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-New AHSGE Science Study Guide
Standard I: Select appropriate laboratory glassware, balances, time
measuring equipment, and optical instruments to conduct an experiment.
FLASK
Flasks- can be used for making solutions
or for holding, containing, collecting, or
sometimes volumetrically measuring, mixing,
heating, cooling, dissolving,
precipitation, boiling (as in distillation),
or analysis (Wikipedia.com)
BEAKER
Graduated Cylinders
Graduated cylinders are use to
accurately measure liquids
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Beaker- A beaker is a simple container
Compound Microscope-A microscope
for stirring, mixing and heating liquids, they
consisting of an objective and an
are commonly used in any laboratory.
opposite ends of an adjustable tube
(Wikipedia.com)
MICROSCOPE SLIDE
Microscope slides are used to view specimen
under a microscope.
Test Tube
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PETRI DISH
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PIPETTE
Also known as a dropper
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Standard II: Describe the cell process necessary for achieving
homeostasis, including active and passive transport, osmosis, diffusion,
exocytosis, and endocytosis.
1. In Biology, when the body or a cell has reached a state of equilibrium (equal) then that
means that it is maintaining homeostasis.
2. Active transport is a type of transport that takes place in the cell. Active transport moves
substances from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. It
requires energy and is aided by transport proteins. In active transport, cells are working
against a concentration gradient.
3 Type of Active Transport
a. Sodium Potassium Pump (Protein Pumps)- transports proteins that
requires energy to do work.
b. Endocytosis- the movement of substances into to the cell through the
vesicles.
c. Exocytosis- the movement of substance out of the cell through the
vesicles.
3. Passive transport is a type of transport that takes place in the cell in which substances
move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration without the use
of energy. Substances move down the concentration gradient.
3 Type of Passive Transport
a. Diffusion- the movement of substances from an area of high to low concentration.
b. Facilitated Diffusion- the movement of substances from an area of high to low
concentration with the aid of carrier proteins.
c. Osmosis-the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from
an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
*****There are three types of osmotic solutions.



Isotonic
Hypotonic
Hypertonic
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Three Types of Osmotic Solutions
If the concentration of solute (salt) is equal on both
sides, the water will move back and forth but it
won't have any result on the overall amount of
water on either side.
"ISO" means the same
The word "HYPO" means less, in this case there
are less solute (salt) molecules outside the cell,
since salt sucks, water will move into the cell.
The cell will gain water and grow larger. In plant
cells, the central vacuoles will fill and the plant
becomes stiff and rigid, the cell wall keeps the plant
from bursting
In animal cells, the cell may be in danger of
bursting, organelles called CONTRACTILE
VACUOLES will pump water out of the cell to
prevent this.
The word "HYPER" means more, in this case there
are more solute (salt) molecules outside the cell,
which causes the water to be sucked in that
direction.
In plant cells, the central vacuole loses water and
the cells shrink, causing wilting.
In animal cells, the cells also shrink.
In both cases, the cell may die.
This is why it is dangerous to drink sea water - its a
myth that drinking sea water will cause you to go
insane, but people marooned at sea will speed up
dehydration (and death) by drinking sea water.
This is also why "salting fields" was a common
tactic during war, it would kill the crops in the field,
thus causing food shortages.
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PHOTOSYTNTHESIS AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Standard 3: Identify reactants and products associated with
photosynthesis and cellular respiration, and the purposes of these two
processes.
There are two processes that are essential to survival in an ecosystem: Photosynthesis
and Cellular Respiration.
 Photosynthesis- the process by which plants take in energy from the sun along
with water and carbon dioxide to produce glucose (sugar) and oxygen. This
process takes place in chloroplast of the cell. There are three main factors that
affect photosynthesis and they are light intensity, water availability, and
temperature fluctuation.
Formula: 6CO2 + 2H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
CARBON
DIOXIDE
WATER
GLUCOSE
OXYGEN
 Cellular Respiration- the process in which glucose and oxygen are used, carbon
dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP is produced. This process takes
place in the mitochondria of the cell. The primary purpose of this process is to
make chemical energy from glucose molecules.
Formula: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY
GLUCOSE
OXYGEN
CARBON
DIOXIDE
WATER
ATP
NOTE: The left hand side of the formula represents the reactants. The right hand side
represents the products. What goes into photosynthesis comes out of cellular respiration.
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THE CELL AND ITS ORGANELLES
Standard 4: Describe similarities and differences of cell organelles, using
diagrams and tables.
There are two types of organisms, prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
a. Prokaryotes- organism that does not contain a nucleus or membrane bound organelles.
But, they do have cytoplasm and cell/plasma membranes. The internal structures of
eukaryotes are simple. Ex. bacteria
b. Eukaryotes- organisms that contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles. The
internal structures of eukaryotes are complex. Ex. plant and animal cells
********There are two types of Eukaryotic cells: Plant cells and animal cells.
CELL COMPARISON
Internal Structure
Nucleus Present
Membrane Bound
Organelles
Eukaryote Prokaryote Eukaryote Prokaryote Eukaryote Prokaryote
Complex
Simple
Yes
No
Yes
No
The plant and animal cells share the same organelles except that plant cells have a cell wall,
chloroplasts, and central (large) vacuole.
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Cell Organelles
a. Cytoplasm-the liquid inside the cell
b. Cell/Plasma membrane-made of lipids and proteins, it is the boundary of the cell
and control what enters and leaves the cell.
c. Nucleus-control center of the cell where the genetic material is found
d. Cell wall-surrounds the plant cell and is made of cellulose
e. Ribosomes-very small organelles that are the sites of protein synthesis.
f. Endoplasmic reticulum- system of tubes in the cytoplasm involved in transporting
materials (the rough ER has ribosomes attached and the smooth does not)
g. Golgi Apparatus-involved in packaging and distribution
h. Mitochondria-site of cellular respiration and is the powerhouse of the cell, where
ATP is made
i. Lysosomes-stores digestive enzymes
j. Chloroplast-site of photosynthesis, where chlorophyll is made
k. Vacuole-involved in food storage
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Organization of Cells
Standard 5: Identify cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms,
populations, communities, and ecosystems as levels or organization in the
biosphere.
The following is the correct way for living structures to be organized:
Molecules>cells>tissues>organs>organ
systems>organism>population>community>ecosystem>biosphere
Note: The cell is the least complex of the organization and the ecosystem is the most
complex of the organization.
Levels of Organization Chart
Level of
Organization
Cell
Tissues
Organs
Organ System
Explanation
Example
the smallest unit of life, a cell is a collection of
organelles functioning together
Bacteria, Animal &
Plant
a collections of cells working together to perform a
specific job
two or more types of tissues that work together to
complete a specific task
Epithelial &
Connective
several organs working in unison to achieve a
common goal
Organism
several organ systems functioning together
Population
groups of individual organisms of the same
species working together to achieve a common
goal
A group of plants and animals living (different
species) interacting with one another in a specific
region under relatively similar environmental
conditions.
An ecological community together with its
environment, functioning as a unit.
The land, water, and air environments in which an
organism exists.
Community
Ecosystem
Biosphere
Heart, Stomach, Brain
Digestive,
Cardiovascular &
Respiratory
Humans, Bird, Frog &
Dog
Humans, Bees & Ants
All the creatures &
plants found in the
woods
wetlands, oak forest
All ecosystems
Example: You may have the following organization:
oak tree>oak forest>, squirrels, deer>forests, animals sunlight, soil, water
Woodlawn high school student> student body>the faculty, staff, and student
body>Woodlawn High school and its surroundings, Woodlawn, Eastlake, Avondale and all
other communities
This means that this organization represents the
organism>population>community>ecosystem
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Meiosis and Mitosis
Standard 6: Describe the roles of meiotic and mitotic divisions during
reproduction, growth, and repair of cells.
Note: Cells can reproduce either by sexual or asexual reproduction.
There are two types of cell division: Mitosis and Meiosis
a. Mitosis- a type or reproduction in which the cell divides and produces 2 daughter cells
(diploid cells) that are identical to the parent cell.(asexual reproduction) (no variation)
b. Meiosis- a type of cell division in which the parent cell will divide twice and produce 4
gametes(sex cells which are haploid) (sexual reproduction- reproducing using a sperm
and egg cell) (causes variation and diversity)
Note: Although meiosis and mitosis are two different processes they do share similarities
within their stages. One difference in their stages is that crossing over only occurs during
meiosis.
The Stages of Meiosis and Mitosis
Note: In Meiosis each sex cell will contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent
cell (haploid or n). Once the sperm cell and the egg cell fuse to form the zygote the
chromosome number doubles and the resulting cell will be labeled as (diploid or 2n).
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Note: The diagram below represents Meiosis in Humans because humans have 23
pairs of chromosome which equals 46 total chromosomes.
Note: Chromosomes are made up of DNA molecules. DNA has a double helix shape.
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The two types of reproduction are sexual and asexual reproduction.
a. sexual reproduction – reproduction using the sperm cell and the egg cell.(Meiosis)
b. asexual reproduction-reproduction between one organism without the use the sperm cell
and the egg cell.
o
o
o
o
4 Types of Asexual Reproduction
Fission- asexual reproduction in which a organism splits into two equal parts.
Budding- asexual reproduction in which an organism can grow another organism
from the top, bottom, or sides of the organisms body.
Regeneration- asexual reproduction in which an organism can re-grow missing
body parts
Fragmentation- asexual reproduction in which an can be broken or cut up and
those parts will grow into a totally new but identical organism.
Genetics and Heredity
Standard 7: Apply Mendel’s laws to determine phenotypic and genotypic
probabilities of offspring.
1. Genetics is the study of heredity.
2. Heredity is the passing of traits from parent to offspring.
3. Genes are subunits of DNA that determines the inherited characteristics (traits)
of an individual.
4. Punnett Squares are used to predict the outcome of a genetic cross. Scientists use a
punnett square to predict the possible off springs that can be produced between two
organisms. It shows the number of individuals that will have a particular gene pair. Each
individual square represents ¼ or 25% of the whole square.
Note: Letters are assigned by an individual to represent the various trait or characteristics to
displayed using the punnett square. Any letter(s) can represent a trait or characteristic.
 Capital letters(ABCD etc.) represents the dominant genes
 Lower case letters(efghi etc.) represent the recessive genes.
 Gene pairs can either be heterozygous (containing two different
genes) or homozygous (containing two same genes).
 Homozygous gene pairs can either be homozygous dominant
(ex.BB) or homozygous recessive (ex.qq) .
5. Traits are inherited characteristics.
6. Alleles are the multiple forms of gene. Ex. Tt or TT can represent a person that is tall.
7. Genotypes are the combinations of alleles for a particular trait (homozygous or
heterozygous. Ex. The gene pair Bb or BB can represent a person that has brown eyes but Bb is
heterozygous and BB is homozygous. So these are the combinations or multiple forms of a gene.
8. Phenotypes are the physical characteristics of an organism that shows how the genes are
expressed. Ex. When looking at a gene pair you should be able to tell color, height, sex, etc.
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Try This!!!
If T= tall and t = short what will be the possible offspring of two parents in which one parent
is heterozygous(Tt) and the other parent is homozygous recessive (tt). Tt x tt
Here is how to work your problem.
THIS MEANS:
½ or 50% of the offspring can be tall (Tt)
½ or 50% of the offspring can be short (tt)
In Reference to Phenotypes and Genotypes
Genotype (genes): (How the letters look): ½ or 50% of the offspring can be heterozygous
½ or 50% of the offspring can be homozygous
recessive
Phenotype (physical traits or characteristics):
½ or 50% of the offspring can be tall
½ or 50% of the offspring can be short
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The Structure and Function of DNA, RNA, and Protein
Standard 8: Identify the structure and function of DNA, RNA, and Protein
DNA
1. What is DNA? DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses
2. Where does DNA come from? It can be found all over an organism in its cells.
3. What does DNA look like? It is the shape of a double helix. DNA molecules
consists of two polynucleotide strands coiled around each other in a helical
"twisted ladder" structure. The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside of the
double helix, and the bases are on the inside, so that a base on one strand points
directly toward a base on the second strand. When using the twisted ladder
analogy, think of the sugar-phosphate backbones as the two sides of the ladder
and the bases in the middle as the rungs of the ladder. In effect, each strand of
DNA is one-half of the double helix. The two halves come together to form the
double helix structure.
4. What is the function/purpose of DNA?
The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often
compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, since it contains the instructions needed to
construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA
segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences
have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA
NOTE: DNA preserves the genetic code from one generation to the next through the
process of DNA replication.
DNA replication is the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule to form two
double-stranded molecules.[1][2] The process of DNA replication is a fundamental process
used by all living organisms as it is the basis for biological inheritance. As each DNA
strand holds the same genetic information, both strands can serve as templates for the
reproduction of the opposite strand.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication
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The Structure and Components of DNA
1. DNA is made up of smaller unit called nucleotides.
2. A nucleotide is a chemical compound that is a structural unit of DNA and RNA
Nucleotides contain three parts:



a sugar (The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose)
a phosphate group
a nitrogen base
DNA Bases
There are 4 nitrogenous bases and they are as follow: Adenine(A), Guanine (G), Cytosine
(C), & Thymine (T)
•
•
Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines, that is, they have nitrogen
bases that have two rings.
Thymine (T) and cytosine (C) pyrimidines, that is, they have nitrogen
bases with one ring.
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DNA Base Pairing
The rule is that adenine (A) forms a base pair with thymine (T), as does guanine (G) with
cytosine (C) in DNA. As a consequence of this pairing in DNA, there are always the
same number of A and T residues and G and C residues (this is known as Chargaff's
rule).
Chargaff's Rules
•
Erwin Chargaff discovered that:
– The percentages of guanine [G] and cytosine [C] bases are
almost equal in any sample of DNA.
– The percentages of adenine [A] and thymine [T] bases are
almost equal in any sample of DNA.
Ex. Use the chart below to answer the following question.
Question: Which student correctly identified possible percentages of nucleotide bases
that could be present in complete sample of DNA?
Hint: Remember Chargaff’s Rule above: A and T will have the same percentages in any
sample of DNA and so will G and C.
Amount of Base DNA %
Student
A
1
2
3
4
25
30
15
15
T
15
20
30
15
G
25
20
30
40
C
15
30
15
40
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Example of DNA Base Pairing
ATCGACG
TAGCTGC
Now try this strand: TTCAGCCT
ANSWER: TTCAGCCT
AAGTCGGA
*****This means that these two strands above are complimentary to each other.
RNA
1. What is RNA? Ribonucleic Acid is a nucleic acid that is made from a long chain
of nucleotide units.
2. What does RNA look like? It is single stranded which means that it is half of the
double helix.
3. Where does RNA come from? DNA
4. What is the function/purpose of RNA? There are 3 different types of RNA and
each one has its own function.
3 Types of RNA



Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- exist outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm of a
cell in structures called ribosomes. Ribosomes are small, granular
structures where protein synthesis takes place. Each ribosome is a
complex consisting of about 60% ribosomal RNA) and 40% protein.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)- are the nucleic acids that "record" information
from DNA in the cell nucleus and carry it to the ribosomes.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)- The function of transfer RNAs (tRNA) is to deliver
amino acids
one by one to protein chains
growing at ribosomes.
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5. How does RNA differ from DNA?
RNA is very similar to DNA, but differs in a few important structural details: in
the cell RNA is usually single stranded, while DNA is usually double stranded.
RNA molecules are smaller or shorter than DNA molecules. RNA nucleotides
contain ribose while DNA contains deoxyribose (a type of ribose that lacks one
oxygen atom), and RNA has the nucleotide uracil rather than thymine which is
present in DNA. RNA transports amino acids while DNA is primarily responsible
for storing genetic information.
The Structure and Components of RNA
1. RNA is a nucleic acid made from a long chain of nucleotide units.
2. A nucleotide is a chemical compound that is a structural unit of DNA and RNA
Nucleotides contain three parts:



a sugar (The sugar in RNA is ribose)
a phosphate group
a nitrogen base
RNA BASES
There are 4 nitrogenous bases and they are as follow: Adenine(A), Guanine (G), Cytosine
(C), & Uracil (U) (unlike DNA which has thymine instead of uracil)
RNA Base Pairing
RNA can also form base pairs, A pairing with U and G pairing with C.
Try this!!!
ACGCAGT is a DNA nucleotide sequence.
What nucleotide sequence would represent the corresponding portion of DNA? RNA
(Remember, DNA and RNA share the same base pairs except one)
Answer: (DNA) ACGCAGT
TGCGTCA
(RNA)
ACGCAGT
UGCGUCA
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DNA vs. RNA
RNA
Single-Stranded
Has Uracil as a base
Ribose as the sugar
Uses protein-encoding
information
DNA
Double-Stranded
Has Thymine as a base
Deoxyribose as the sugar
Maintains protein-encoding
information
Proteins
1. What are proteins? Proteins are chains of amino acids (building blocks of
proteins) and are the basis of structure and function in all living things. They are
the receptors that detect chemical signals so that cells can respond to stimuli.
2. What are the functions/purpose of proteins? Some proteins serve as enzymatic
catalysts. NOTE: Enzymes and catalysts speeds up the rate of chemical reactions
or reduce the activation energy (amount of energy needed) of a chemical
reaction. They provide storage for elements like iron. Some proteins are
important in structural functions like making or maintaining bones, skin, hair,
nails etc. Some proteins are important in the locomotion of cells, movement of
materials and transporting hemoglobin for oxygen. They also regulate hormones,
control metabolism, and aid in making antibodies to support the immune system.
3. How are proteins linked to DNA and RNA? Proteins are the basis for the major
structural components of animal and human tissue. Proteins are encoded by DNA;
RNA is transcribed from DNA, and proteins are built on the RNA template by
ribosomes (the site of protein synthesis).
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The Previous 5 and Current 6 Kingdom Systems
Standard 9: Differentiate between the previous five-kingdom an current six
kingdom classification systems.
1. Originally there were five kingdoms. They were as follows: Plantae,
Animalia, Fungi, Monera, and Protista.
2. Now there are currently six kingdoms. They are as follows: Plantae,
Animalia, Fungi, Protista, Archaebacteria, and Eubacteria.
3. The kingdom monera which are our bacteria-like organisms were
subdivided into archaebacteria and eubacteria.
4. Archaebacteria differs from other bacteria in that they have cell
membranes that contain lipids (fat molecules) not found in any other
organisms. In addition, archaebacteria lack peptidoglycan (substance
composed of molecules consisting of sugars that forms a layer outside the
plasma membrane of eubacteria) in their cell walls.
5. There are several characteristics of archaebacteria. They are
prokaryotic, unicellular, have unique ribosomal RNA (unlike eubacteria),
commonly found in harsh environments like underground waters sources,
and they are commonly found in anaerobic (without air) environments.
*So, the differences between the 5 kingdom and 6 kingdom system is
that the kingdom monera in the 5 kingdom system was broken down
into two kingdoms. They are archaebacteria and eubacteria.
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Plants
Standard 10: Distinguish between monocots and dicots,
angiosperms and gymnosperms, and vascular and nonvascular
plants.
Plants can either be multi-cellular or unicellular organisms that make their
own food by way of photosynthesis. The cells of plants are eukaryotic. They
have cells with cell walls made of cellulose. Plants are often referred to
producers or autotrophs.
Two Types of Plants
1. Nonvascular plants- do not contain conducting tubes called xylem and phloem tubes.
2. Vascular plants- plants that contain conducting tubes called xylem and phloem tubes.
 Xylem Tubes transport water and minerals from the roots
throughout the plant.
 Phloem tubes transports sugar and starches from the leaves
throughout the plant.
Vascular Plants
Vascular plants can either be gymnosperms(conifer) or angiosperms(flowering).
a. gymnosperms- plants that produce naked seeds or seeds that are
not enclosed in fruit and has needlelike leaves. These types of
plants are mostly pollinated by the wind.
b. Angiosperms- plants that produce flowers and seeds enclosed in
a fruit. (ex. Apples)These types of plants are mostly pollinated by
insects although wind and water can also play a role.
Angiosperms or Flowering Plants
-All of the angiosperms reproduce with the use of pollen except the ferns, they reproduce
by the use of spores.
-Flowering plants have 4 main parts:
1. Pistil- the female reproductive part of the flower that is made up of the
stigma, style ( the neck of the pistil), and the ovary.
2. Stamen- the male reproductive portion of the flower that is made up of
the anther (where the pollen is made) and the filament.
3. Sepal- the part of the flower that covers the flower buds.
4. Petal-the bright leaflets that attracts the insects.
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Two Types of Angiosperms
1. Monocots (monocotolyledonae)- plants that produce seeds with one
seed leaf. They also produce flowers with flower parts that are in multiples
of three and have long narrow leaves with parallel veins.
2. Dicots (dicotyledonae)- plants that produce seeds with two seed leaves.
Most dicots also produce flowers with flower parts in multiples of two, four,
or five, and have leaves with branching, or netted, veins.
Note: The word cotyledon means “one seed leaf”.
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MONOCOTS
Embryo with single cotyledon
Pollen with single furrow or pore
Flower parts in multiples of three
Major leaf veins parallel
Stem vacular bundles scattered
DICOTS
Embryo with two cotyledons
Pollen with three furrows or pores
Flower parts in multiples of four or
five
Major leaf veins reticulated
Stem vascular bundles in a ring
In Most Plants
 The sex cells in plants are called gametophytes

Plants reproduce using pollen grains and an ovary. The pollen grain is the
male sex cell (gametophyte) and the ovary is the female sex cell
(gametophyte)

The flower is pollinated because the pollen travels down the style through the
pollen tube to the egg.

The parts of the flower that is not involved in reproduction is the sepal and
the petal.

The cuticle is the waxy layer of the leaf of a plant that covers it to help reduce
water loss.

Water is lost through the pores of the leaf called a stomata and this process is
called transpiration.
Nonvascular Plants



Examples of nonvascular plants are mosses, liverworts, and
lichen.
Water is needed for the sperm to swim in order for the
nonvascular plants to become fertilized.
Nonvascular plants are usually smaller that vascular plants
because the nonvascular plants have no transport
(conducting) tubes (xylem and phloem).
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Animals
Standard 11: Classify animals according to type of skeletal structure,
method of fertilization and reproduction, body symmetry, body coverings,
and locomotion.
Standard 12: Describe protective adaptations of animals, including
mimicry, camouflage, beak type, migration, and hibernation.
Animals Overview




All animals are multicellular which means that they are made of more than
one cell.
Animal can not make their own food which means that they are
heterotrophic.
Animal cells do not contain chlorophyll, cell walls, cellulose, and they do
not go through photosynthesis.
Animals cells are eukaryotic which means that they have a nucleus and
membranes bound organelles.
Two Types of Animals
1. Vertebrates- animals with a backbone like dogs and cats.
a. ectotherms- cold blooded animals
b. endotherms-warm blooded animals
2. Invertebrates- animals without a backbone like worms and snakes.
Vertebrates
Subphyla
Fishes
Amphibians
Ectotherms
Reptiles
(cold blooded)
Phyla
Endotherms
(warm blooded)
Birds
Mammals
Phyla
Sponges
Cnidarians
Worms
Mollusks
Arthropods
Echinoderms
Invertebrates
Subphyla
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Animal Body Symmetry
Note: Animals come in all shapes and sizes. Some animals can be cut into half and
you will see that they have the same shapes on the left and right or top and bottom.
Other animals can be cut and you will see a different shape no matter how they are
cut.
1. Asymmetrical- bodies will have no certain shape they are irregular in shape
2. Radial Symmetry- bodies are arranged around a central point
3. Bilateral Symmetry- both right and left halves of the body are mirrored images
of each other (look the same).
Reproduction in Animals
The two types of reproduction are sexual and asexual reproduction.
1. sexual reproduction – reproduction using the sperm cell and the egg cell.(Meiosis)
2 Types of Sexual Reproduction
a. Internal Fertilization- reproduction that requires fertilization inside the body.
(Does not require water)
b. External Fertilization-reproduction that requires the fertilization outside the
body. (Requires water)
2. asexual reproduction-reproduction between one organism without the use the sperm cell
and the egg cell. (Mitosis)
4 Types of Asexual Reproduction
o
o
o
o
Fission- asexual reproduction in which a organism splits into two equal parts.
Budding- asexual reproduction in which an organism can grow another
organism from the top, bottom, or sides of the organisms body.
Regeneration- asexual reproduction in which an organism can re-grow missing
body parts
Fragmentation- asexual reproduction in which an can be broken or cut up and
those parts will grow into a totally new but identical organism.
Protective Adaptation in Animals
* Note: There are numerous things that animals must do in order to survive in their
environments. Some of those things include making themselves look like things in the
environments or changing body colors to blend in to the environment.
1. Adaptation- any characteristic that allows an animal to be able to survive in its
environment.
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Types of Adaptations
a. Structural-adaptations that involves body shape and color
b. Behavioral- adaptations that involves the need for hibernation and
migration in order to get or keep food.
c. Physiological-adaptations that involves the need of an animal to change
internally to survive in a new or different environment.
3. Protective Resemblance- an adaptation in which an animal will look like
something else in the environment.
Types of Protective Resemblance
a. Mimicry- a type of adaptation that causes an animal to make itself look
like another animal or object in order to protect itself from being eaten.
b. Self Mimicry- an adaptation that helps to protect an animal’s most
vulnerable body part(s) from predators by having one body part look like a
different body part.
c. Aggressive Mimicry- an adaptation that animals use to catch prey. In this
type of mimicry they will make themselves look like something that the
prey wants.
4. Protective Coloration- an adaptation in which animals will or can change the
color of their skin or their coats to blend in to their surroundings.
Types of Protective Coloration
a. Camouflage (Cryptic Coloration)- an adaptation where animals are able
to blend into their surroundings by using the same or similar colors as
their surroundings.
b. Warning Coloration- a type of adaptation that protects animals that
displays colors that will warn predators to keep away.
5. Hibernation- a state of sleep that animals use during cold whether when their
metabolism slows down.
6. Estivation- a state of sleep that animals go through during hot weather.
7. Migration- the movement of an animal from one region or climate to another for a
specific period of time.
8. Nocturnal- asleep during the day and awake at night
9. Diurnal- awake in the day and asleep at night
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The Ecosystem
Standard 13: Trace the flow of energy as it decreases through the trophic
levels from producers to the quaternary level in food chains, food webs,
and energy pyramids.
Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Note: Biotic and Abiotic factors are two things that can affect the survival of organisms
in an ecosystem
1. Abiotic Factors- the nonliving components of an ecosystem ex. wind, water, sun
2. Biotic Factors- the living organisms or their materials that affect an organism in
its environment. Ex. Plants and animals
Some Abiotic Factors
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light intensity
temperature range
type of soil or rock
pH level
(acidity or alkalinity)
water availability
dissolved gases
level of pollutant
Some Biotic Factors
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parasitism
disease
predation
Ecological Succession
“Ecological succession” is the observed process of change in the species structure
of an ecological community over time. Within any community some species may
become less abundant over some time interval, or they may even vanish from the
ecosystem altogether. Similarly, over some time interval, other species within the
community may become more abundant, or new species may even invade into the
community from adjacent ecosystems. This observed change over time in what is
living in a particular ecosystem is “ecological succession”.
http://www.psu.edu/dept/nkbiology/naturetrail/succession.htm
Note: In order for an ecosystem to survive, energy has to be passed along by the
different organisms.
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Producers, Consumers, Decomposers
1. Producers-organisms that make their own food using energy form the sun.(Autotrophs)
2. Decomposers- organisms that feed off of dead plant and animal matter. Ex. Maggots
mushrooms
3. Consumers- organisms that depends on others for food. (heterotrophs)
3Types of Consumers
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Herbivores- organisms that eat plants only. Also referred to as 1st order or
primary consumers
Omnivores – organisms that eats both plants and animals. Also referred to as 2nd
order or secondary consumers.
Carnivores- organisms that eat meat only and they are also referred to as the
tertiary, quaternary, or the top consumers.
Food Chains, Food Webs, & Energy Pyramids
Note: The greatest amount of energy is always contained at the base or the bottom of the food
chains, food webs, and energy pyramids.
1. A food chain shows the order in which organisms are being eaten.
Ex. GrassRabbit FoxBear
2. A food web shows the possible feeding relationships in and ecosystem.
3. An energy pyramid shows the different levels of energy in an ecosystem. The greatest
amount of energy is contained at the base of the pyramid.
http://www.mesa.edu.au/friends/seashores/energy_pyramid.html
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14. Trace biogeochemical cycles through the environment,
including water, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Note: The water cycle shows the way that water travels from the
ground or earth and back into the atmosphere again in a
continuous cycle. Since it is a cycle then you may begin at any
point.
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Water can accumulate (gather or fill) in lakes, rivers, and
streams.
Through precipitation (snow, rain, sleet, and hail), water
runs into mountains, underground through the soil
(percolation) and into lakes, rivers and streams.
Through surface runoff when the snow melts water can reenter the cycle.
Through condensation (changing from a gas or a vapor into
a liquid) water enters the water cycle.
Through transpiration (movement of water from the roots
to the outside of the leaf) water evaporates and enters the
water cycle.
Animals also contribute to the water cycle through
respiration (breathing) because exhaling gives off water
vapors.
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Carbon Cycle
Note: Most of the carbon in the atmosphere is in the form of
carbon dioxide (CO2).
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Plants take in carbon dioxide to carry out photosynthesis
and once eaten the carbon cycle begins again.
Plants use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis to produce
carbohydrates (sugars)
During photosynthesis, carbon is fixed.
Carbon fixation is the conversion of inorganic carbon
(carbon dioxide) to organic carbon (sugar).
Carbon fixation takes place in the leaves pof
Through cellular respiration, carbon dioxide re-enters the
atmosphere by way of plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi.
Decay by fungi, bacteria, and burning contributes the
carbon cycle.
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Nitrogen Cycle
Note: Nitrogen is important to living organisms because it is used
to make amino acids (building blocks of proteins).
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Nitrogen fixation is a process that converts nitrogen gas
into ammonia.
Nitrogen fixing bacteria is bacteria that lives in soil or on
the roots (nodules) and can convert nitrogen gas (N2) into
ammonia (NH3).
Once nitrogen has been fixed, other bacteria can change
the ammonia into nitrates and nitrites. This process is
called nitrification.
Nitrogen re-enters the atmosphere by way of waste
products from organisms.
Decomposers return nitrogen back into the soil to be used
by plants.
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Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen cycles through Earth’s environment in several forms. It can be dissolved in the air or
in water. Plants and animals breathe oxygen and return it to the air and water as carbon
dioxide. Through photosynthesis, plans convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates,
and oxygen is released. The algae in the oceans and other water bodies replace about 90
percent of all oxygen used on our planet.
http://www.fossweb.com/resources/pictures/488256817.html
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15. Identify biomes based on environmental factors and native
organisms.
Some Land (Terrestrial) Biomes:
Biome
Desert
Chaparal
(scrub)
Tundra
Taiga
(coniferous
forest)
Temperate
Deciduous
Forest
Grassland
Tropical rain
forest
Swamp
Cave
(terrestrial)
Biome
Water
Temperature
Soil
Plants
Animals
sparse - insects,
sparse arachnids,
Almost
succulents
hot or cold
poor
reptiles and
none
(like cactus),
birds (often
sage brush
nocturnal)
dry
shrubs, some
drought and
summer,
hot summer,
woodland
poor
fire-adapted
rainy
cool winter
(like scrub
animals
winter
oak)
permafrost lichens and
migrating
dry
cold
(frozen soil)
mosses
animals
many mammals,
poor, rocky
adequate cool year-round
conifers
birds, insects,
soil
arachnids, etc.
many mammals,
cool season and
deciduous
birds, reptiles,
adequate
fertile soil
warm season
trees
insects,
arachnids, etc.
wet
warm to hot
many mammals,
grasses (few
season,
(often with a
fertile soil
birds, insects,
or no trees)
dry season cold season)
arachnids, etc.
poor, thin
very wet
always warm
many plants many animals
soil
nutrientvery wet
warm
many plants many animals
rich soil
almost no
variable cool (and dark)
rocks
few animals
plants
Water
Temperature
Soil
Plants
Animals
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16. Identify density-dependent and density-independent limiting
factors that affect populations in an ecosystem.
Every population has limiting factors that limit its population size and prevents that
species from taking over its range. Some populations are increasing in size, some are
decreasing in size and others are remaining somewhat stable for long periods of time.
Ultimately, even growing populations will stabilize or decrease due to limiting
factors. Limiting factors can be classified as density dependent or density independent.
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The effects of density-dependent factors increase in significance as a population
grows.
The effect of density-independent factors does not depend on the population size.
In the natural world, limiting factors like the availability of food, water, shelter and space
can change animal and plant populations. Other limiting factors like competition for
resources, predation and disease can also impact populations. If any of the limiting
factors change, animal and plant populations change, too. Some changes may cause a
population to increase.
Note: In nature, populations usually balance themselves. Sometimes when man
impacts populations, they can't always reestablish a natural balance.