the child to represent and rehearse
actions; and to reconstruct the past and anticipate the future. It
helps to unite the child with others as it is a vehicle for concepts
and ideas that are public. It aids socialization. In the same vein,
language aids the child to evaluate himself and to develop levels
of aspirations. At this stage the child is active, independent and
30
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
full of initiatives in therefore, he should be fully engaged in
variety of activities with’ close monitoring. This stage has
important implications to educational growth of the child; hence
extra-effort should taken in guiding the child.
Similarly,
the
Piaget’s
pre-operational
stage
has
similarities with Freud ego stage. This is because ego is a result
of organized reactions from id characteristics. The ego obeys the
reality principles; it tries to satisfy the id (to gain pleasure) in
pragmatic manner accordance with the real world and its real
demands.
Thirdly category is the
concrete operational stage
spanning the ages 7-12 years. This stage is crucial for the
development of the stage reasoning faculty. Piaget Posits in
Peters (1974) that the child becomes able to dissociate his point
of views from that of others and to coordinate these different
points of views”. True discussion between children is now
possible and ego-centric language disappears almost entirely.
The child is no more impulsive but reflective and cooperative
with others. In this sense, Piaget asserted in Peters (1974) that”
child can objectify his own performances both physically and
intellectually and conceive of himself going back to the
beginning this permits a range of rational operations”. Similarly
this stage of development there emerges the “will” as a regulator
of the affective life.
The final stage is the formal operational category which
leads into the adolescence age. Logical operations can now be
performed on general ideas, hypotheses, and abstract
constructions. Rules and values are organized in the light of a
life-span. There is a decentring of the self which becomes part of
cooperative plan directed by ideas that provide standards for the
operation of will.
Meanwhile, Piaget (1954) postulates four transitional
factors that directly affect each of the stages described above in
the processes of child mental and intellectual development.
According to him these factors include:
1.
Maturation (refers to the increasing differentiation of the
nervous system).
2.
Experience (means increasing knowledge about the
physical world)
31
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
3.
Social transmission, (involves encounters with other
human beings through educational process).
4.
Equilibration or acquiring skills of self- regulations.
Piaget’s learning process is externally initiated and limited
in scope and development. That is to say the child learns a single
structure or solves a single problem. This process is
subordinated to development. In this respect Piaget explained
his development in Foshay (1964) as “the essential process and
each element of learning occurs as a function of total
development. Hence, in Piaget’s intellectual development
concerned with propelling the child from a given level of thought
to some higher level. Similarly1 Piaget explained the process of
equilibration as the mental stage of accommodation. This
signifies subjecting behaviours to the demands of the outerworld. Assimilation refers changing the mental environment
based on the information accommodated. In his words Paiget
said:
“It seems equilibrium represent the point at which
the processes of accommodation, fitting one’s
behaviour to the demands of the outer world, and
assimilation, changing the pattern of organization
of the inner or mental world to encompass the
information obtained through accommodation are in
balance. (Barbel and Piaget, 1964).
In Piaget’s learning programme, the aim of intellectual training
is to form the intelligence and thinking rather than to stock the
memory and to produce intellectual explorers, rather than mere
eruditions. Hence, the educator should participate (with the
learner) in the process of discovery and learning. The materials
and situations used are important, for they must rich enough to
permit different levels of mental growth and as facilitate
interest in making them, exploring them and playing with them.
In this case Piaget would go for the use of Socratic method,
where the adult organizes dialogue, asks questions, poses
problems, and if there are any materials involved.
4.4
SUMMARY:
The topic examines the Maria Montessori’s educational
practice. Maria developed her theories while practicing
32
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
with disable children. She focused her early education on
the development of senses through which the learner
communicate with the external strategies through which
educational activities is made practical by the use teaching
aids.
John Dewey was the next philosopher examined in
this topic. Dewey provided so much progressive
educational practice through the experimental school. He
advocated educational system that started with background
of the child. He also felt that play way is necessary in
educational practices. Further, Dewey suggested that the
home, and community must work together for the
education of the child.
Finally Piaget was examined in this lecture. Piaget
also targeted the senses of the child as vital in process of
learning. He also employed the play way method in the
process of teaching.
4.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.6
Briefly explain the Educational arrangement of John
Dewey.
Compare
the
Educational
methods
of
Maria
Montessori with that of John Dewey.
Discuss the Educational method of Jean Piaget.
What can we learn from the methods of the three
philosophers discussed in this topic.
REFERENCES
Reginald Archambult (1968) John Dewey on Education:
Selected Writing.
Ernest E. Bayles (1980). Democratic Educational Theory
4.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Reginald Archambult (1968) John Dewey on Education:
Selected Writing.
Ernest E. Bayles (1980). Democratic Educational Theory
33
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
34
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 201 – PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
35
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri