Hazardous Waste Operations & Emergency Response Workbook
provided by
Richard Chinn Environmental Training, Inc.
804 Cottage Hill Way, Brandon, FL 33511-8098
Phone: 1.800.427.0307 (813.655.7549) ! Fax: 1.888.457.6331
info@richardchinn.com ! http://www.richardchinn.com
Richard Chinn, CET
Table of Contents
Chapter
Topic
1 ......................................................... Hazardous Waste and Emergency Response Legislation
2 ................................................................................................... Definition of Hazardous Waste
3 ............................................................................................................... Training Requirements
4 ...................................................................................... Rights and Responsibilities of Workers
5 ............................................................................................... Hazard Communication Program
6 ........................................................................................................... Health & Safety Program
7 ................................................................................................ Chemical Identification Systems
8 ............................................................................. General Techniques of Hazard Identification
9 ................................................................................................................... Compressed Gases
10 ................................................................................................... Health Hazards & Toxicology
11 .............................................................................................................................. Site Control
12 ........................................................................................................................... Air Monitoring
13 ................................................................................................ Personal Protective Equipment
14 .............................................................................................................. Respiratory Protection
15 ...................................................................................................................... Decontamination
16 ................................................................................................................ Medical Surveillance
17 .........................................................................................................................Physical Stress
18 .................................................................................................................Safe Work Practices
19 ......................................................................................................................... Drum Handling
20 ..................................................................................................................................... Bulking
21 ............................................. Storage & Preparation for Transportation of Hazardous Wastes
22 .............................................................................................................................. Spill Control
23 .............................................................................................................. Emergency Response
Hazardous Waste and Emergency Response Legislation
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will recite the pertinent environmental
regulations that have shaped hazardous waste and emergency response operations.
Protection for hazardous waste and emergency response workers is provided primarily
by the following legislation:

The Williams-Steiger Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA Act) of 1970
established OSHA and its regulations.

Toxic Substance Control Act of 1976 authorized the evaluation and regulation of
new and existing chemicals.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA) regulates treatment,
storage, or disposal (TSD) facilities and established a "cradle to grave"
tracking system for hazardous materials (hazardous waste manifest) and
defines hazardous wastes and exemptions.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of
1980 (CERCLA, Superfund) established guide lines for cleaning up known
hazardous waste sites and established government funding for cleaning up
sites where no known liable party is identifiable.

Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA) set up
requirements guaranteeing safety and protecting health of workers who are
involved with RCRA and CERCLA sites and/or for emergency response
teams, authorized OSHA to develop regulations and provide training for
workers dealing with hazardous materials, and established the community
right-to-know requirements.

Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER)
Regulations (Title 29 CFR 1910.120). This rule regulates:

Cleanup operations required by a federal, state, or local governmental
body including but not limited to: EPA National Priority List (NPL) sites, state
priority list sites, sites recommended to the EPA NPL, and initial
investigations of government identified sites.

Corrective actions required by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of
1976 (RCRA)

Voluntary cleanup operations at sites recognized by Federal, state or local
governmental bodies as uncontrolled hazardous waste sites.

Hazardous waste operations at treatment, storage and disposal (TSD) facilities
regulated by 40 CFR parts 264 and 265 pursuant to RCRA.

Emergency response operations for releases of, or substantial threats of
releases of, hazardous substances without regard to the location of the
hazard. Note: OSHA considers small and large quantity generators of
hazardous waste to possess substantial threats of releases of hazardous
substances if they store hazardous wastes on their premises.
Definition of Hazardous Waste
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to determine what substances
are hazardous wastes.
1)
Must be a solid waste. A solid waste is any discarded (including abandoned,
recycled, reclaimed, reused, or inherently waste-like) material that is:
a) Either garbage refuse or sludge, or
b) a solid, liquid, semi-solid or contained gaseous material other than:
i)
Domestic sewage or any mixture of domestic sewage and other
wastes that passes through a sewer system to a publicly-owned
treatment works for treatment,
ii)
Industrial wastewater discharges regulated by section 402 of the
Clean Water Act,
iii)
Irrigation return flows,
iv)
Nuclear materials, and
v)
In situ mining wastes, and
2)
Contains a hazardous waste listed in Subpart D of Title 40 CFR part 261 (261.31,
261.32, and 261.33), or
3)
The solid waste exhibits any of the characteristics defined in subpart C of Title 40
CFR part 261 which are:
a) It has any characteristic of ignitability:
i)
It is a liquid, other than an aqueous solution containing less than
24% alcohol by volume and has a flash point less than 60 C (140
F), or
ii)
It is not a liquid and is capable under standard temperature and
pressure, of causing fire through friction, absorption of moisture or
spontaneous chemical changes and, when ignited, burns so
vigorously and persistently that it creates a hazard, or
iii)
It is an ignitable compressed gas as defined in Title 49 CFR
173.300, or
iv)
It is an oxidizer as defined in Title 49 CFR 173.151.
b) It has any characteristic of corrosivity:
i)
It is aqueous and has a pH of:
A)
2 or less, or
B)
12.5 or more, or
ii)
It is liquid that is corrosive to steel.
c) It is reactive:
i)
It is normally unstable and readily undergoes violent change
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
without detonating, or
It reacts violently with water, or
It forms potentially explosive mixtures with water, or
When mixed with water it generates toxic gases, vapors, or fumes,
or
It is sulfide or cyanide bearing waste that when exposed to pH
conditions between 2 and 12.5 it generates toxic gases, vapors, or
fumes, or
It is detonable if subjected to a strong initiating source or if heated
under confinement, or
It is readily detonable at standard temperature and pressure, or
It is a forbidden explosive (Title 49 CFR 173.51), a Class A
explosive (Title 49 CFR 173.53), or a Class B explosive (Title 49
CFR 173.88).
d) It is toxic: It contains concentrations exceeding the regulatory levels in
Table 1 of 40 CFR part 261.24 using the Toxic Characteristic Leaching
Procedure (TCLP). This includes biological hazards (biohazards).
EPA exceptions to hazardous waste designation
 Carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene, and trichloroethylene discharged in small
quantities into a POTW that is regulated under the Clean Water Act.
 Methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, chlorobenzene, o-dichlorobenzene,
cresols, cresylic acid, nitrobenzene, toluene, methyl ethyl ketone, carbon disulfide,
isobutanol, pyridine, and spent chlorofluorocarbon solvents into a regulated POTW.
 Listed petroleum refining byproducts defined in Title 40 CFR Part 261.32.
 De minimis losses from manufacturing.
 Wastewater from laboratory operations provided total wastewater flow is less than
1% annualized and hazardous wastes are less than 1 ppm of total flow.
 Used oil containing > 1000 ppm total halogens is assumed hazardous. If the oil does
not contain listed hazardous wastes, oil is assumed to be not hazardous.
 Household wastes.
 Mining overburden returned to the mine site.
 Fly ash and other wastes from the combustion of fossil fuels.
 Drilling fluids and byproducts of oil exploration.
 Chromium-contaminated wastes under certain circumstances (see 261.4(b)(6)(i).
 Wastes from extraction, beneficiation, and processing of some ores and minerals.
 Cement kiln dust waste.
 Some arsenical treated wood.
 Petroleum contaminated media and debris if the corrective actions are regulated
under Title 40 CFR part 280 (Underground Storage Tank regulations).
 Some injected groundwater.
 Used chlorofluorocarbons that are to be recycled.
 Some non-terne plated used oil filters.
Training Requirements
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to determine what the minimum
training requirements are for selected employee types.
Employees may not participate in or supervise any site activity until they have been
properly trained. The objectives of the Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency
Response (HAZWOPER) training program for employees engaged in hazardous waste
site activities are to:

Educate workers about the potential health and safety hazards they may
encounter at the site;

Provide the knowledge and skills necessary to minimize risk to worker health and
safety;

Provide thorough training in the proper use and potential limitations of safety and
personal protective equipment; and

Ensure that workers can safely avoid or escape from emergencies.
The training program must include:

Classroom instruction in a wide range of health and safety topics,
demonstrations.

“Hands-on” practice consisting of off-site drills that simulate site activities and
conditions.

On-site experience under the direct supervision of trained, experienced
personnel.

Annual refresher training to re-emphasize the initial training and to update
workers on any new policies or procedures.
Initial Training Requirements at Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites
Not
es
40 hr
Initial
24 hr
Initial
8 hr
Initial
8 hr
Supervisor
8 hr
Annual
Refresher
Annu
Refres
1) CLEAN-UP OPERATIONS
A. General Site Worker
B. Limited Exposure Worker
X
1
D. Supervisors/Managers of Hazardous Waste
Workers
X
X
2
X
2
X
X
2) RCRA TSD OPERATIONS
Workers involved in hazardous waste operations.
X
3) EMERGENCY RESPONSE OPERATIONS
A. First Responder Awareness Level
3
4
B. First Responder Operations Level
X
4
C. Hazardous Material Technician
X
4
D. Hazardous Material Specialist
X
4
E. On-Site Incident Commander
X
4
Notes:
1) If upgraded to 1 A position, must have additional 16 hrs. off-site + 2 days field training.
2) Must have same training as employees they supervise.
3) Must have initial training, but no hours specified.
4) No hours specified.
Recommended Training by Job Category
Training Topic
Emphasis of Training
General
Site
Worker
Blood, chemistry, and physics of
Hazardous materials
Chemical and physical properties; chemical reactions;
chemical compatibilities

Toxicology
Dosage, exposure routes, toxicity, IDLH values, PELs,
recommended exposure limits (RELs), TLVs.

Industrial Hygiene
Monitoring workers’ need for and selection of personal
protective equipment
o
Calculation of doses and exposure levels; hazard
evaluation; selection of worker health and safety protective
measures.
o
Monitoring Equipment
Selection, use, capabilities, limitations, and maintenance

Hazard Evaluation/
Recognition
Techniques of sampling and assessment.

Evaluation of field and lab results
o
Chemical/Physical

Risk assessment
Site Safety Plan
Safe practices, safety briefing and meetings, Standard
Operating Procedures, site safety map.

Standard Operating Procedures
Hands-on practice

Development and compliance
o
Engineering Controls
The use of barriers, isolation, and distance to minimize
hazards

Personal Protective Equipment
Assignment, sizing, fit-testing, maintenance, use, limitations,
and hand-on training.

Selection of PPE

Medical monitoring, first aid, stress recognition

CPR and emergencies drills
o
Medical Program
Design and planning
Implementation

Hands-on training using simulated field conditions

Design and maintenance

Legal and Regulatory Aspects
Applicable safety and health regulations
o
Emergencies / Accident Hazards
Communications
Emergency help, self-rescue, drills, alarms, reporting

Emergency response, investigation, and documentation
o
Decontamination
Su
Training Topic
Emphasis of Training
General
Site
Worker
Hazard Communication

Employee Rights

 = Recommended training
o = Optional
Su
Site-specific Training
Must enable site workers to:




Identify the hazards present on-site
Determine the medical surveillance requirements
Assess pertinent elements of the Health & Safety Plan
Assess operating practices and procedures including the use of personal protective
equipment and proper engineering controls.
Elements to Be Covered in Site -Specific Training









Names of personnel and alternates responsible for site safety and health
Safety, health, and other hazards present on site
Use of personal protective equipment
Work practices by which the employee can minimize risks from hazards
Safe use of engineering controls and equipment on the site
Medical surveillance techniques and recognition of symptoms and signs that might indicate
overexposure to hazards
An emergency response plan meeting the requirements for safe and effective responses to
emergencies, including all necessary equipment
Confined space entry procedures
A spill containment program
Decontamination procedures




It is also recommended that training cover the following:
Proper use of field equipment
Employee rights and responsibilities
First Aid

Rights and Responsibilities of Workers
Worker Rights
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to recite the prescribed rights
and responsibilities of workers.
 To review any OSHA rule or standard applicable to his/her line of work
 To request information on any health & safety hazards he/she may be exposed to in his/her
work place
 To petition OSHA to inspect his/her work place
 To file an anonymous written or signed complaint
 To answer an OSHA inspector's questions during an inspection of the facility
 To observe any testing the inspector conducts
 To meet privately with the inspector once the report is issued
 To submit a letter to NIOSH for technical information on worker safety
 To be notified of any variances to worker safety
 To exercise any of the above rights without fear of retribution
Worker Responsibilities
 To follow regulations set by OSHA
 To follow employers regulations regarding health and safety rules
 To report hazardous conditions to his/her employer
 To report work related illness or injury
 To cooperate fully with an OSHA inspector if asked
 To exercise rights in a responsible manner
 To handle hazardous wastes responsibly
Hazard Communication Program
Purpose
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to ascertain the requirements of
the Hazard Communication Program and assess compliance with this program.

Ensure that chemical hazards in the workplace are identified and evaluated

Information concerning these hazards is communicated to employers and employees
Hazard Communication Categories






Hazard determination
Material Safety Data Sheets
Chemical labeling
Employee training
Written program
Trade secrets
Hazard Determination
This requires employers to identify and evaluate all chemicals used in the workplace. This
evaluation is based on two hazard categories; Listed and Defined.
Listed Hazards





Any chemical listed in 29 CFR 1910 Subpart Z
Any chemical listed in the Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and
Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices, American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists
Any chemical listed in the National Toxicology Program Annual Report on Carcinogens
Any chemical listed by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, Monographs
Any chemical regulated by OSHA as a carcinogen
Defined Hazards
Defined hazards are those specified by OSHA as physical or health hazards, such as
combustible liquids, oxidizers, corrosives, reproductive toxins and non-toxins, excluding:











Wood and wood products (except wood dust)
Regulated hazardous waste
Tobacco products
Food
Drugs
Cosmetics
Alcoholic beverages
Agricultural or vegetable seed treated with pesticides
Various types of pesticides
Nuisance particulate
Articles
Material Safety Data Sheets
These documents contain specific chemical hazard information and must be available to
employees working with or near the hazardous chemical.
Material Safety Data Sheet Requirements

Hard copies of the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for chemicals and the chemical
inventory list must be maintained by the employer. Where hazardous materials are
generated as by-product of plant operations, such as carbon monoxide, an MSDS must be
maintained and provided.

Material Safety Data Sheets must be accessible to employees during each work shift.
The MSDS generally include:

Identity: The name of the substance, who makes it, their address, emergency phone
number and date prepared.

Hazardous Ingredients: The hazardous ingredients in the substance, chemical ID and
common names, worker exposure limits such as permissible exposure limits, ACGIH
threshold limit values and other recommended limits. (If the substances are trade secrets,
the MSDS does not have to list those ingredients, but the MSDS must still provide hazards
and the appropriate safety measures.

Physical and chemical characteristics: Provides data on boiling point, vapor pressure,
vapor density, melting point, evaporation rate, water solubility, appearance and odor under
normal conditions.

Physical Hazards: Fire and explosion hazards, and ways to handle those hazards such
as fire-fighting equipment and procedures.

Reactivity: Tells whether the substance is stable and what substances will react with it.

Health Hazards: Provides potential routes of entry, possible health hazards from
exposure, carcinogenicity risk, teratogenicity risk, mutagenicity risk, and signs and
symptoms of exposure.

Precautions for safe handling and use: This includes spill cleanup and control
procedures, safe disposal, safe handling protocol, storage, and any other precautions.

Control Measures: What is needed to reduce harmful exposure, including appropriate
personal protective equipment (respirators, gloves, eye protection), ventilation, and any
special work or hygiene practices.

First Aid Measures: This section will describe possible first aid procedures for each
route of entry, The procedures will be written so that untrained individuals can understand
the information.

Ecological Information:
This section will help determine the environmental impact
should the material ever be released into the environment.

Disposal Considerations: This section gives information on the proper disposal of the
material.

Transportation Information: This section gives basic shipping information.

Regulatory Information: This section discusses information on the regulations under
which the material falls.

Other Information: This can include: hazard ratings, preparation and revisions of the
MSDS, and label information.
Chemical Labeling
The label should contain:

The Identity of the chemical, including the name of the chemical, manufacturer or
importer, their address, and emergency phone number

The physical hazards including fire potential, explosivity potential, radiation potential

Important storage or handling instructions

Health hazards

Basic protective clothing, equipment and procedures that are recommended when
working with the chemical
Employee Training
Is required:

At the time of their initial assignment

Whenever a new physical or health hazard is introduced into the area
Topics

The hazard communication standard and its requirements of the standard

The components of the hazard communication program in the employees' workplace

Operations in work areas where hazardous chemicals are present

Where the employer will keep the written hazard evaluation procedures,
communications program, lists of hazardous chemicals, and the required MSDS forms

How the hazard communication program is implemented in that workplace, how to read
and interpret information on labels and the MSDS, and how employees can obtain and use
the available information

The hazards of the chemicals in the work areas


Measures employees can take to protect themselves from the hazards
Specific procedures put into effect by the employer such as engineering controls, work
practices, and the use of personal protective equipment.
Written Program
A written program must provide:

A list of hazardous chemicals in their workplace

MSDS and labels for each hazardous chemical

Methods used to provide employee information and training

Methods used to inform employees of hazards of non-routine work

Information of precautionary labels and other forms of warning for known hazardous
chemicals in the workplace

Methods used to inform contractor employers of any hazardous chemicals to which
contractor employees may be exposed.
Trade Secrets
The chemical manufacturer may withhold the chemical identity, including the chemical name
and other specific information, from the MSDS.
Under special conditions, this secret information may be obtained by health care professionals.
Health & Safety Program
Requirements
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to assess compliance of the
health and safety program and develop a site-specific health and safety plan.
Any employer whose workers engage in hazardous waste operations at an uncontrolled
hazardous waste site or who perform corrective actions at a RCRA TSD facility must develop
and implement a written health and safety program.
This program must be designed to identify, evaluate, and control health and safety hazards at
any site, and to provide for emergency response during site operations. The program must be
maintained by the employer and made available to:
1)
2)
Any employee or employee representative.
Any contractor, subcontractor or other representative working for the employer who may
be potentially exposed to hazardous substances.
3)
OSHA personnel
4)
Personnel of federal, state, and local agencies with regulatory authority over the site.
General Components of the Health & Safety Program

Organizational Structure: Identifies the specific chain of command in the employer’s
organization, and specifies the overall responsibilities of supervisors and employees in
carrying out the health and safety program. The structure should also identify the lines of
authority, communicating, and coordination among personnel and managers in the
organization.

Comprehensive Work Plan: Identifies anticipated cleanup activities as well as normal
operating procedures. It should establish implementation strategies for carrying out the
training, informational, and medical surveillance programs of the general health and safety
program.

Site-Specific Health and Safety Plan (HASP): Must be developed and implemented for
each site where workers are potentially exposed to hazardous substances.

Health & Safety Training Program: Must address the hazards present on-site, use of
personal protective equipment, work practices to minimize risks, safe use of engineering
controls and equipment, and medical surveillance requirements.

Medical Surveillance Program: A detailed plan for ensuring and monitoring the general
health of workers engaged in hazardous waste operations.


Standard Operating Procedures: Required for all work practices.
Coordination Procedures: To coordinate comprehensive and site-specific health and
safety activities.
Health and Safety Program Comprehensive and Site-Specific Components
Comprehensive Health and Safety Program
Site-Specific Health and Safety Plan (HA
! Organizational structure
! Site-specific health and safety plans (HASP)
! Key personnel
! Health and safety risk analysis
! Site control measures
! Training assignments
! Medical surveillance requirements
! Personal protective equipment
! Air and employee monitoring
! Spill containment program
! Confined space procedures
! Decontamination procedures
! Emergency response plan
! Health and safety training program
! Medical surveillance program
! Standard operating procedures
! Coordination procedures
Health & Safety Plan Development And Site Characterization
A site-specific HASP must be developed for each site where workers are engaged in
hazardous waste operations. Development of the site-specific HASP is a process that
incorporates the information collected during the site characterization phase of hazardous
waste operations. Site characterization generally is divided into 3 phases:

Prior to site entry, the preliminary evaluation is conducted off-site to gather information
about the site and to conduct reconnaissance from the site perimeter.

During the second stage, initial site entry is made and preliminary air monitoring is
performed. During this phase, site entry is restricted to properly trained and protected
reconnaissance personnel.

Once the hazards have been identified to the greatest extent possible, other activities
may commence at the site. Monitoring is continued to provide a continuous source of
information about site conditions.
Sources of Site-Specific Information

Company records, receipts, worker compensation claims, logbooks, or ledgers

Records and permits from federal and state pollution control regulatory and
enforcement agencies, state Attorney General’s office, state Occupational Safety and
Health Agencies, state Fire Marshal’s office

Interviews with personnel and their families (all interview information should be verified)

Generator and transporter records

Water department and sewage records

Interviews with nearby residents (note possible site-related medical problems and verify
all information from interview)

Local fire and police department records

Court and utility company records

Verified media reports

Previous surveying (including soil, ground-penetrating radar, and magnetometer
surveys), sampling, and monitoring data
Initial Site Entry
Once the HASP has been developed and implemented, the second stage of the site
characterization and analysis may begin. Risks that should be considered during the initial site
entry include:

Physical hazards

Exposure exceeding the permissible exposure limits and published exposure levels

Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) concentrations

Potential skin absorption and irritation

Explosion sensitivity and flammability ranges

Oxygen deficiency

Confined spaces
Specific Monitoring Requirements for Initial Site Entry
The following are required during initial site entry:

Air monitoring with direct-reading instruments for hazardous levels of ionizing radiation

Air monitoring with direct-reading test equipment (e.g. combustible gas meters, detector
tubes) for IDLH or other dangerous conditions.

Visual observation for signs of actual or potential IDLH or other dangerous conditions.
Once the initial site entry is completed, the site manager is responsible for updating the HASP
to ensure that it adequately identifies any new tasks or hazards at the site.
Chemical Identification Systems
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to assess different chemicals
given standard reference materials.
United Nations (UN) Hazard Class System
Class
Description
1
Division 1.1:
Division 1.2
Division 1.3
Division 1.4
Division 1.5
Division 1.6
2
Division 2.1
Division 2.2
Division 2.3
Division 2.4
Class A, B, and C Explosives
Explosives with a mass explosion hazard
Explosives with a projection hazard
Explosives with predominantly a fire hazard
Explosives with no significant blast hazard
Very insensitive explosives
Extremely insensitive explosive articles
Nonflammable and flammable compressed gases
Flammable gases
Nonflammable gases
Poison gases
Corrosive gases (Canadian)
3
Flammable liquids
Division 3.1 Flashpoint < -18C (0 F)
Division 3.2 Flashpoint > -18 C and < 23 C (73 F)
Division 3.3 Flashpoint > 23 C and < 61 C (141 F)
4
Flammable solids, spontaneously combustible substances, and waterreactive substances
Division 4.1 Flammable solids
Division 4.2 Spontaneously combustible materials
Division 4.3 Materials that are dangerous when wet
5
Oxidizing materials, including organic peroxides
Division 5.1 Oxidizers
Division 5.2 Organic peroxides
6
Class A and B poisons, irritants, and etiologic materials
Division 6.1 Poisonous materials
Division 6.2 Etiologic (infectious) materials
7
Radioactive materials
8
Corrosive materials
9
Miscellaneous hazardous materials
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 704M
Designed to be seen at a distance so emergency personal could ascertain the hazards of the material stored in the tanks by
sight only.
National Fire Protection Association Hazard Ranking System
Health Hazard Code BLUE
Signal
Flammability Color Code RED
Reactivity Color Code Yellow
Type of possible Injury
Susceptibility of Materials
to Burning
Susceptibility to release of Energy
4
Material which on very short
exposure could cause death or
major residual injury even with
prompt medical treatment.
Materials which will rapidly
or completely vaporize at
atmospheric pressure and
normal ambient
temperature or which are
readily dispersed in air
and which will burn
readily.
Materials which in themselves are
readily capable of detonation or of
explosive decomposition or
reaction at normal temperatures
and pressures.
3
Materials which on short
exposure could cause serious
temporary or residual injury
even with prompt medical
treatment.
Liquids and solids that can
be ignited under almost all
ambient temperature
conditions.
Materials which in themselves are
capable of detonation or explosive
reaction but require a strong
initiation source or which must be
heated under confinement before
initiation or which react
explosively with water.
2
Materials which on intense or
continued exposure could
cause temporalty,
incapacitation or possible
residual injury unless prompt
medical treatment is given.
Materials that must be
moderately heated or
exposed to relatively high
ambient temperatures
before ignition can occur.
Materials which in themselves are
normally unstable and readily
undergo violent chemical change
but do not detonate. Also
materials which may react
violently with water or which may
form potentially explosive
mixtures with water.
1
Materials which on exposure
would cause irritation but only
minor residual injury even with
no treatment.
Materials that must be
preheated before ignition
can occur.
Materials which in themselves are
normally stable but which can
become unstable at elevated
temperatures and pressures or
which may react with water with
some release of energy but not
violently.
0
Materials which on exposure
under fire conditions would
offer no hazard beyond that of
ordinary combustible material.
Materials that will not burn. Materials which in themselves are
normally stable even under fire
exposure conditions and which
are not reactive with water.
Source: National Fire Protection Association.
30
General Techniques of Hazard Identification
1) Recognize type and size of hazard
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to assess hazards given
standard reference materials.
$
$
$
$
Fire Hazard
Reactivity Hazard
Toxicological Hazard
Corrosive Hazard
2) Identify physical and chemical properties of substance
3)
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Use all available information, including:
Sampling results
Historical data
Visual observation
Instruments
Labels, shipping papers and manifests
Existing documents
Witnesses
Other sources
Placards on rail cars or trucks
Fire Hazard
A fire requires four elements; this is known as the fire tetrahedron.
$
$
$
$
Fuel
Oxygen to support combustion
Source of Ignition
Process of combustion
Note: Formerly, there was a fire triangle with heat, fuel and oxygen
Most fires can be extinguished by eliminating one of these components. For example, water
applied to a Class A fire removes the heat, thereby extinguishing the fire. When a material
itself generates sufficient heat to self-ignite, spontaneous combustion occurs, resulting in a fire
or explosion.
31
Classes of Fire
$ Ash. Class A fire: The combustion of paper, wood, cloth, and some rubber and plastic
material
$ Boils. Class B fire: The combustion of flammable or combustible liquids, flammable gases,
greases and similar materials, and some rubber and plastic materials.
$ Conducts. Class C fire: Involve energized electrical equipment where safety to the
employees requires the use of electrically nonconductive extinguishing media.
$ Dents. Class D fire: The combustion of combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium, lithium and potassium.
Extinguisher Type
Water
Carbon Dioxide
Dry Chemical
HALON
Specialized Dry Agents
Extinguishes
Class A only
Class A, B, & C
Class A, B, & some C
Class A, B, & C
Class D
Classification of Liquids
Class
Flash Point
Boiling Point
Flammable Liquids
IA
IB
IC
<73F
<100F
<73F
100F
73F and <100F
Combustible Liquids
II
IIIA
IIIB
100F and <140F
140F and <200F
200F
Pyrophoric liquids or solids ignite in air at  130F but do not require heat, shock or friction for
ignition. Examples are: Phosphorus (solid), Titanium Dichloride (solid), and Tributylaluminim
(liquid)
32
Examples of Necessary Components for Combustion
Fuels
Oxidizers
Ignition Sources
Flammable Liquids
Gaseous
Ignition Sources
Acetone
Oxygen
Sparks
Alcohol
Fluorine
Flames
Hexane
Nitrous Oxide
Static Electricity
Toluene
Oxygen Defluoride
Heat
Pentane
Ozone
Electrical Equipment
Cigarettes
Flammable Solids
Liquids
Light Bulbs
Plastics
Hydrogen
Heaters
Fibers
Nitric Acid
Lightning
Wood/Paper
Perchloric Acid
Catalytic Surface
Dust
Bromine
Lasers
Pyrophoric Metals
Self Heating
Solids
Flammable Gases
Metallic Perclorates
Acetylene
Metallic Peroxides
Propane
Ammonium Nitrate
Carbon Monoxide
Ammonium Nitrite
Hydrogen
Ethylene Oxide
33
Reactive Hazards
Explosives
$ High: Detonate as a result of heat or shock. Examples include ANFO and Slurry Blasting
Agents (thickened Ammonium Nitrate slurries sensitized with TNT)
$ Low: Deflagrate rather than detonate. Example is Black Powder.
Some Common Explosive Compounds
$ Acetylenic Compounds: Acetylene, Copper (1) Acetylide, Ethoxyacetylene, Propyne,
Propyne Peroxide, Disilver Acetylene
$ Azides: Benzenesulphonyl Azide, Carbonyl Diazide, Silver Azide, Lead (II) Azide, Azo
Compounds, Diazirine, Azomethane, Diazomethane
$ Chloride/ Chloro/ Perchloro Compounds: Silver Chlorite, Silver Chlorate, Potassium
Chlorite, Lead Tetrachloride
$ Fulminate: Silver Fulminates, Mercury (II) Fulminate, Sodium Fulminate, Copper (II)
Fulminate
$ Nitrogen Compounds: Nitromethane, Nitroglycerine, Nitrocelluose, Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
$ Other Nitrogen-Containing Compounds: Silver Amide, Silver Nitride, Nitrocylcyanide,
Disulfur Dinitride
$ Picrates: Picric Acid, Lead Picrate
$ Peroxides: Diacetyl Peroxide, Zinc Peroxide, Dimethyl Peroxide
$ Strained Ring compounds: Benzvalene, Prismane
$ Polymerizable Compounds: Acrylic Acid, Ethylene, Butydiene, Styrene, Vinyl Chloride,
Cyclopentadiene
Precautionary Measures for Unstable Substances
$ Protect these materials from shock, elevated temperature, light, ignition sources, and other
reactive chemicals.
$ Store a minimum quantity of the material and do not store near an area populated by
workers.
34
$ Whenever possible, use the chemicals with added inhibitors.
$ Store explosives in isolated, heavily constructed magazines. Preferably underground or at
least in a building with blow-out walls.
Inhibitors of Common Reactive Chemicals
Reactive Chemical
Inhibitor
Picric Acid
Water
Methyl Vinyl Ether
Triethanolamine
Cyclonite
Bees Wax
Lead Azide
Water
Lead Styphnate
Water
Acrylaldehyde
Hydroquinone
Methyl Methacrylate
Water
Vinyl Chloride
Phenol
Tetrafluoroetheylene
Alphaterpinene
Chlorotrifluoroethylene
Tributylamine
Reactive Chemicals
Unstable (Reactive) Chemicals: Vigorously polymerize, decompose, condense, or become
self-reactive under conditions of shock, pressure or temperature.
$ Water Reactive Chemicals: Alkali Metals (e.g., Lithium, Sodium), Organometallic
Compounds (e.g., Tetramethylaluminum), Halides (e.g., Acetyl Chloride), Titanium
Tetrachloride, Hydrides (e.g., Diborane, Sodium Hydride), Peroxides (e.g., Sodium
Peroxide), Carbides (e.g., Calcium Carbide), Oxides (e.g., Sodium Oxide), Phosphide (e.g.,
Aluminum Phosphide), and Anhydrides (e.g., Acetic Anhydride)
$ Air Reactive Chemicals: Metallic Dust (e.g., Zinc, Nickel, Titanium), Alkali Metals (e.g.,
Cesium, Potassium), and Hydrides (e.g., Diborane, Barium Hydride)
$ Polymerizable Chemicals: A monomer such as Ethylene (CH2 = CH2) gas combines with
other ethylene monomers to form a long chain polymer.
35
Oxidizers
Oxidizers: Initiate or promote combustion in other materials, thereby causing fire either of itself
or through the release of oxygen or other gases.
Organic Peroxides
Organic Peroxides: Contain a bivalent O - O group. They are a structural derivatives of
hydrogen peroxide where one or both of the hydrogen atoms has been replaced by an organic
radical. They are strong oxidizers.
Some Strong Oxidizers
Some Strong Reducers
Fluorine
Nitrates
Finely Divided Metals
Ozone
Nitrites
Hydrazide
Chlorine
Nitrous Oxide
Hydrides
Persulfated
Liquid Oxygen
Hydrogen
Peroxides
Liquid Air
Aniline
Peroxy Acids
Chlorosulfonic Acid
Sodium
Perchlorates
Nitromethane
Lithium
Dichromates
Hypochlorites
Potassium
Chromates
Chlorates
Butadiene
Permanganates
Nitric Acid
Acetylides
Hypochlorites
36
Compressed Gases
US Department of Transportation definition of Compressed Gas:
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to determine the appropriate
methods to use, store and transport compressed gases.

Having a pressure exceeding 40 psia at 70F, or

Having a pressure exceeding 104 psia at 130F or,

Any flammable liquid material with a vapor pressure >40 psia at 100F.
US Department of Transportation definition of Flammable Compressed Gas:


Having Lower Explosive Limit 13% by volume,
Having a flammability range 12%, is easily ignited, and the flame and heat propagation
rate resemble explosion
37
Rules for Handling Compressed Gases

Always use a hand truck for transport and chain cylinder to hand truck

Do not transport in closed vehicles

Cylinders should be chained in place or otherwise secured at all times

Leave valve cap on cylinder until secured and ready for use

Do not drop cylinders, or otherwise permit them to strike each other

Ground all cylinders containing flammable gases

Use the proper regulator for the particular gases

All valves should be closed when not in actual use

Use only in an upright position

Carefully open all valves and adjust gas flow rates

Always consider cylinders to be full and handle accordingly

Discontinue using a high-pressure cylinder when the pressure approaches 30 psia,
clearly mark “EMPTY” and remove for return to vendor

Oily (i.e., not specially cleaned) fittings should never be used with oxygen. Oxygen
under pressure may rapidly oxidize oil or grease resulting in an explosion. Specially
cleaned equipment must be used.

Acetylene under pressure can decompose with explosive force and can explode with
extreme violence if ignited. Copper or brass (with more than 65% copper) can form
explosive compounds with acetylene.

Glass equipment should not be pressurized. A general rule is no pressure greater than
10 inches of water without special protective equipment

Never mix gases in a cylinder. Explosion, contamination, corrosion, and other hazards
can result

Cylinders containing large amounts of a flammable gas (hydrogen, acetylene, ethylene)
should be stored outside in a protected area and piped into the working area
38

Store in a fire-proof, well-ventilated area

Storage area temperature should be regulated, so as not to exceed 100F

Store gases supporting combustion (O2, Cl2, etc.) at least 20 feet from fuel gases,
preferably in another gas area
39
Health Hazards & Toxicology
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to assess health risks provided
standard reference materials.
General Terminology

Toxicology: The study of the nature and actions of poisons.

Toxicity: The extent to which a chemical will cause harmful effects.

LD50: The dose (the amount per unit of body weight) of a chemical that is sufficient to kill
½ of the population within a specified period of time by ingestion

LC50: The concentration of a toxin that is sufficient to kill ½ the population within a
specified period of time by inhalation

Odor Threshold: The minimum concentration at which the odor quality (description of
smell) of the compound can be described
Toxicological Effects


Additive Effects: Biological effect from two chemical individually and added together
Synergistic Effects: The total biological effect is greater than the sum of the individual
biological effects. Classically exemplified by cigarette smoking and asbestosis
Exposure Types

Acute Exposure: high concentration for short duration with symptoms that are usually
immediately apparent but can be delayed and may be permanent or reversible

Chronic Exposure: low concentration exposure for long duration with symptoms that are
usually latent for several years and may be reversible or permanent
40
Modes of Action

Local Effects: Exposure effects observed at point of contact ( e.g., eye, skin, etc.)

Systemic Effects: Exposure effects observed at other points in the body not related to
point of contact (e.g, Kidney, Liver, etc.)
Regulatory and Guidance Exposure Levels

Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL): OSHA’s maximum allowable breathing zone
concentrations of chemicals to which a worker may be exposed

Threshold Limit Value (TLV): The maximum concentrations recommended by the
American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)

Recommended Exposure Limit (REL): The maximum concentrations recommended by
the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health

Ceiling: The maximum value to which a worker may be exposed

Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL): The highest concentration that a worker may be
exposed to for up to 15 minutes.

Skin: Indicates harmful effects through skin absorption and one should wear gloves or
The ACGIH recommends that excursions in worker exposure levels may exceed 3 times the TLV-TWA
for no more than a total of 30 minutes during a workday, and under no circumstances should they
exceed 5 times the TLV-TWA, provided that the TLV-TWA is not exceeded.
personal protective equipment.


IDLH: Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health. A situation that either poses an
immediate or delayed threat to life, or would cause irreversible adverse health effects; or
would interfere with an individual’s ability to escape unaided from a permit space. In the
absence of known IDLH values, any air hazard concentration that exceeds its TWA by 20X
is to be considered an IDLH situation.
Time Weighted Average (TWA): The average exposure over an 8 hour work day
(C1 T1) + (C2 T2) + (C3 T3)+...+(Cn Tn)
480 min.
where C = concentration of sample in ppm or mg/m3 and T = duration in minutes
41
42

Mixture TWA: The average exposure to a mixture. C1/P1 + C2/P2 + C3/P3 + ... +
Cn/Pn where Cn is the ambient concentration of a chemical and Pn is the TLV of that
chemical. The permissibile exposure limit = 1
Note: The mixture formula can only be used for similar, non-reactive chemicals
Routes of Entry

Inhalation: Through the respiratory system. (Preventable with respiratory
protective equipment)

Skin Absorption: Through the skin. (Preventable with chemical protective
equipment)

Ingestion: Through consumption of contaminated food. (Preventable with proper
hygiene practices)

Injection: From a sharp. (Preventable with proper bloodborne pathogen work
protocols)
Classification Of Toxic Chemicals


Irritants: Cause reversible inflammation of mucous membranes, e.g., Ammonia.
Sensitizers: Cause mild to severe allergic reaction and the formation of
antibodies upon first exposure, causes severe allergic reactions or death upon
second and subsequent exposures.

Asphyxiants: Deprive the tissue of oxygen

Simple asphyxiants displace oxygen (e.g., carbon dioxide)

Chemical asphyxiants bind to hemoglobin and prevent oxygen uptake by
hemoglobin (e.g., carbon monoxide and cyanide)

Anesthetics: Depress central nervous system, primarily the brain (e.g., alcohols,
organics)

Corrosives: Chemicals that cause burns, irritation or destruction of living tissue
(e.g., strong bases and strong acids)

Hepatotoxins: Chemicals which produce liver damage including jaundice and
liver enlargement (e.g., carbon tetrachloride)
43
xliv

Nephrotoxins: Chemicals which produce kidney damage including edema and
proteinuria. Examples: halogenated hydrocarbons and uranium.

Neurotoxins: Chemicals which produce their primary toxic effects on the nervous
system (e.g., mercury, tetraethyl lead and organic phosphate insecticide)

Agents which damage the lung: Chemicals which irritate or damage the pulmonary
tissue (e.g., silica, asbestos and hydrogen sulfide)

Teratogens: Substances that cause a change in form, generally a birth defect (e.g.,
Thalidomide)


Mutagens: Cause changes in DNA sequence (genes)
Carcinogens: A substance that causes tumors (uncontrolled cell division). Tumors may
be malignant and metastasize to other organs or be benign and not metastasize.
A chemical is considered to be a carcinogen if:
1)
It has been evaluated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer and found to
be a carcinogen or potential carcinogen; or
2)
It is listed as a carcinogen or potential carcinogen in the Annual Report on Carcinogens
published by the National Toxicology Program (NTP) (latest edition); or,
3)
It is regulated by OSHA as a carcinogen
OSHA Regulated Carcinogens
2- acetylaminofluorene, acrylonitrile, 4-aminodiphenyl, arsenic (inorganic), benzene, bis
(chloromethyl) ether, coke-oven emissions, 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane, 3,3dichlorbenxidine, 4-dimethylaminoazobenzene, ethylene oxide, ethyleneimine, formaldehyde,
4,4-methylene(bis)-2-chloroaniline, methyl chloromethyl ether, alpha-napthylamine, 4nitrobiphenyl, N-nitrosodimethylamine, beta-propiolactone, vinyl chloride
ACGIH-listed Carcinogens
4-Aminobiphenyl, Asbestos, Amosite, Chrysotile, Crocidolite, Benzidine, Bis (chloromethyl)
ether, Chromate or processing (chromate), Chromium (VI), certain water soluble compounds
Coal tar pitch volatiles, Beta-Naphtylamine, Nickel sulfide roasting, fume and dust
4-Nitrodiphenyl, Vinyl Chloride, Zinc Chromates
xlv
Common Chemical Toxicants Found at Hazardous Waste Sites
Substance or
Group
Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
Compound
Benzene
Ethyl Benzene
Toluene
Xylene
Uses
Commercial solvents and
intermediates for synthesis in
the chemical and
pharmaceutica industries.
Target Organs
Blood, bone
marrow, CNS,
eyes, respiratory
system, skin,
liver, kidney
Potential Health
Effects
All Cause CNS
depression, defatting
dermatitis. Benzene
suppresses bone
marrow function, causing
blood changes and
chronic exposure can
cause leukemia.
Substance or
Group
Asbestos (or
asbestiform
particles)
Compound
Uses
A variety of industrial uses
including building, construction,
cement work, insulation,
fireproofing, pipes and ducts for
water, air, and chemical,
automotive brake pads and
linings.
Target Organs
Lungs, gastrointestinal system
Potential Health
Effects
Chronic effects: lung
cancer, mesothelioma,
asbestosis,
gastrointestinal
malignancies. Cigarette
smoking has been
shown to be synergistic
with asbestos.
Substance or
Group
Halogenated
aliphatic
hydrocarbons
Compound
Methyl chloride,
chloroform,
carbon
tetrachloride,
tetrachloroethylen
e,
trichloroethylene,
vinyl chloride
Uses
Commercial solvents and
intermediates in organic
syntheses
Target Organs
CNS, kidney,
liver, skin
Potential Health
Effects
All cause CNS
depression, kidney
change, anemia, and
liver change. Vinyl
chloride is a known
carcinogen, several
others in this group are
potential carcinogens.
Substance or
Group
Heavy Metals
Compound
Arsenic,
Beryllium,
Cadmium,
Chromium, Lead,
Mercury
Uses
Wide variety of industrial and
commercial uses.
Target Organs
Potential Health
Effects
Ccardiopulmonary
, gastroin-testinal,
kidney, liver,
blood, CNS, skin
Lead can cause
permanent kidney and
brain damage; cadmium
can cause kidney or lung
disease; the others are
suspected carcinogens
Substance or
Group
Herbicides
Compound
(2,4-D), (2,4,5-T),
dioxin
Uses
Vegetation control
Target Organs
Potential Health
Effects
Kidney, liver CNS, Chloracne, weakness or
skin
numbness of the arms
and legs, and may result
in long-term nerve
damage. Dioxin causes
chloracne and may
aggravate pre-existing
liver and kidney
diseases.
Substance or
Group
Organochlorine
Insecticides
Compound
Chlorinated
ethanes: DDT
Cyclodienes:
Aldrin, Chlordane,
Dieldrin, Endrin
Chlorocyclohexan
e:Lindane
Uses
Pest control
Target Organs
Kidney, Liver
CNS
Potential Health
Effects
Acute symptoms of
apprehension, irritability,
dizziness, disturbed
equilibrium, tremor, and
convulsions.
Cyclodieners may cause
convulsions and kidney
damage.
Chlorocyclohexanes can
cause anemia and
kidney damage.
Substance or
Group
Compound
Organophosphate Organophosphate Pest control
and Carbamate
:
Insecticides
Parathion,
Diazinon,
Malathion, et al.
Carbamate:
Baygon, Aldicarb,
Zectran
Uses
Target Organs
Potential Health
Effects
CNS, liver, kidney
All cause extensive CNS
damage
Substance or
Group
Polychlorinated
Biphenyls (PCBs)
Compound
Uses
Wide variety of industrial uses
Target Organs
Potential Health
Effects
Liver, CNS
(speculative),
respiratory
system
(speculative), skin
Various skin ailments,
including chloracne, may
cause liver toxicity,
carcinogenic to animals.
55
Site Control
The purpose of establishing work zones is to:
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to establish site zones and
perform a decontamination scenario and minimize risks to workers, non-workers and the
environment.

Reduce the accidental spread of hazardous substances by workers or equipment from
the contaminated areas to the clean areas

Confine work activities to the appropriate area, thereby minimizing the likelihood of
accidental exposure

Facilitate the location and evacuation of personnel in case of an emergency
Hazardous Waste Site Plan
This plan should depict:

Prevailing wind direction

Site drainage points

Natural and man-made topographic features including the location of buildings,
containers, impoundments, pits, ponds, tanks, and any other site features
Site maps should be updated often during the course of site operations to reflect new
information from sampling and analysis activities and changes in site conditions.
Work Zones
A site may be divided into as many zones as necessary to ensure minimal employee exposure
to hazardous substances. Generally three are used:

Exclusion Zone (“hot zone”). The localized, contaminated area where cleanup is
occuring

Contamination Reduction Zone (“warm zone”). The Contamination Reduction Zone
(CRZ) is the decontamination area between the Exclusion Zone and the Support Zone

Support Zone (“cold zone”). The Support Zone is the uncontaminated area where
workers are unlikely to be exposed to hazardous substances or dangerous condition. The
56
Support Zone is the appropriate location for the command post, medical station, equipment
and supply center, field laboratory, and any other administrative or support functions that
are necessary to keep site operations running efficiently.
Security
The boundaries of the exclusion zone (Hotline) should be physically secured (e.g., using
chain, fences, or ropes) or clearly marked (e.g. using lines, placards, hazard tape, and / or
signs).
Rules of Access

Access to and from the Exclusion Zone are restricted to Access Control Points at the
Hotline

Access Control Points are used to regulate the flow of personnel and equipment into
and out of the contamination area and to verify that site control procedures are followed

Separated entrances and exits should be established to separate personnel and
equipment movement into and out of the Exclusion Zone
Exclusion Zone Communication
Internal Communication

Buddy system, including:





Maintaining visual contact with each other
Providing his or her partner with assistance
Observing each other for signs of chemical or heat exposure
Periodically checking the integrity of each other’s personal protective equipment
Notifying the site manager or other site personnel if emergency assistance is needed

Standard communication devices such as radio, noisemakers, or visual signals.
57
External communication (on-site and off-site personnel)
Common Visual Signals
Signal ...............................................Response
Hands clutching throatOut of air / cannot breath
Hands on top of the head ....... Need assistance
Thumbs up...... OK / I am all right / I understand
Thumbs down ...............................No / negative
Arms waving upright ........ Send backup support
Grip partners wrist .......... Exit area immediately
Required to:

Coordinate emergency response efforts
with off-site responders

Report progress or problems to
management

Maintain contact with essential off-site
personnel
The primary means of external communication are telephone and radio.
Site Preparation Activities
Prior to undertaking on-site response operations, the following site preparation activities should
be performed because site preparation can be as hazardous as site cleanup.

Construct a sound road bed for heavy
equipment and vehicles and arrange traffic patterns to provide easy access and to ensure
safe and efficient operations

Eliminate physical hazards from the site,
including:

Ignition sources in flammable
hazard areas

Exposed or ungrounded wiring, and low
overhead wiring that may entangle equipment

Sharp or protruding edges that may
58
puncture protective clothing and equipment or inflict puncture wounds

Debris, holes, loose steps or
flooring, protruding objects, slippery surface, or unsecured railings that can cause falls,
slips or trips, or obstruct visibility

Unsecured objects, such as bricks and
gas cylinders near the edge of elevated surfaces such as catwalks, roof tops, and
scaffolding, that may dislodge and fall on workers

Install skid-resistant strips and other
anti-skid devices on slippery surfaces

Construct operation pads for mobile
facilities and temporary structures, loading docks, processing and staging areas, and
decontamination pads

Provide adequate illumination for work
activities, equip temporary lights with protective guards to prevent accidental contact

Install wiring and electrical equipment in
accordance with the National Fire Code.
Standing Orders
Standing orders should be established at a site to maintain a strong safety awareness and to
enforce safe work practices. Standing orders refer to those safety procedures that must always
be followed when operating in contaminated areas.
Examples of Standing Orders

Report any signs of radioactivity,
explosivity, or unusual conditions to your supervisor immediately

No smoking, eating, drinking, or open
flame in the Exclusion Zone or Contamination Reduction Zone

Check in at the entrance Access Control
Point before entering the Exclusion Zone

Maintain close contact with your buddy
in the Exclusion Zone

Check out at the exit Access Control
Point before leaving the Exclusion Zone.
59
Medical Facility Information
Information should be posted conspicuously throughout the site, as well as near telephones or
other external communication devices.

Name, Telephone number, Address,
Map, Directions
60
61
62
Air Monitoring
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to assess the ambient
concentrations of various, common chemicals for which air monitoring equipment is available.
Hazardous atmospheres

Explosive (characterized be the presence of ignitable or explosive vapors, gases,
aerosols, and dusts)

Toxic (characterized by the presence of vapors, gases, particulate, and aerosols)

Oxygen-deficient (characterized by the displacement of breathable air)

Radioactive (characterized by the presence of radioactive materials)
Air Monitoring Objectives

Identify and quantify airborne contaminants on-and off-site

Track changes in air contaminants that occur over the lifetime of the incident

Ensure proper selection of work practices and engineering controls

Determine the level of worker protection needed

Assist in defining work zones

Identify additional medical monitoring needs in any given area of the site
Frequency of Air Monitoring

Wherever the possibility of employee exposure to hazardous substances exists

Upon initial entry

When conditions change
63
Types of monitoring equipment:

Vapor Monitor Badges: Work by the simple principle of diffusion. The exposure time,
date exposed, employee and monitor number must be recorded. Badges are available for
limited compounds, including organic vapors, formaldehyde, ethyl oxide, mercury, and
nitrous oxide.

Detector Tubes and Pumps: A very effective way to do on-the-spot air monitoring. They
are accurate enough to get an idea of the hazards in the workplace. Detector tubes are
typically used when surveying an area and can give an idea of worker exposure in either
ppm or % volume. The user squeezes the bellow and upon release, air is pulled through
the tube as the bellow opens.

Oxygen Meters: Used to detect atmospheric oxygen concentration. A pump is used to
draw in air. The oxygen in the sample reacts with the electrolyte in the cell generating a
current. Oxygen meters are affected by temperature and pressure. Oxidizers can cause
increased readings. Carbon dioxide can reduce instrument sensitivity.

Hand-Held Electronic Monitors: These continuous hand-held monitors come in a variety
of shapes and sizes. They can vary from a relatively simple single-gas monitor to
complicated data logging four-gas monitors. They all have one thing in common: they
make a quantitative analysis that is displayed on a digital or analog readout. Some also
have the capabilities to store information which can be downloaded to a computer.

Flame Ionization Detector (FID): Measures total concentrations of organic compounds.
Cannot separate by organic compound species. With the gas chromatograph (GC) option,
individual components can be detected and measured independently, with some detection
limits as low as few ppm. Does not work well when methane is present.

Photoionization Detectors (PID): Detects the concentration of organic gases as well as
a few inorganic gases. Three limitations are:

Cannot be used in unknown situations where many organic and inorganic
vapors/gases are suspected,

High humidity reduces sensitivity

Atmospheres with concentrations of vapors and gases above the detection limits
of the instrument will cause inconsistent instrument behavior.
64
Personal Protective Equipment
Goals of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to select, don, doff and store
appropriate personal protective equipment.

Shield or isolate individuals from the chemical, physical, and biologic hazards that may
be encountered on-site
Note: Personal Protective Equipment is to be used only after engineering controls and
administrative controls are unable to lower the ambient concentrations below acceptable
levels.

Prevent injury to the wearer from incorrect use and/or malfunction of the PPE
Levels of Protection
Level A
Required when the greatest potential for exposure to hazards exists, and when the greatest
level of skin, respiratory, and eye protection is required.
Typical Level A equipment:

Positive pressure, full face-piece self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) or positive
pressure supplied air respirator with escape SCBA

Totally-encapsulating chemical-protective suit

Inner and/or outer chemical-resistant gloves

Disposable protective suit, gloves and boots.
65
Warranted Level A Protection


Hazardous substances have been identified and require the highest level of protection
for skin, eyes, and the respiratory system
The atmosphere contains less than 19.5 % oxygen

Site operations involve a high potential for splash, immersion, or exposure to
unexpected materials that are harmful to the skin

Operations are being conducted in confined, poorly ventilated areas, and the absence
of hazardous substances has not yet been determined

Direct-reading instruments indicate high levels of unidentified vapors or gases in the air
Level B Protection
Required under circumstances requiring the highest level of respiratory protection, with a
lesser level for skin protection.
Typical Level B equipment:

Positive pressures, full face-piece SCBA or positive pressure supplied air respirator with
escape SCBA

Inner and/or outer chemical-resistant gloves

Face shield

Hooded chemical resistant clothing

Outer chemical-resistant boots
Warranted Level B Protection



The type and atmospheric concentration of substances have been identified and require
a high level of respiratory protection, but less skin protection than Level A
The atmospheric contains less than 19.5 % oxygen
The presence of incompletely identified vapors and gases is indicated but they are not
suspected of being harmful to the skin
66
Level C Protection
OSHA requires Level B protection be used in unknown environments that have not yet been
evaluated.
Employed when the concentration and type of airborne substances is known, and the criteria
for using air purifying respirators is met.
Typical Level C equipment:

Full-face air-purifying respirators

Inner and outer chemical-resistant gloves

Chemical-resistant clothing

Disposable chemical-resistant outer boots
Warranted Level C Protection

The atmospheric contaminants, liquid splashes or other direct contact will not adversely
affect or be absorbed by the skin

The types of air contaminants have been identified and air purifying respirators can
lower breathing zone concentrations to acceptable levels

Oxygen concentrations are not less than 19.5 % by volume
Level D Protection
The minimum protection required.
Typical Level D Equipment:

Gloves

Coveralls

Safety glasses

Face shield
67

Chemical-resistant steel-toe boots or shoes.
Warranted Level D Protection


No contaminants are present
Work operations preclude splashes, immersion, or the potential for unexpected
inhalation of or contact with hazardous level of any chemicals
Types of Chemical Protective Clothing
Non-elastomers



Tyvek
Provides reasonable tear, puncture, and abrasion resistance
Excellent for protection against particulates and has a resistance to static build
up.

Loses its properties after being washed and should be considered a disposable
garment.





Nomex
Non-combustible and has flame-resistance up to 220 C
Very durable and acid resistant
Easily laundered
Used in fire fighters turnout gear and some environmental suits
Elastomers








Polyethylene
An inert yet permeable material
Sometimes used as a coating on Tyvek garments which gives them resistance to
acids, bases, and salts
Absorbs organic solvents
Saranex
Generally coated on Tyvek and is considered a very good general purpose
disposable material
Better overall protection than polyethylene-coated Tyvek
Resists chlorinated hydrocarbons.
68
69





Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Resists degradation by acids and caustics
Used in boots, gloves, aprons, splash suits, and fully encapsulating suits
Upon decontamination, PVC may retain traces of the contamination
Coated on Nomex to develop a strong protective material, including fully
encapsulating suits





Neoprene
Resists degradation by caustics, acids and alcohols
Used in boots, gloves and respirator face piece and breathing hoses
Commonly available and inexpensive
Provides better general protection than PVC but retains contaminants upon
decontamination like PVC




Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE) (Chloropel®)
Used in the manufacture of splash suits and fully encapsulating suits
The manufacturer supplies chemical resistance information but no data on
permeability
It is considered to be a good all around protective material



Butyl Rubber
Especially resistant to permeation by gases
It is used in the manufacture of boots, glove, splash suits, aprons and fully
encapsulating suits

Butyl rubber is resistant to many compounds except halogenated hydrocarbons
and petroleum compounds

Can be effectively decontaminated






Viton
Used in gloves and fully-encapsulating suits
Excellent protectiion against aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons
Less effective against ketones and aldehydes
Can be effectively decontaminated
Expensive




Natural Rubber (latex)
Used in gloves and boots
Resists degradation by alcohols and caustics and most bloodborne pathogens
Can develop latex hypersensitivity


Nitrile
Used in gloves and boots
70

Resists degradation by alcohols and caustics
71




Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA)
Used in gloves
An excellent protective material for use against aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons
Soluble in water, so cannot be used with water-soluble contaminants
Source: National Association of Safety & Health Professionals, Inc.
Chemical Protective Equipment
Sources of Contamination

Permeation: The diffusion of gases through a material. Measured in permeation rates (ug/cm 2/min) or breakthrough time
(in minutes).

Penetration: The flow of liquids, gases, or vapors through pinholes, zippers, sticked seams, other imperfections, or the
material.

Degradation: Physical changes in a material from chemical exposure, wear and tear, and chemical decomposition.
Chemical Protective Equipment Inspection

Determine that the clothing material is correct for the specified task

Visually inspect for imperfect seams, non-uniform coatings, tears, malfunctioning closures

Hold up to light and check for pinholes

Flex product and observe for cracks, observe for other signs of shelf deterioration. If the product has been used
previously, inspect inside and out for signs of chemical attack for discoloration, swelling or stiffness.
Frequency of Inspection

Before each use

After each use

Monthly for emergency response equipment
Suit Leak Test Methods



Light Test
Shine UV or fluorescent light inside the suit
This test can be used in conjunction with other leak-test methods


Carbon Monoxide Test
A sealed CO indicator badge is sealed inside the suit and the suit is hung in a smokehouse for a specified period


Shower Test
The wearer stands under a shower for a short period of time after which the suit is examined internally for water
leaks

Difficult to distinguish water leaks from perspiration

Generally considered the least reliable of the leak tests


Soapsuds Test
The suit is inflated to approximately 0.5 psi then tested with a soapsuds solution and inspected for bubbles


Pressure Retention Test
The suit is inflated to approximately 180 mm of water pressure and after a 10 min. stabilization period the internal
pressure is monitored for loss of pressure
The suit fails if the pressure falls from 180mm to 150 mm in < 6 min.
This test does not test for chemical permeation or degradation


Storage

Store separate from street clothing

Segregate Personal Protective Equipment by type and material

Always store according to the manufacturers directions
Respiratory Protection
Goal of Respiratory Protective Equipment
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to select, don, doff and store
respiratory protective equipment.

Protect workers from
inhalation or ingestion of
contaminants if engineering
controls cannot bring ambient contaminant concentrations down to safe levels.
Atmospheric Hazards

Oxygen deficient atmosphere below 19.5% oxygen. Develop when oxygen is displaced by other gases or depleted
through biological or chemical processes.





Particulates (dust, mists, fumes, fibers):
Dust: solid particles (e.g., silica)
Mist: liquid condensation particle (e.g., acid mist, fog)
Fume: solid condensation particle < 1 m diameter (e.g., welding / metal cutting fumes)
Fiber: solid particle with an aspect ratio 3:1 (e.g., asbestos)






Toxicants:
Simple asphyxiants: displace oxygen (e.g., nitrogen, methane)
Chemical asphyxiants: chemically prohibit the uptake of oxygen (e.g., carbon monoxide, cyanide)
Irritants: irritate tissues (e.g., ammonia, chlorine)
Allergens: cause allergic reactions (e.g., isocyanates, sulfur dioxide)
Carcinogens: cause tumors to form (e.g., benzene, cigarette smoke)
Respiratory Protection Program
If workers must use respiratory protective equipment, a respiratory protection program must be instituted that contains, at a
minimum:

Written standard operating procedures governing the selection and use of respirators must be established

Selection of respirator must be hazard specific


Workers must be adequately trained in the use and limitation of each respirator style
Respirators should be assigned to individuals

Respirators must be regularly cleaned and disinfected. Respirators shared by workers must be thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected after each use.

Respirators must be stored in a convenient, clean, and sanitary location
NIOSH recommends that respirators be cleaned with a detergent, followed by a disinfecting
rinse in 2% commercial bleach solution for 2 minutes followed by a hot water (120 - 140 F)
rinse to remove traces of detergent and bleach (Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection
(1987) Publication No. 87-116).

Respirators must be
inspected during cleaning.
Worn or deteriorated parts must
be replaced. Respirators for
emergency response must be
inspected monthly and after each use.

Appropriate surveillance of work area conditions and degrees of employee exposure or stress shall be maintained.

There must be regular inspection and evaluations to determine the continued effectiveness of the program.


Persons should not be assigned to tasks requiring use of respirators unless it has been determined that they are
physically able to perform the work and use the equipment.
Equipment must be NIOSH and MSHA approved (Mine Safety Health Association).
Classification of Respiratory Protective Equipment
Air purifying

Use adsorbing or absorbing disposable canisters

Negative pressure

Powered air purifying respirators use a blower to pass the contaminated air through a filter
Canister Selection for Air-Purifying Respirators
Cartridge Color
White
Black
Greeen
Yellow
Magenta
Orange
Olive
Contaminant
Acid gas
Organic vapors
Ammonia gas
Acid gas and organic vapors
Radioactive materials, particulates
Dust, fumes, and mists
Other gases and vapors
Air Purifying Respirators
Half-face
 Provides a maximum protection factor of 10
 Provides no eye protection
 Convenient to use and inexpensive (< $50)
Full-face
 Provides a maximum protection factor of 50
 Provides eye protection
 Convenient to use, moderately inexpensive ($100 - 200)
Supplied Air Respirators
 Positive pressure for better protection against chemicals
 Use full face masks for eye protection
 Use clean air from outside source
 Used in levels A and B
Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
 Provides a high protection factor (10000)
 Air supply up to 60 minutes
 Aluminum or composite tanks available
Air Line
 Air supply from large, cascading cylinders or special, oil-free Grade D compressor
 Air supply is effectively unlimited
 Needs an escape bottle for backup
Corrective Eyewear Options
 Glasses with short temple bars or without temple bars may be taped to the wearer's head
 Mount corrective lenses inside face piece (full face)
Note: The use of contact lenses while wearing a respirator in contaminated environments is prohibited
Respirator Donning
 Inspect mask for worn or broken parts.
 Clean mask.
 Make sure straps are loose.
 Don mask. Tighten straps in pairs.
 Hold hand over exhalation valve and exhaling for 10 seconds. Mask should maintain internal pressure.
 Hold hands over cartridges and inhale. Mask should hold a vacuum.
Respirator Doffing
 Relax straps.
 Remove mask.
 Inspect and clean
Fit Testing
Qualitative
 Irritant smoke

Banana oil (isoamyl acetate)
 Saccharine test

Bitrex®
Talk, turn head side to side and up and down to check facial seal. If the user can smell the smoke or banana oil or taste the
saccharine there is a poor fit and need to try a different brand or size of respirator.
Some specific contaminants listed in 29 CFR 1910 require their own qualitative fit test procedures.
Quantitative
 Determines protection factor (concentration of atmosphere contaminant divided by concentration of contaminant in breathing
zone).
 Expensive to perfrom
Respirator Fit-Testing
 The employer should have a selection of respirators for the employee to choose from, including different sizes and brands.
 Employer should supply respirator
Protection Factors
NIOSH has assigned protection factors to the four respiratory equipment styles
Protection factor x Safe Concentraion = allowable working environment.
Respirator Type
Factor
Breathing Zone Concentration
Half face
Full face
Air line
SCBA
10
50
2,000
10,000
ambient concentration X 0.10
ambient concentration X 0.02
ambient concentration X 0.0005
ambient concentration X 0.0001
Chemical Cartridge Prohibitions
Do not use chemical cartridges for the following materials

87













Acrolein
 Aniline
 Arsine
 Bromine
 Carbon Monoxide
 Dimethyl Aniline
 Dimethyl Sulfate
 Hydrogen Cyanide
 Hydrogen Fluoride
 Hydrogen Selenide
 Hydrogen Sulfide
 Methanol
 Methyl Bromide
 Methyl Chloride
 Methylene Bisphenyl
88
Nickel Carbonyl
Nitrobenzene
Nitrogen Oxides
Nitroglycerin
Nitromethane
Ozone
Phosgene
Phosphine
Phosphorus Trichloride
Stibine
Sulfur Chloride
Toluene Diisocyanate (TDI)
Vinyl Chloride
89
90
91
Cartridge Duration
 For HEPA cartridges, replace when breathing is impaired.
 For adsorbing cartridges, replace when:
 Odor is detected through cartridge, if the odor threshold (available from CHRIS Manual) <
safe concentration,
 1% breakthrough, for the following chemicals.
Effect of Solvent Vapor on Respirator Cartridge Efficiency
Solvent
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 ppm) (min)
Aromatics
Benzene
Toluene
Ethyl Benzene
m-Xylene
Cumene
Mesitylene
73
94
84
99
81
86
Alcohols
Methanol
Ethanol
Isopropanol
Allyl Alcohol
n-Propanol
Sec-Butanol
Butanol
2-Methoxyethanol
Isoamyl Alcohol
4-Methyl-2-Pentanol
2-Ethoxyethanol
Amyl Alcohol
2-Ethyl-1-Butanol
0.2
28
54
66
70
96
115
116
97
75
77
102
76.5
Monochlorides
Methyl Chloride
Vinyl Chloride
Ethyl Chloride
Ally Chloride
0.05
3.8
5.6
31
92
1-Chloropropane
1-Chlorobutane
Chlorocyclopentane
Chlorobenzene
1-Chlorohexane
0-Chlorotoluene
1-Chloroheptane
3-(Chloromethyl Heptane)
25
72
78
107
77
102
82
63
Dichlorides
Dichloromethane
Trans-1,2-Dichlorethylene
1,1-Dichloroethane
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene
1,2-Dichloroethane
1,2-Dichloropropane
1,4-Dichlorobutane
0-Dichlorobenzene
10
33
23
30
54
65
108
109
Trichlorides
Chloroform
Methyl Chloroform
Trichloroethylene
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
33
40
55
72
111
Tetra- and Pentachlorides
Carbon Tetrachloride
Perchloroethylene
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
Pentachloroethane
77
107
104
93
Acetates
Methyl Acetate
Vinyl Acetate
Ethyl Acetate
Isopropyl Acetate
Isopropenyl Acetate
Propyl Acetate
Allyl Acetate
sec-Butyl Acetate
Butyl Acetate
Isopentyl Acetate
2-Methoxyethyl Acetate
1,3-Dimethylbutyl Acetate
33
55
67
65
83
79
76
83
77
71
93
61
93
Amyl Acetate
2-Ethoxyethyl Acetate
Hexyl Acetate
73
80
67
Ketones
Acetone
2-Butanone
2-Pentanone
3-Pentanone
4-Methyl-2-Pentanone
Mesityl oxide
Cyclopentanone
3-Heptanone
2-Heptanone
Cyclohexanone
5-Methyl-3-Heptanone
3-Methylcyclohexanone
Diisobutyl Ketone
4-Methylcyclohexanone
37
82
104
94
96
122
141
91
101
126
86
101
71
111
Alkanes
Pentane
Hexane
Methylcyclopentane
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexene
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane
Heptane
Methycyclohexane
5-Ethylidene-2-Norbornene
Nonane
Decane
61
52
62
69
86
68
78
69
87
76
71
Amines
Methyl Amine
Ethyl Amine
Isopropyl Amine
Propyl Amine
Diethyl Amine
Butyl Amine
Triethyl Amine
Dipropyl Amine
Diispropyl Amine
Cyclohexyl Amine
Dibutyl Amine
12
40
66
90
88
110
81
93
77
112
76
94
Miscellaneous Materials
Acrylonitrile
Pyridine
1-Nitropropane
Methyl Iodide
Dibromoethane
Acetic Anhydride
Bromobenzene
49
119
143
12
82
124
142
The above cartridge pairs were tested at 1000 ppm, 50% relative humidity, 22 C, and 53.3 1/min (equivalent to a
moderately heavy work rate). The time to achieve a 1% breakthrough is noted for each cartridge pair, cartridges
were preconditioned at room temperature and 50% relative humidity for at least 24 hours prior to testing. Table
from National Association of Safety & Health Professionals, Inc. 1994.
95
Decontamination
Process of removing or neutralizing contaminants that have accumulated on personnel or
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to develop a deontamination
plan and decontaminate workers without contaminating other workers.
equipment.
Decontamination Plan
 Required prior to site entry
 Must address:
 Are the chosen decontamination methods effective for the specific hazardous substances
present?
 Do the methods themselves pose any health or safety hazards?
 The number and placement of decontamination stations.
 The necessary decontamination equipment and methods.
 Standard Operating Proceduress to prevent contamination of clean area and to minimize
worker contact with contaminants during removal of PPE.
 Methods for disposing of clothing and equipment that may not be completely
decontaminated.
 Decontamination activities should be confined to a designated area within the
Contamination Reduction Zone.
 All personnel, clothing equipment, and samples leaving the contaminated area of a site
must be decontaminated to remove any harmful chemicals or infectious organisms that
may have adhered to them.
Decontamination Methods
 Physical removal of contaminants through loosening with soap and water, or evaporation.
 Iactivation of contaminants by chemical detoxification, neutralization, dissolving in solvent
or removal with surfactants.
96
 A combination of both physical and chemical means.
Recommended Equipment for Decontaminating Personnel and PPE
1) Plastic drop cloths for storing heavily contaminated equipment and outer protective
clothing,
2) Drums or suitably lined trash cans for storing disposable clothing and heavily contaminated
PPE that must be discarded, and for storing contaminated solutions,
3) Lined boxes with absorbents for rinsing off solid or liquid contaminants,
4) Washing and rinsing solutions selected to reduce contamination and the hazards
associated with contaminants,
5) Large galvanized tubs, stock tanks, or children’s wading pools to hold wash and rinse
solutions. These should be at least large enough for a worker to place both booted feet in,
and should have either no drain or be connected to a collection tank or appropriate
treatment system,
6) Plastic sheeting, sealed pads with drains, or other appropriate methods for containing and
collection contaminated wash and rinse solutions spilled during decontamination,
7) Long-handled, soft-bristled brushes to help wash and rinse off contaminants,
8) Paper or cloth towels for drying protective clothing and equipment,
9) Lockers and cabinets for storage of decontaminated clothing and equipment,
10) Shower facilities for full body wash or at a minimum, personal wash sinks (with drains
connected to a collection tank or appropriate treatment system).
Recommended Equipment for Decontaminating Large Equipment and Vehicles
 Tanks for temporary storage and/or treatment of contaminated wash and rinse solutions
 Drains or pumps for collecting contaminated wash and rinse solutions
 Long-handled brushes, rods, and shovels for dislodging contaminated soil caught in tires
and the undersides of vehicles and equipment and for general exterior cleaning
97
 Washing and rinsing solutions selected to remove and reduce the hazards associated with
contamination
 Pressurized sprayers for washing and rinsing, particularly for hard-to-reach areas
 Curtains, or spray booths to contain splashes from pressurized sprays
 Containers to hold contaminated soil removed from tires and the undersides of vehicles
and equipment
 Wash and rinse buckets for use in the decontamination of operator areas inside vehicles
and equipment
 Brooms and brushes for cleaning the insides of vehicles and equipment
 Containers for storage and disposal of contaminated wash and rinse solutions, damaged or
heavily contaminated parts, and equipment to be discarded
Evaluating Effectiveness of Decontamination
 Inspect for discolorations, stains, corrosive effects, and substances adhering to objects,
which indicate surface contamination,
 Swipe testing inner and outer surfaces of protective clothing,
 Determining permeation rates of contaminants into protective clothing.
98
Medical Surveillance (Monitoring)
Medical Surveillance
Objectives: By the end of this section, participants will be able to determine the medical
surveillance requirements for their operations.

Required for:

Employees who are, or may be, exposed to PELs of hazardous substances or health
hazards for 30 or more days/year;

Employees who wear a respirator for 30 or more days/year;

Members of organized HAZMAT teams;

Employees who are injured as a result of overexposure during a site emergency, or who
show symptoms of illness that may have resulted from exposure to hazardous
substances.
Monitoring Frequency

Pre-assignment baseline medical examination

Regular examinations annually or unless an attending physician believes a longer
interval is appropriate not to exceed 2 years

Termination examination (unless a regular examination was conducted within the last
six months)
99
Minimum Examination Types And Protocols
Examination Type
Baseline
Periodic
Termination
Unscheduled
X
X
History & Physical Exam
Complete Medical History
X
Physical Examination by
Physician
X
X
X
X
Visual Acuity
X
X
X
O
Pulmonary Function
X
X
X
O
Hearing Test
X
X
X
O
Electrocardiogram
X
O
X
O
Chest X-ray*
X
O
X
O
Complete Blood Count
X
X
X
O
Routine Urinalysis
X
X
X
O
Blood Chemistry
X
X
X
O
Cholinesterase
X
O
O
O
Methemoglobin
O
O
O
O
Heavy Metal Screen
X
O
O
O
Urine & Sputum Cytology
O
O
O
O
Polychlorinated Biphenyl
(PCB)
O
O
O
O
Cardiovascular Stress Test
X
O
O
O
Routine Lab
Tests/Procedures
Special Tests**
X
Recommended O As indicated
*
Chest X-rays not repeated more than once per year.**
Any special test which may be considered on a periodic basic should be included in the
baseline test. Source: Occupational Medical Monitoring Program Guidelines for SARA
Hazardous Waste Field Activity Personnel (EPA, 1990, Publication 9285.3-04)
100
Medical Record Maintenance

Must be maintained for at least 30 years after employment is terminated

Must include the name and Social Security number of the employee

The physician’s written opinions including recommended occupational limitations and
results of examinations and tests

Any employee medical complaints related to occupational hazardous substance
exposure

Copy of the material that the attending physician was provided before the examination.

The employer is responsible for retaining the records if the employee or physician
leaves the area or if the company moves, is acquired, or goes out of business.

Employers who maintain 11 or more employees must keep injury and illness records for
each establishment.
Common Signs & Symptoms of Chemical Overexposure
101

Behavior changes

Beathing difficulties

Changes in complexion or skin color

Coordination difficulties

Coughing

Dizziness

Drooling

Diarrhea

Fatigue and/or weakness

Irritability










102
Irritation of eyes, nose, respiratory
tract,skin or throat
Headache
Light-headedness
Nausea
Sneezing
Sweating
Tearing
Blurred vision
Cramps
Tightness of the chest
103
104
105
Physical Stress
By the end of this section, participants will recognize the various types of physical stress, their
symptoms, preventions and treatments.
106
Heat Stress
Category & Clinical
Features
Temperature Regulation
Heatstroke
Heatstroke: 1) Hot, dry skin:
usually red, mottled, or
cyanotic; 2) rectal temp.
40.5C (104F) and over; 3)
confusion, loss of
consciousness, convulsions,
rectal temp. Continues to
rise; fatal if treatment is
delayed
Predisposing Factors
Underlying
Physiological
Disturbance
Treatment
Prevention
1) Sustained exertion in heat
by unacclimatized workers;
2) lack of physical fitness
and obesity; 3) recent
alcohol intake; 4)
dehydration; 5) individual
susceptibility; and 6) chronic
cardiovascular disease
Failure of the central drive
for sweating (cause
unknown) leading to loss of
evaporative cooling and an
uncontrolled accelerating
rise in temperature; there
may be partial rather than
complete failure of
sweating.
Immediate and rapid cooling
by immersion in chilled
water with massage or by
wrapping in wet sheet with
vigorous fanning with cool
dry air; avoid overcooling;
treat shock if present.
Medical screening of
workers, selection based on
health and physical fitness;
acclimatization for 5-7 days
by graded work and heat
exposure; monitoring
workers during sustained
work in severe heat.
Pooling of blood in dilated
vessels of skin and lower
parts of the body
Remove to cooler area; Rest Acclimatization; intermittent
in recumbent position;
activity to assist venous
recovery prompt and
return to heart
complete
Circulatory Hypostasis
Heat Syncope
Lack of acclimatization
Fainting while standing erect
and immobile in heat
Category & Clinical
Features
Water &/or Salt Depletion
a) Heat Exhaustion 1)
Fatigue, nausea, headache,
giddiness; 2) ski clammy
and moist; complexion pale,
muddy, or hectic flush; 3)
may faint on standing with
rapid thready pulse and low
blood pressure; 4) oral
temperature normal or low,
but rectal temp. Usually
elevated (37.5-38.5C or
99.5-101.3F); water
restriction type; urine
volume small, highly
concentrated; salt restriction
type: urine less
concentrated chlorides less
than 3 g/l
b) Heat Cramps Painful
spasms of muscles used
during work (arms, legs, or
abdominal); onset during or
after work hours
Skin Eruptions
a) Heat Rash (miliaria rubra,
or “prickly heat”) Profuse
tiny raised red vesicles
(blister-like) on affected
areas; pricking sensations
during heat exposure
Predisposing Factors
Underlying
Physiological
Disturbance
Treatment
Prevention
1) Sustained exertion in
heat; 2) lack of
acclimatization; and 3) failure
to replace water lost in sweat
1) Dehydration from
deficiency of water; 2)
depletion of circulating
blood volume; 3) circulatory
strain from competing
demands for blood flow to
skin and to active muscles.
Remove to cooler
environment; Rest in
recumbent position;
administer fluids by mouth;
keep at rest until urine
volume indicates that water
balances have been
restored
Acclimatized workers using
a breaking-in schedule for 57 days; supplement dietary
salt only during
acclimatization; ample
drinking water to be
available at all times and to
be taken frequently during
work day
1) Heavy sweating during hot
work; 2) drinking large
volumes on water without
replacing salt loss
Loss of body salt in sweat,
water intake dilutes
electrolytes; water enters
muscles, causing spasm
Salted liquids by mouth, or
more prompt relief by IV
infusion
Adequate salt intake with
meals; for unacclimatized
workers, supplement salt
intake at meals
Unrelieved exposure to
humid heat with skin
continuously wet from
unevaporated sweat
Plugging of sweat gland
ducts with sweat retention
and inflammatory reaction
Mild drying lotions; skin
cleanliness to prevent
infection
Cool sleeping quarters to
allow skin to dry between
heat exposures
Category & Clinical
Features
b) Anhidrotic Heat
Exhaustion (miliaria
profunda) Extensive areas
of skin which do not sweat
on heat exposure, but
present gooseflesh
appearance, which subsides
with cool environments;
associated with
incapacitation in heat
Predisposing Factors
Underlying
Physiological
Disturbance
Weeks or months of constant
exposure to climatic heat
with previous history of
extensive heat rash and
sunburn
Skin trauma (heat rash;
sunburn) causes sweat
retention deep in skin;
reduced evaporative cooling
causes heat intolerance
No effective treatment
available for anhidrotic
areas of skin; recovery of
sweating occurs gradually
on return to cooler climate
Treat heat rash and avoid
further skin trauma be
sunburn; provide periodic
relief from sustained heat
Discomfort and physiologic
strain
Not indicated unless
accompanied by other heat
illness
Acclimatization and training
for work in the heat
Medical treatment for
serious causes; speedy
relief of symptoms on
returning home
Orientation on life in hot
regions (customs, climate,
living conditions, etc.)
Behavioral Disorders
a) Heat Fatigue - Transient
Performance decrement
Impaired performance of
greater in unacclimatized
skilled sensorimotor, mental, and unskilled worker
or vigilance tasks, in heat
b) Heat Fatigue - Chronic
Reduced performance
capacity; lowering of selfimposed standards of social
behavior (e.g., alcoholic
over indulgence); inability to
concentrate, etc.
Workers at risk come from
Psychosocial stresses
temperate climates for long
probably as important as
residence in tropical latitudes heat stress; may involve
hormonal imbalance but no
positive evidence
Treatment
Prevention
Cold Stress
Exposure to extreme cold can result in hypothermia. Field work during periods of low
temperatures and wind should be conducted to minimize the possibility of hypothermia. The
following protocols are to be followed:
1)
Workers should dress as warmly as possible using the principle of layering their clothing
to maximize protection.
2)
Careful attention should be used to wearing gloves when handling metal equipment.
3)
At the discretion of the safety officer, work tours will be limited to minimize exposure to
the cold.
4)
Warm shelter should be made available for workers during breaks. The use of vehicles
for warm shelter is discouraged due to the possibility of carbon monoxide exposure.
Hypothermia
The first symptoms of hypothermia are uncontrollable shivering and the sensation of cold; the
heartbeat slows and sometimes becomes irregular, the pulse weakens, and the blood pressure
changes. Severe shaking or rigid muscles may be caused by bursts of body energy and
changes in the body’s chemistry. Uncontrollable fits of shivering, vague or slow slurred
speech, memory lapses, incoherence and drowsiness are common of he symptoms that can
occur. Other symptoms that can be seen before complete collapse are cool skin, slow and
irregular breathing, low blood pressure, apparent exhaustion, and fatigue after rest.
As the core body temperature drops, the victim may become listless, confused, and make little
or no attempt to keep warm. Pain in the extremities can be the first warning of dangerous
exposure to cold, Sever shivering must be taken as a sign of Danger. If the body core
temperature reaches about 85F, significant and dangerous drops in blood pressure, pulse
rate, and respiration can occur. In some cases, the victim may die.
Frostbite
Frostbite can occur without hypothermia when the extremities do not receive sufficient heat
from central body stores. This can occur because of inadequate circulation and/or insulation.
Frostbite occurs when there is freezing of the fluids around the cells of the body tissues due to
extremely low temperatures. Frostbite may result in damage to and loss of tissue, and usually
affect the nose, cheeks, ears, fingers, and toes. Damage from frostbite can be serious. The
freezing point of skin is about 30F (-1C).
110
Frostbite Types
$
Frost nip (incipient frostbite): sudden blanching or whitening of skin, freezing
without blistering or peeling.
$
Superficial frostbite: skin has waxy or white appearance and is firm to touch but
underlying tissue is normal, freezing with blistering and peeling.
$
Deep frostbite: tissues are cold, pale and solid. This is very serious and usually
requires amputation, freezing with tissue death.
Symptoms of Frostbite

The first symptom of frostbite is an uncomfortable sensation of coldness, followed by
numbness. There may be tingling, stinging, aching, or cramping.

The skin changes color to white or grayish-yellow, then to reddish-violet, and finally
turns black as the tissue dies.

Pain may be felt at first, but subsides.

Blisters may appear.

The affected part is cold and numb.

When frostbite of the outer layer of skin occurs, the skin may have a waxy or whitish
look and is firm to the touch.

In cases of deep frostbite, the tissues are cold, pale, and solid. Injury is severe.
Under no circumstances should a person be given an alcoholic beverage to keep warm.
The safety officer should carefully observe workers for signs of hypothermia/frostbite.
111
Suggested Frequency of Physiological Monitoring For Fit And Acclimatized Workers(a)
Adjusted Temperature (B)
Normal Work Attire (C)
Impermeable Attire
90F (32.2C) or above
After each 45 mins, of
work
After each 15 mins of
work
87.5-90F (30.-32.2C)
After each 60 mins of work After each 30 mins of
work
82.5-87.5F (28.1-30.8C)
After each 90 mins of work After each 60 mins of
work
77.5-82.5F (25.3-28.1C)
After each 120 mins of
work
After each 90 mins of
work
72.5-77.5F (22.5-25.3C)
After each 150 mins of
work
After each 120 mins of
work
(a) For work levels of 250 kilocalories/hour.
(b) Calculate the adjusted air temperature (a adj F) = taF + (13X%sunshine).
Measure air temperature (ta) with a standard mercury-in-glass thermometer, with the bulb
shielded from radiant heat. Estimate % sunshine by judging what % time the sun is not
covered by clouds that are thick enough to produce a shadow. (100% sunshine = no cloud
cover and a sharp, distinct shadow: 0% sunshine = shadows)
(c) A normal work ensemble consists of cotton coveralls or other cotton clothing with long
sleeves and pants.
Source: Occupation Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities
(NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA, 1985).
112
Safe Work Practices
Objective: By the end of this section, participants will be able to recite safe work practices at
work sites.
Each employer is required by OSHA to furnish to each employee a place of employment which
is free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious
physical harm to his employees.
Some common injuries are falling, tripping, slipping, impacts, cuts, blows, electrical shock, and
insects/animals bits. Poor house keeping is the major cause of most injuries on the job.
Another potential cause of worker injury is inappropriate clothing. Loose clothing, long hair,
and jewelry (rings, necklaces, and watches) can be caught in machinery. A chemical
protective suit is cumbersome and uncomfortable. Clothing must be specific for the hazardous
situation. Use the appropriate level of personal protective clothing, not necessarily the highest
level.
Explosion and Fire
Explosions and fires at a hazardous waste site may occur for a variety of reasons.
Accidentally mixing incompatible chemicals could cause an intense exothermic reaction. A
spark or flame could be introduced into an oxygen-enriched or flammable atmosphere. The
movement or removal of tanks and drums could agitate shock-sensitive compounds or could
release materials stored under high pressure. The following precautions should be taken to
protect against the hazard: 1) have qualified personnel monitor for explosive atmospheres and
flammable vapors: 2) keep all potential ignition sources away from an explosive or flammable
environment: 3) use non-sparking, explosion-proof equipment: and 4) follow safe practices
when performing any task that might result in the agitation or release of chemicals.
Lower explosive limit (= Lower flammable limit) (LEL). The lowest concentration that is
explosive. If explosivity level is less than 10% lower explosive limit (LEL), continue monitoring
with caution. If level is exceeds 10% of LEL, Withdraw Immediately! OSHA does not permit
workers to be in an environment that exceeds 10% of the LEL except for initial assessment.
Immediately Dangerous to Life & Health (IDLH) Conditions
Oxygen Deficiency
Oxygen concentration below 20.8% (ambient concentration). Oxygen deficiency can be
expected in confined spaces (e.g., underground storage tanks, valleys, ditches, trenches,
basements of building, pipes) and stagnant ponds. OSHA requires supplied air when oxygen
113
concentration is less than 19.5%. Oxygen deficiency is caused by:

consumption by organisms or chemical reactions, especially oxidation (e.g., rust) and
fire, or

displacement by other gases.
O2 enrichment: Oxygen concentration exceeds 23.5%. Oxygen enrichment can produce
oxidation and increase the potential for fire.
% Oxygen
The physiological effects of oxygen deficiency.
19.5 - 16
16 - 12
No visible effects
Increased breathing rate. Accelerated heart beat. Impaired
attention, thinking and coordination.
Faulty judgment and poor muscular coordination. Muscular
exertion causing rapid fatigue. Intermittent respiration.
Nausea, vomiting, inability to perform vigorous movement, or loss
of the ability to move, unconsciousness, followed by death.
Difficulty breathing. Convulsive movements. Death in minutes.
14
- 10
10
-6
Below 6
Toxic Gases
The physiological effects of the following toxic gases are approximations and will vary
according to the health or activity of the individual exposed. These gases commonly occur in
confined spaces.
Carbon Monoxide: A colorless, odorless gas generated by the combustion of common fuels
with an insufficient supply of air or where combustion is incomplete. Called the silent killer, CO
poisoning may occur suddenly.
Concentration (ppm)
Physiological Effect
200 ppm for 3 hours
600 ppm for 1 hour
1000 ppm for 1 hour
Headache and discomfort
Headache and discomfort
Pounding of heart, dull headache, dizziness, flashes before eyes,
ringing in ears, nausea
Pounding of heart, dull headache, dizziness, flashes before eyes,
ringing in ears, nausea
Dangerous to life
Rapid collapse, unconsciousness and death within a few minutes.
500 ppm for 30 minutes
1500 ppm for one hour
4000 ppm
Hydrogen Sulfide: A colorless gas that smells like rotten eggs, but the odor cannot be taken as
114
a warning because sensitivity to smell disappears quickly after breathing only a small quantity
of the gas. It is often found in sewers. Hydrogen Sulfide is flammable and explosive in high
concentration. Sudden poisoning may cause unconsciousness and respiratory arrest. In less
sudden poisoning, symptoms are nausea, stomach distress, eye irritation, belching, coughing,
headache and blistering of the lips.
Concentration (ppm)
18 - 25
75 - 150 ppm for several hours
170 - 300 ppm for 1 hour
400 - 600 ppm for ½ -1 hour
1000 ppm
Physiological Effect
Eye irritation
Slight eye, respiratory irritation
Marked irritation
Unconsciousness, death
Fatal in minutes
Sulfur Dioxide: A pungent, irritating gas. 1 - 10 ppm results in respiratory and pulse rate
increase and depth of respiration decreases.
Ammonia: A strong irritant that can produce sudden death from bronchial spasms. Small
concentrations that do not produce severe irritation are rapidly passed through the respiratory
tract and metabolized so that they no longer act as ammonia. Ammonia can be explosive if
released onto an open flame.
Concentration (ppm)
Physiological Effect
300 - 500 for 30 -60 minutes
Maximum short exposure tolerance. Eye and
respiratory irritation
400 ppm
2500 - 6000 ppm for 30 min.
5000 - 10,000 ppm
Throat irritation
Dangerous to life
Fatal
Hydrogen Cyanide (Hydrocyanic Acid, HCN): An extremely rapid poison which interferes with
the respiratory system of the body’s cells and causes chemical asphyxia. Liquid HCN is an
eye and skin irritant.
Ionizing Radiation 29 CFR 1910.96
The potential for damage from radiation is dependent on four factors: the energy of the
radiation, the penetration ability of the radiation, the ionizing ability of the radiation, and the
chemical properties of the radiation. There is no known safe level of radiation exposure.
Radioactive materials emit one or more of three types of harmful radiation: alpha, beta, and
gamma. Alpha radiation has limited penetration ability and is usually stopped by clothing and
the outer layers of the skin. Alpha radiation poses little threat outside the body. Beta radiation
can cause harmful “beta burns” to the skin and damage the subsurface blood system. Both
115
alpha and beta radiation can be hazardous if radioactive materials emitting alpha or beta
radiation are introduced into the body. Use of protective clothing combined with scrupulous
personal hygiene and decontamination provides good protection against alpha and beta
radiation. Gamma radiation passes easily through clothing and human tissue and can also
cause serious permanent damage to the body. Chemical-protective clothing affords no
protection against gamma radiation. In addition to the three types of nuclear radiation there is
neutron radiation. Neutrons lose their energy mostly by colliding with protons in the nucleus of
hydrogen atoms. When a neutron has lost enough energy, it can be “captured” by a nucleus
making the target atom radioactive. The radioactive atoms then emit alpha, beta, or gamma
radiation in their attempt to become more stable.
The energy of the radiation is measured in rads (an abbreviation for radiation absorbed
doses). However, because rads are not equal in their biological damage potential, they are
converted into rems (an abbreviation for roentgen equivalent for man) which represents the
potential for damage to human tissue. For gamma rays and beta particles, 1 rad of exposure
results in 1 rem. of dose. For alpha particles, 1 rad of exposure results in approximately 20
rem of dose. For neutrons, 1 rad of exposure results in approximately 10 rem of dose.
The chemical properties of the radiation refers to the ability of the radiation-producing chemical
to be incorporated into the body. (e.g., because Strontium is similar to Calcium it is readily
incorporated into bones).
If levels of radiation above natural background levels are discovered, a health physicist should
be consulted. At levels greater than one mem. per hour, all site activities should cease until
the site has been assessed by health physicists.
Radiation Categories
Radiation Types
Penetration Potential
Ionization Potential
alpha
beta
gamma
neutrons
stopped by skin, thin material
1 cm into tissue
deep into tissue
deep
high
moderate
low
very low
116
Effects of Short-Term Exposures to Radiation
Dose (rem)
Clinical Effect
0-25
25-50
100-200
500
Nondetectable
Temporary decreases in white blood cell counts
Strong decrease in white blood cell counts
Death of half the exposed population within 30 days after exposure
Typical Radiation Exposures for a Person Living in the United States (mrems/year)
Source
Cosmic radiation
From the earth
From building materials
In human tissues
Inhalation of air
Total from natural sources
Exposure
50
47
3
21
5
126
X-ray diagnosis
Radiotherapy X rays, radioisotopes
Internal diagnosis and therapy
Nuclear power industry
Luminous watch dials, TV tubes, industrial wastes
Radioactive fallout
50
10
1
0.2
2
4
Total from human activities
67
Grand Total
193
The effects of acute radiation doses greater than approximately 100 rem are collectively
known as acute radiation sickness, the symptoms include: changes in blood cells, vascular
changes, skin irritation, gastrointestinal systems effects, radiation sickness (nausea,
vomiting, high fever), hair loss, and burns. The severity and course of the acute radiation
sickness depend on how much total dose is received, how much of the body is exposed
and the radiosensitivity of the exposed individual. The symptoms of acute doses usually
appear within the first one or two weeks after the radiation is received.
Any organism will die if it is exposed to too much radiation. For some people, exposures
above 200 rems to the whole body may be lethal. At 350 rems, perhaps 5% of the
exposed group would die within a month without medical attention. At 450 rems, half of
the exposed group would probably die without medical attention. At 650 rems, most would
die without intense medical care.
117
Hair loss results from the destruction of hair follicles in the skin. Hair loss may be
temporary or permanent depending on the dose.
Skin irritation is another effect likely to occur from acute exposures to radiation. A tingling
sensation of the skin and some reddening may persist for a couple of days after exposure.
This response is typical of a sunburn and the dead skin cells are obvious from the peeling
of skin after the burn. But unlike sunburn, the irritation will return after some time has
passed and persist for about three weeks. More severe skin burn and blistering occur
after higher exposures.
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and anorexia are common symptoms of early radiation
sickness. The symptoms appear within minutes to hours after exposure to supra lethal
(more than fatal) and sublethal (less than fatal) doses, respectively. Later symptoms may
include: malaise, fatigue, drowsiness, weight loss, fever, abdominal pain, insomnia,
restlessness, and blisters. Changes in the formation or production of blood cells may
occur when individuals are exposed to large amounts of radiation such as 300 to 500
rems. The individual initially suffers from nausea and vomiting and may appear to recover
in about three days. At this level of exposure, blood cells essential for fighting infections
are greatly reduced in number. In two to three weeks, symptoms including chills, fatigue,
and ulceration of the mouth will appear. Susceptibility to infection is greatly increased
during this period and may cause death, even with medical care.
If an individual receives over 500 rems of acute radiation dose, damage to the stomach
lining and intestine may occur. The high doses of radiation may cause structural changes
to the gastrointestinal tract including decreased absorption, ulceration, and dehydration. If
the individual suffers from severe infection, fluid loss, blood loss or circulator collapse,
death may occur within seven days.
Acute doses of more than 1,000 rems cause irreparable damage to the central nervous
system cells. Terminal symptoms may include over-excitability, lack of coordination,
breathing difficulty, and occasional periods of disorientation. At these doses, death will
probably occur within two or three days at most.
One of the most serious delayed effects of exposure to nuclear radiation is the increased
risk of cancer. Acute radiation exposure contributes only a limited increase to cancer risk.
Acute exposure of 200 rads or more can induce the formation of vision-impairing
cataracts. Exposure to 100 rads over a period of months can also cause cataracts.
118
Biological Hazards
Blood borne Pathogens: Microorganisms present in human blood that can cause disease
in humans. These include, but are not limited to hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Exposure to Blood borne Pathogens should be minimized
and is regulated under 29 CFR 1910.1030.
Exposure Incident: A specific eye, mouth, other mucous membrane, non-intact skin, or
parenteral contact with blood or other potential infectious material.
Occupational Exposure: A reasonably anticipated skin, eye, mucous membrane, or
parenteral contact with blood or other potentially infectious material .
Parenteral: A piercing of mucous membranes or the skin barrier by means of a needle
stick, human bite, cut, and/or abrasion.
Potentially Infectious Materials: Materials that may be present in a first aid emergency
include blood, urine or other body fluids, and vomit especially when blood is visible.
Pathogens: Pathogens are foreign viruses and microbes (e.g., bacteria, fungi, and
protozoa) that can cause disease. Pathogens may be antigens and promote production of
antibodies.
The body has five nonspecific defense responses to invasion by foreign pathogens:
 Intact skin that few bacteria can penetrate.
 Ciliated, mucous membranes that line the respiratory tract and act like sticky brooms to
sweep out bacteria and nonliving particulate.
 Secretions from exocrine glands in surface epithelium that can degrade the cell walls of
many bacteria.
 Gastric fluid in the stomach that can destroy numerous pathogens.
 Microbes that normally inhabit the gut and (in females) the vagina. They compete
effectively with many types of microbial invaders and thereby help keep them in check.
When a new pathogen breaks through the nonspecific defenses, macrophages and Helper
T cells promote antibodies produced by the B cells that bind to an antigen and signal to
macrophages to engulf the antigen. After the encounter, memory cells remain that
remember the characteristics of that particular antigen (or similar antigens). If these
memory cells encounter these antibodies again, they promote development of Killer T cells
that destroy the antigen.
A vaccine works by exposing the person to a weakened or non pathogenic antigen that
initiates development of antibodies and memory T and B cells. If the person then
encounters the "real antigen", memory cells will be able to develop new Killer T Cells that
119
can quickly attack the antigen.
Cowpox vaccine is similar enough to Smallpox virus that antibodies and memory cells
specific to cowpox will also recognize smallpox. Cowpox by itself produces a mild illness.
There is no effective influenza (flu) vaccine because flu viruses mutate so fast that the
antibodies of one virus will not recognize others.
HIV is deadly because it attacks the helper T Cells as well as macrophages. A host cell
can harbor the viral DNA for months, even years, but when the body is called upon to
make a secondary immune response, the infected cell may be activated. In replicating, it
produces more HIV virus particles, which infect more T Cells so that more and more T
cells are destroyed through new rounds of infection. In time, the T cell population is
depleted and the body loses its ability to mount immune responses.
The provisions of 29 CFR 1910.1030 require employers to develop an Exposure Control
Plan. This program must address:









The determination of which employees could be potentially exposed by.
Training requirements.
General work practices.
Engineering controls.
What PPE should be worn.
Housekeeping techniques.
Recordkeeping to include hepatitis B vaccination status.
Communication of Hazards including labels.
Steps to be taken in the event of an exposure incident.
Electrical Hazards
One potential hazard that results from a variety of sources is electrocution. Overhead
power lines, downed electrical wires, and buried cables all pose a danger of shock or
electrocution if workers come into contact with or sever them during site operations.
Electrical equipment used on-site may also pose a hazard to workers. Low-voltage
equipment with ground-fault interrupters and water tight, corrosion-resistant connecting
cables should be used on-site to minimize electrical hazards. Lightning is a hazard during
outdoor operations, particularly for workers handling metal containers or equipment. To
eliminate this hazard, weather conditions should be monitored and work be suspended
during electrical storm.
OSHA regulates electrical work in 29 CFR 1910.399 and training in 1910.332.
Dynamic electricity is the flow of electrons through a conductor. An electron is a tiny
particle of matter that orbits around the nucleus of an atom. Electrons of some atoms are
120
easily moved out of their orbits. This ability of electrons to move or flow is the basis of
current electricity. Current flows from the generating source through conductors to the
area of demand. A complete circuit is necessary for the controlled flow of electrons along
a conductor. A complete circuit is made up of a source of electricity, a conductor, and a
consuming device (load).
Volts = Current X Resistance ( or V = IR) Ohm's Law
This relationship makes it possible to change the qualities of a electrical current but keep
an equivalent amount of power. A force or pressure must be present before water will flow
through a pipeline. Similarly, electrons flow through a conductor because electromotive
force (EMF) is exerted. The unit of measure for EMF is volt. For electrons to move in a
particular direction, a potential difference must exist between 2 points of the EMF source.
The continuous movement of electrons past a given point is know as current. It is
measured in amperes. The movement of electrons along a conductor meets with some
opposition, resistance, which is measured in ohms. The amount of resistance provided by
different materials varies widely.
The primary hazards of electricity and its use are shock, burns, arc-blast, explosions and
fires.
Safe Work Practices for Working With Electrical Equipment.








Maintain all equipment properly
Use safety features like three-prong plugs, double-insulated tools, and safety switches.
Install or repair only if qualified and authorized to do so.
Keep electric cables and cords clean and free from kinks. Never carry equipment by
its cords.
Use extension cords only when flexibility is necessary. Never: use them as substitutes
for fixed wiring; run them through holes in walls, ceilings, floors, doorways, or windows;
use them where they are concealed behind walls, ceilings, or floors.
Do not touch water, damp surfaces, ungrounded metal, or any bare wires if not
protected. Wear approved rubber gloves when working with live wires or ungrounded
surfaces, rubber-soled shoes or boots when working on damp or wet surfaces.
Don’t wear metal objects when working with electricity.
If working near overhead power lines of 50 kilo-Volts or less, all equipment must not
come any closer than 10 feet form the lines. Add 4 inches for every 10 kilo-Volts over
50 kilo-Volts.
Lockout / Tagout
The Lock/Tagout standards are found in 29 CFR 1910.147, this standard includes the
guide lines for training, audits, and recordkeeping to ensure that workers will not be injured
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by unintentionally energized equipment. (Turning on the power to a piece of equipment
while it is being worked on or around.) Some of the problems of hazardous energy
include:
 Accidental start-up
 Electrical shock
 Release of stored, residual, or potential energy
Lockout is the process of blocking the flow of energy from a power source to a piece of
equipment, and keeping it blocked out. A lockout device is installed at the power source
so equipment powered by that source cannot be operated. A lockout device is a lock,
block, or chain that keeps a switch, valve, or lever in the off position.
Tagout is the placement of a tagout device (a tag or other prominent warning device and a
means of attachment) on an energy isolation device to indicate the equipment being
controlled may not be operated until the tagout device is removed. The lockout device
shall be used unless the employer can demonstrate that the utilization of a tagout system
will provide full employee protection. The tagout device shall be non-reusable, attached
by hand, self-lock, and non-releasing with a minimum unlocking strength of no less than
50 pounds and must be at least equivalent to an all-environment tolerant nylon cable tie.
The standard requires that employers develop written energy control programs that clearly
and specifically explains all procedures for lockout/tagout. They must include:
$ The intended use of the procedure
$ How to shut down, isolate, block, and secure machines or equipment to control
hazardous energy.
$ Sequence to place, remove, and transfer lockout or tagout devices and who is
responsible for them.
$ Steps to test a machine or equipment to make sure it is locked or tagged out.
A wide variety of energy sources require lockout/tagout program. These sources include
electrical, mechanical, pneumatic (involving gases, especially air), hydraulic (involving
fluids, specially water), chemical, thermal, water under pressure (or steam), gravity, and
potential.
Noise Hazards 29 CFR 1910.95
Many job sites expose workers to loud and continuous noise. Noise can make verbal
communication difficult to impossible, and cause permanent hearing loss. OSHA’s
Permissible Noise Exposure values represent noise levels over which workers may not be
exposed without risking adverse hearing effects. These values should be used as guide
and should not be regarded as fine lines between safe and dangerous levels.
Permissible Noise Exposures
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Duration per day
(hours)
8
6
4
3
2
1½
1
½
¼
Sounds level dBA
(Slow response)
90
92
95
97
100
102
105
110
115
Note: When daily noise exposure is composed of two or more periods of noise exposure of
different levels, their combined effect should be considered, rather than the individual
effect of each. If the sum of the following fractions:
C1 + C2 ..... Cn
T1 T2
Tn
exceeds unity, then, the mixed exposure should be considered to exceed the limit value.
Cn indicates the total time of exposure at a specified noise level, permitted at that level.
Continuous and Intermittent Noise
Currently, the OSHA-Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for an 8-hour work day, 40-hour
work week is 90 decibels, as recorded on a sound level meter on the A weighted scale
(dBA). If the 8-hour time weighted average noise exposures equal or exceed 85 dBA. As
a general rule of thumb, if an individual’s voice must be raised to converse at a distance of
three feet, the noise level probably exceeds 85dB. At the very least, this is an indication
that monitoring should be conducted.
Should the noise level monitoring determine that employees are being subjected to levels
equaling or exceeding the 85dB action level, an audio testing program for the exposed
must be implemented, hearing protectors and a training program must be implemented,
with annual refresher.
Threshold Limit Values For Impulsive or Impact Noise
Sound Level dB*
140
Permitted Number of Impulses
100
123
Or Impacts per Day
130
120
1000
10,000
Both sound levels meters and noise dosimeters are usually capable of measuring decibels
in two or three different frequency scales. Frequency refers to the number of vibrations
per second a noise contains; it is measured in hertz (Hz). The frequency scales are
known as the A scale, the B scale, and the C scale. OSHA requires that noise
measurements be conducted using the A scale, which most closely resembles the human
ear.
Confined Space Entry
OSHA Definition (29 CFR 1910.146(b): Means a space that is large enough and so
configured that an employee can bodily enter and perform assigned work; and has limited
or restricted means for entry or exit (for example, tanks, vessels, silos, storage bins,
hoppers, vaults, and pits are spaces that may have limited means of entry.); and is not
designed for continuous employee occupancy.
OSHA Definition (29 CFR 1926.21(b)(6)(ii): Means any space having a limited means of
egress, which is subject to the accumulation of toxic or flammable contaminants or has an
oxygen deficient atmosphere. Confined or enclosed spaces include, but are not limited to,
storage tanks, process vessels, bins, boilers, ventilation or exhaust ducts, sewers,
underground utility vaults, tunnels, pipelines, and open top spaces more than 4 feet in
depth such as pits, tubs, vaults, and vessels
NIOSH Definition (Publication No. 80-106): Refers to a space which by design has limited
openings for entry and exit: unfavorable natural ventilation which could contain or produce
dangerous air contaminants, and which is not intended for continuous employee
occupancy. Confined spaces include but are not limited to storage tanks, compartments
of ships, process vessels, pits, silos, vats, degreasers, reaction vessels, boilers, ventilation
and exhaust ducts, sewers, tunnels, underground utility vaults, and pipelines.
Two types of confined spaces: Non-permit-required confined spaces and permit-required
confined space.
Permit-required confined space (29 CFR 1910.146): A confined space has one or more of
the following characteristics:
1) Contains or has a potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere;
2) Contains a material that has the potential for engulfing an entrant;
3) Has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated by
inwardly converging walls or by a floor which slopes downward and tapers to a smaller
cross-section; or
4) Contains any other recognized serious safety or health hazard.
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Some examples of potential or existing work area hazards that have the potential to cause
injuries, illness, or property damage are: unguarded openings, high or low temperatures,
poor illumination, sharp edges, steam, compressed gases and liquids, flammable or
combustible materials, and mechanical or electrical exposures. When dealing with
hazards that cannot be eliminated or controlled, adequate PPE should be used.
Non-permit confined spaces are not regulated by 29 CFR 1910.146. They are spaces the
do not contain, or with respect to atmospheric hazards, have the potential to contain any
hazard capable of causing death or serious physical harm.
Confined Space Entry Program
There are several steps an employer should follow when beginning a confined space
program. The first is to evaluate the workplace and determine whether it contains permitrequired spaces as defined by OSHA. If permit-required confined spaces are identified the
employer must inform employees by posting signs, and the employer must develop and
implement a written permit space entry program.
The permit space entry program must:
1) Identify and evaluate permit space hazards before entry;
2) Establish and implement means to prevent unauthorized entry;
3) Establish and implement means to eliminate or control hazards necessary for safe
entry by:
a) Specifying acceptable entry conditions;
b) Isolating the space; (lock / tagout system)
c) Purging, inerting, flushing or continuously ventilating the permit space as necessary
to eliminate or control atmospheric hazards. [ If ventilation alone can make a
confined space safe for entry, then one only needs to comply with the requirements
of 29 CFR 1910.146(c)5)(i) and ii), otherwise, one needs to comply with all sections
of 29 CFR 1910.146.
4) Provide, maintain, and require the use of personal protective equipment necessary for
safe entry.
5) Require testing of atmospheric conditions inside the space before entry. Tests must be
conducted for:
a) O2 deficiency (i.e., O2 concentration below 19.5%) and O2 enrichment (O2
concentration above 23.5%.
b) Explosivity (i.e., an LEL > 10%)
c) IDLH
d) Toxins that may be present
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Hazardous Atmosphere: A confined space atmosphere that may expose employees to
the risk of death, incapacitation, impairment of ability to self-rescue (that is, escape
unaided from a permit space), injury, or acute illness from one or more of the following
causes:
i) Flammable gas, vapor, or mist in excess of 10% of its lower flammable limit (LFL);
ii) Airborne combustible dust at a concentration that meets or exceeds its LFL. Note:
This concentration may be approximated as a condition in which the dust obscures
vision at a distance of 5 feet or less.
iii) Atmospheric oxygen concentration below 19.5 % or above 23.5 %.
iv) Atmospheric concentration of any substance for which a dose or a permissible
exposure limit is published in Subpart G, Occupational Health and Environmental
Control, or in Subpart Z, Toxic and Hazardous Substances, of this part and which
could result in employee exposure in excess of its dose or permissible exposure
limit;
Note: An atmospheric concentration of any substance that is not capable of causing
death, incapacitation, impairment or ability to self-rescue, injury, or acute illness due to
its health effects is not covered by this provision.
v) Any other atmospheric condition that is immediately dangerous to life or health.
6) Ensure that at least one attendant is stationed outside during entry;
7) Coordinate with any contractors used;
8) Implement rescue procedures;
9) Establish, in writing, the permit system;
10) Review the permit system annually.
Each employee entering a confined space should wear a safety belt equipped with a lifeline for evacuation purposes in case of an emergency. If the entry is through a top
opening, the safety belt should be of the harness type that will suspend a person in an
upright position. Emergency equipment such as life-lines, safety harnesses, fire
extinguishers, breathing equipment, and other devices appropriate to the situation should
be ready and immediately available. All persons engaged in the activity should be trained
in the use of the life support system rescue system and emergency equipment. In keeping
with the buddy system, at least one person, trained in first aid and respiration, should be
immediately available outside the confined space to provide assistance if needed, utilizing
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a planned and immediately available communications means.
Why are confined spaces dangerous?
1) By-products of previously stored materials or chemicals can often leach back out of the
walls, changing the composition of the confined space environment.
2) Accidental leaks of spills such as substances as ammonia, acetylene, acids or even
water can create a variety of hazards within a confined space. Including fumes,
vapors, explosions, or increase the likelihood of “slip, trip and fall” accidents.
3) Chemical reactions from cleaning solutions.
4) Oxidation such as rusting of metals or the rotting, decomposition and fermentation of
organic materials can deplete oxygen levels as can the human respiration in a confined
space.
5) Mechanical operations such as welding, painting, cleaning, scraping or sandblasting
can generate confined space hazards.
6) Inerting activities such as using non-flammable products like carbon dioxide, helium
and nitrogen may displace oxygen within a confined space.
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Illumination Requirements (29 CFR 1926.56)
Minimum intensity allowed during a hazardous waste operation:
Illumination
(Foot-candles)
Operation
5
3
General site areas.
Excavation and waste areas, access ways, active storage
areas, loading platforms,
Refueling and field maintenance areas
Indoors. Warehouses, corridors, hallways & exit ways.
Tunnels, shafts and general underground ward areas
(Exception: Minimum of 10 foot-candles is required at tunnel
and shaft heading during drilling, mucking and scaling).
General shops (e.g. mechanical and electrical equipment
rooms, active storerooms, barracks or living quarters, locker or
dressing rooms, dining areas, and indoor toilets and
workrooms.)
First aid stations, infirmaries, and offices.
5
5
5
10
30
Sanitation at temporary workplaces (29 CFR 1910.141)
Potable Water Regulations
1. Maintain an adequate supply on site.
2. Ensure that portable container dispensers are capable of being tightly closed, equipped
with a tap and clearly marked as to it’s contents and purpose.
Nonpotable Water Regulations
1) Clearly indicate that it is unsafe and is not to be used for drinking, washing, or cooking
purposes.
2) Do not cross-connect a system furnishing potable water and a system furnishing
nonpotable water.
Toilet Facility Regulations
1) Provide the minimum number of facilities per number of employees.
2) Assure that at least one toilet facility is available under temporary field conditions.
3) Provide alternative toilet facilities when hazardous waste sites are not equipped with a
sanitary sewer such as chemical toilets, recirculating toilets. combustion toilets or flush
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toilets.
4) Provide doors entering toilet facilities with entrance locks controlled from inside the
facility.
5) If you are in a mobile crew having transportation readily available to nearby toilet
facilities, these toilet facilities regulations do not apply.
Food Handling Requirements
All food service facilities and operations must meet the food ordinances and regulations of
the jurisdictions in which the operations are located.
Washing Facilities Requirements
1) Must be provided by employer.
2) Must be located in an area controlled by the employer that is close to the work site and
where exposure is below hazardous levels.
3) Must be equipped so workers can remove hazardous substances from themselves.
Shower and Change Room Requirements
1) Must be provided on site at the initiation of a hazardous waste operation when the
duration of the work will be six months or longer.
2) Must consist of two separate change areas separated by shower area including one
change area with an exit leading off site to provide workers with a clean area where
they can remove, store, and put on street clothing and a second area with an exit to the
work site to provide workers with an area where they an put on, remove and store work
clothing and PPE.
3) Must be located in areas where exposures are below hazardous levels and is this
cannot be done, ventilation must be provided that supplies air below hazardous levels.
4) Before a worker can leave the hazardous waste site, it is the responsibility of the
employer to make sure the worker showers.
Other Common Applicable OSHA Standards
OSHA Act, Section 5(a)1): General Duty Clause
Under the “General Duty” clause of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970,
section 5 (a) (1) states that each employer “shall furnish to each of his employees
employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are
causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees.”
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29 CFR 1904.2: Log and Summary of Occupational Illnesses and Injuries
This regulation requires that each employer maintain a log of all recordable occupational
injuries and illnesses and that the information be recorded in the log within 6 working days
of the receipt of the information. Form OSHA No. 200 or its equivalent is to be used for
this purpose.
29 CFR 1910.2 Access to Employee Exposure and Medical Records
An employer must provide exposure and medical records to an employee or designated
representative within 15 days after the request for access to record. If the employee
requests copies of this information,
the employer must make the copies available to the employee at no cost. All employee
medical records must be maintained for the duration of employment plus 30 yrs. by the
employer.
29 CFR 1910.24: Fixed Industrial Stairs
This section contains specifications for the safe design and construction of fixed general
industrial stairs, This classification includes interior and exterior stairs around machinery,
tanks, and other equipment, and stairs leading to or from floors, platforms, or pits.
29 CFR 1910.27: Fixed Ladders
This regulation includes information on design requirements, specific features, appropriate
clearances, special requirements (e.g., use of cages for ladder heights greater than 20
feet), and appropriate pitch when using a fixed ladder.
29 CFR 1910.28: Safety Requirements for Scaffolding
This regulation provides safety requirements for the construction, operation, maintenance,
and use of the approximately 20 types of scaffolding.
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29 CFR 1910.38: Employee Emergency Plans and Fire Prevention Plans
This regulation applies to all emergency action plans and fire prevention plans required by
particular OSHA standards. With the exception of employers with 10 fewer employees,
both the emergency action plan and the fire prevention plan are required in writing. The
required elements of each of these plans are provided in the regulation. It the employer
has 10 or fewer employees, the elements of both types of plans must be provided orally to
the employees. The employer shall also perform housekeeping and maintenance of
equipment and systems as part of the fire prevention plan.
29 CFR 1910.133 Eye and Face Protection
Eye and face protection is required when there is the potential for on-site injury. Particular
information on goggles, spectacles, and face protection is included in this regulation.
Design, construction, testing, and use of such devices must be in accordance with ANSI
Z87.1-1968 specifications.
29 CFR 1910.134 Respiratory Protection
Prior to wearing a respirator, an employees should be certified as medically able to wear
one. Each employer should have a written respiratory protection plan for selection and
use of respirators. All employees must receive training in the proper use of a respirator.
29 CFR 1910.135 Occupational Head Protection
On-site situations requiring head protection include: presence of over head objects, on-site
operation of heavy equipment, potential for flying objects in the work area, and possible
electric shock hazard. In addition to protecting workers from falling or flying objects, head
protection affords limited protection from electric shock and burn. Head protection must
meet ANSI Z89.1-1969 specifications.
29 CFR 1910.136 Occupational Foot Protection
Safety toe footwear for employees must meet ANSI 41.1-1967 specifications for Men’s
Safety Toe Footwear. In general, workers at hazardous waste sites must wear leather or
rubber boots with steel toes and steel shanks.
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29 CFR 1910.151: Medical Services and First Aid
If a medical facility is not located in proximity to the workplace, there shall be a person or
persons on-site with adequate first-aid training. First-aid supplies approved by a consulting
physician shall be available on-site. If there is the potential for corrosive materials on-site,
suitable facilities shall be available for drenching of eyes and skin.
29 CFR 1910.165: Employee Alarm Systems
The employee alarm system shall be recognizable to all on-site employees. The signal
from the employee alarm system shall be audible to employees in the event of a need to
warn employees of an evacuation from work areas.
29 CFR 1910.181: Derricks
Derricks attached to drill rigs must be periodically inspected. This regulation defines nine
different types of derricks. Specific information is provided on inspection; frequency of
inspection; lead ratings; rope use and inspection; fire extinguisher use; operation near
power lines; and operating enclosures.
29 CFR 1910.252: Welding, Cutting, and Brazing
Detailed regulation exist for various types of welding, cutting, and brazing operations.
There regulations provide specific information on types of gases pressures, operations
and maintenance, and safety procedures.
29 CFR 1926.57: Ventilation
Whenever dust, fumes, mists, vapor, or gases exist or are produced in the course of
construction work, their concentrations must not exceed limits specified on 29 CFR
1926.55(a). When ventilation is used, the system must be installed and operated
according to the requirements of this section.
29 CFR 1926.151 (a)3): Fire Prevention
Electrical equipment and wiring for light, heat, or other power purposes must be installed
in accordance with the National Electrical Code requirements, NFPA 70-1971; an ANSZ
CI-197. Also, smoking is prohibited at or in the vicinity of operations which constituted a
fire hazard. “No Smoking” or “Open Flame” signs must be posted. In general, smoking
should be limited to designated area within the “support Zone” at a hazardous waste site.
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This will minimize the fire hazard as well as the transfer of contaminants to smokers’
mouths.
29 CFR 1926.200: Accident Prevention Signs and Tags
This regulation contains specific information on color, size shape, and placement of
danger, caution, exit, safety instruction, directional, accident prevention, and traffic signs.
29 CFR 1926.301: Hand Tools
Special attention should be paid to the use of safe hand tools. For example, wooden tool
handles must be kept free of splinters or cracks and impact tools, such as wedges and
chisels, must be kept free of mushroomed heads. Also, wrenches must not be used when
jaws are sprung to the point that slippage occurs.
29 CFR 1926.651: Specific Excavation Requirements
Specific information on locating underground utilities; using support systems; securing
sides, sided, slopes, and faces; using seals, benches, rock bolts, and wire meshes; taking
precautions for work adjacent to previously backfilled areas; diverting water flows from
excavated areas; using explosives appropriately; using dust control techniques; and using
ladders and ramps is provided in this regulation.
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Drum Handling
Objective: By the end of this section, participants will be able to identify safe handling
procedures of drums.
Regulations defining practices and procedures for safe handling of drums and other
hazardous waste containers include OSHA regulations (29 CFR part 1910.120(j) and part
1926) for worker safety, EPA regulations (40 CFR Parts 264 and 265) for container
requirements, and DOT regulations (49 CFR parts 171 through 178) for shipment of
hazardous wastes.
Prior to handling, drums should be inspected visually to identify their contents. Information
that may be helpful includes:
1)
Symbols, words, or other marks on the drum indicating that its contents are
hazardous;
2)
Symbols, words, or other marks indicating that the drum contains discarded
laboratory chemicals, reagents, or other potentially dangerous materials in smallvolume individual containers;
3)
Signs of deterioration such as corrosion, rust, and leaks;
4)
Signs that the drum is under pressure; and
5)
6)
Configuration of the drumhead. For example, if the whole lid of the drum can be
removed, then it was designed to contain solid material; if the lid has a bung, then the
drum was intended for liquids. If the drumhead contains a liner, the drum may likely
contain highly corrosive or otherwise hazardous materials.
Note the ground conditions in the vicinity of the drums.
7)
Labels may not be an indication of the true contents of a drum. Look for signs of reuse. Always assume an unlabeled drum is hazardous until analysis proves otherwise
8)
Noting the type of drum also may be useful for identifying potential hazards.
Polyethylene or PVC-lined drums often contain strong acids or bases. If the lining is
punctured, the substance usually quickly corrodes the steel, and may cause a
significant leak or spill. Exotic metal drums (e.g., aluminum, nickel, stainless steel) are
very strong and expensive, and are often used to store extremely dangerous materials.
Single-walled drums used as a pressure vessel have fittings for both the storage
product and for an inert gas. These drums may contain reactive, flammable, or
explosive substances.
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9)
Laboratory packs are used for disposal of expired chemicals and process samples
from university laboratories, hospitals, and similar institutions. Individual containers
within the lab pack often are not packed in absorbent material. They may contain
incompatible materials, radioisotopes, or shock-sensitive, highly volatile, highly
corrosive, or highly toxic exotic chemicals. Laboratory packs are a potential ignition
source for fires at hazardous waste sites.
Drum Handling Requirements of 29 CFR 1910.120(j)
1)
i)
Hazardous substances and contaminated, liquids and other residues shall be
handled, transported, labeled, and disposed of in accordance with this paragraph.
ii) Drums and containers used during the clean-up shall meet the appropriate DOT,
OSHA, and EPA regulations for the wastes that they contain.
iii) When practical, drums and containers shall be inspected and their integrity shall be
assured prior to being moved. Drums or containers that cannot be inspected before
being moved because of storage conditions (i.e., buried beneath the earth, stacked
behind other drums, stacked several tiers high in a pile, etc.) shall be moved to an
accessible location and inspected prior to further handling.
iv) Unlabeled drums and containers shall be considered to contain hazardous
substances and handled accordingly until the contents are positively identified and
labeled.
v) Site operations shall be organized to minimize the amount of drum or container
movement.
vi) Prior to movement of drums or containers, all employees exposed to the transfer
operation shall be warned of the potential hazards associated with the contents of
the drums or containers.
vii) U.S. Department of Transportation specified salvage drums or containers and
suitable quantities of proper absorbent shall be kept available and used in areas
where spills, leaks, or ruptures may occur.
viii)
Where major spills may occur, a spill containment program, which is part of
the employer's safety and health program required in paragraph (b) of this
section, shall be implemented to contain and isolate the entire volume of the
hazardous substance being transferred.
ix) Drums and containers that cannot be moved without rupture, leakage, or spillage
shall be emptied into a sound container using a device classified for the material
being transferred.
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x) A ground-penetrating system or other type of detection system or device shall be
used to estimate the location and depth of buried drums or containers.
xi) Soil or covering material shall be removed with caution to prevent drum or container
rupture.
xii) Fire extinguishing equipment meeting the requirements of 29 CFR Part 1910,
Subpart L, shall be on hand and ready for use to control incipient fires.
2)
Opening drums and containers. The following procedures shall be followed in areas
where drums or containers are being opened:
i) Where an airline respirator system is used, connections to the source of air supply
shall be protected from contamination and the entire system shall be protected from
physical damage.
ii) Employees not actually involved in opening drums or containers shall be kept a
safe distance from the drums or containers being opened.
iii) If employees must work near or adjacent to drums or containers being opened, a
suitable shield that does not interfere with the work operation shall be placed
between the employee and the drums or containers being opened to protect the
employee in case of accidental explosion.
iv) Controls for drum or container opening equipment, monitoring equipment, and fire
suppression equipment shall be located behind the explosion-resistant barrier.
v) When there is a reasonable possibility of flammable atmospheres being present,
material handling equipment and hand tools shall be of the type to prevent sources
of ignition.
vi) Drums and containers shall be opened in such a manner that excess interior
pressure will be safely relieved. If pressure cannot be relieved from a remote
location, appropriate shielding shall be placed between the employee and the
drums or containers to reduce the risk of employee injury.
(vii)
Employees shall not stand upon or work from drums or containers.
3)
Material handling equipment. Material handling equipment used to transfer drums
and containers shall be selected, positioned and operated to minimize sources of
ignition related to the equipment from igniting vapors released from ruptured drums or
containers.
4)
Radioactive wastes. Drums and containers containing radioactive wastes shall not
136
be handled until such time as their hazard to employees is properly assessed.
5)
Shock sensitive wastes. As a minimum, the following special precautions shall be
taken when drums and containers containing or suspected of containing shocksensitive wastes are handled:
i) All non-essential employees shall be evacuated from the area of transfer.
ii) Material handling equipment shall be provided with explosive containment devices
or protective shields to protect equipment operators from exploding containers.
iii) An employee alarm system capable of being perceived above surrounding light and
noise conditions shall be used to signal the commencement and completion of
explosive waste handling activities.
iv) Continuous communications (i.e., portable radios, hand signals, telephones, as
appropriate) shall be maintained between the employee-in-charge of
the immediate handling area and both the site safety and health
supervisor and the command post until such time as the handling
operation is completed. Communication equipment or methods that
could cause shock sensitive materials to explode shall not be used.
v) Drums and containers under pressure, as evidenced by bulging or swelling, shall
not be moved until such time as the cause for excess pressure is determined and
appropriate containment procedures have been implemented to protect employees
from explosive relief of the drum.
vi) Drums and containers containing packaged laboratory wastes shall be considered
to contain shock-sensitive or explosive materials until they have been
characterized.
Caution: Shipping of shock sensitive wastes may be prohibited under U.S. Department of
Transportation regulations. Employers and their shippers should refer to 49 CFR 173.21
and 173.50.
6)
Laboratory waste packs. In addition to the requirements of paragraph (j)(5) of this
section, the following precautions shall be taken, as a minimum, in handling laboratory
waste packs (lab packs):
i) Lab packs shall be opened only when necessary and then only by an individual
knowledgeable in the inspection, classification, and segregation of the containers
within the pack according to the hazards of the wastes.
ii) If crystalline material is noted on any container, the contents shall be handled as a
shock-sensitive waste until the contents are identified.
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7)
Sampling of drum and container contents. Sampling of containers and drums shall
be done in accordance with a sampling procedure which is part of the site safety and
health plan developed for and available to employees and others at the specific work
site.
Staging
The placement of drums based on compatibility. Staging areas shall be provided with
adequate access and egress routes.
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Bulking
Objective: By the end of this section, participants will recognize proper protocols for
handling bulk hazardous wastes.
The bulk storage of materials into tanks. Non-reactive materials can be vacuumed out of
drums into a tanker and transported to a TSD facility. Bulking of hazardous wastes should
following these guidelines:
1)
All materials of the tank must be compatible with the liquids to be contained. (See
Section 7 of The U.S. Coast Guard's Chemical Hazards Response Information System
(CHRIS) manual. This manual provides a comprehensive list of chemicals that are
reactive to each other.
2)
A secondary containment system must be provided. Common systems include:
dikes, containment curbs, pits, and a complete drainage trench enclosure.
3)
Stormwater from the diked area should not be discharged into a storm drain or an
effluent discharge unless:
i)
The bypass valve is normally locked close and only opened under
responsible supervision.
ii) The stormwater satisfies water quality standards.
iii) Adequate records are kept of each discharge.
iv) No manholes of the tanks face a dike.
v) Underground storage tanks should be coated to prevent corrosion and all tanks,
underground and aboveground, should be hydrostatically tested regularly.
vi) Tanks should either be aboveground or completely underground; not partially
underground to resist corrosion.
vii) Each tank should be visually inspected monthly.
viii)
New tanks should be engineered with spill detection equipment. Old tanks
should be retrofitted with spill detection equipment.
ix) Effluent should be monitored for normal conditions and have alarms to indicate
abnormal conditions.
x) Any visible product leaks should be corrected immediately.
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xi) No tank should be used if the "head" or top is corroded through.
xii)
xiii)
Tanks should be coded (preferably using U.S.D.O.T. coding).
Wooden tanks should be avoided.
Tank and Vault Procedures
i) Tanks and vaults containing hazardous substances shall be handled in a manner
similar to that for drums and containers, taking into consideration the size of the
tank or vault.
ii) Appropriate tank or vault entry procedures as described in the employer's safety
and health plan shall be followed whenever employees must enter a tank or vault.
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Storage & Preparation for Transportation of Hazardous Wastes
Objective: By the end of this section, participants will recite appropriate, safe protocols for
the storage and preparation for transportation of hazardous wastes.
Storage of Hazardous Wastes
One may store no more than 6000 kg of hazardous waste on a site for up to 180 days, or
for up to 270 days if the waste must be shipped to a TSD facility that is over 200 miles
away. If one exceeds these time or quantity limits he/she will be considered a storage
facility and will need a storage permit.
Hazardous Waste Storage Requirements
Hazardous wastes can be stored in 55 gallon drums, tanks, or other suitable containers,
provided one:
1)
Clearly mark each container with the words "HAZARDOUS WASTE" along with the
date waste collection began in that container,
2)
Keep containers in good condition, handle them carefully, and replace any leaking
containers,
3)
Not store hazardous waste in a container it may cause rupture, leaks, corrosion, or
other failure,
4)
Keep containers closed except when filling or emptying them,
5)
Inspect the containers for leaks or corrosion every week,
6)
Store ignitable or reactive waste containers as far as possible from the facility to
create a buffer zone,
7)
Never store wastes in the same container that could react together to cause fires,
leaks, or other releases,
8)
Have the hazardous wastes removed off-site or treated on-site within 180 days (if
the TSD is less than 200 miles away) or 270 days (if the TSD is more than 200 miles
away).
Preparation (For Transportation) of Hazardous Wastes
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Anyone who transports any quantity of hazardous wastes must be registered as a
hazardous waste transporter with EPA. Hazardous Waste Transporters have separate
training under DOT regulations (Title 49 CFR).
Reportable Quantity (RQ)
The threshold amount of a spill or release to the environment which must be reported to
the National Response Center and local agencies. Reportable quantities are listed in Title
40 CFR 302.4
Labeling Requirements
All containers / drums with a capacity of greater than or equal to 110 gallons is required to
have a hazard class label attached to it (NFPA placard)
Labels are not required for ORM materials - chemicals intended for consumer goods which
have been packaged.
Minimum Requirements on the Label
1)
Proper shipping name
2)
UN identification number (refer to the emergency response guidebook)
3)
If the substance poses an inhalation hazard, it must be noted
4)
If material is water reactive, it must note "hazardous when wet"
5)
If liquid, must be marked "this end up"
6)
If the container contains an EPA hazardous substance, the reportable quantity must
be identified.
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Spill Control
Objective: By the end of this section, participants will recite appropriate, safe protocols for
the storage and preparation for transportation of hazardous wastes.
1)
Water Spills
i) Dredging: Dredging is used when either a solid or a liquid that is heavier than water
is spilled into water. There are several types of dredging equipment available
including a MudCat Dredge and clamshell dredges.
ii) Booms: Booms are designed to control floating liquids (usually hydrocarbons) and
may be either absorbent or nonabsorbent diversionary. Absorbent booms will
absorb hydrophobic hydrocarbons but let water pass through. Diversionary booms
divert liquids to a specific area.
iii) Skimmers: Skim liquids off the water surface.
iv) Weirs: Recognized by the Coast Guard as a spill control device but usually
ineffective because they are difficult to properly deploy.
2)
Land Spills
i)
Urethane foam: Used to make a lightweight, chemically-inert material to dike
or divert spills. (Available from MSA for about $300).
ii) Emergency Material Collection System: System consists of a motor-driven,
centrifugal pump that fills a collapsible storage bag. May hold up to 7000 gallons.
(Available from MSA).
iii) Portable Earthmoving Equipment: Hand equipment to create trenches and dikes
and diversionary ditches. Typical equipment includes: shovels, post hole diggers,
axes to break up hard soil, portable pump and hoses for dewatering, rakes, and
chicken wire (to construct dams).
iv) Vacuum Truck: A converted septic tank truck.
3)
Leaking Drums and Tanks
i)
1)
Repair the leaking drum or tank.
Patching: Used in confined spaces, when time is limited, and when the
contour of the drum or tank prevents a plug. There are four types of patches:
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a)
b)
c)
d)
2)
Sealant patch
Toggle bolt
Magnetic tape
Band patch
Plugging: The insertion of a plug into a hole. There are several types of
plugs:
a) Wooden wedges
b) Round, tapered tire plugs
c) Washer screw plugs
Note: To be certified as a Hazardous Materials Technician requires a
knowledge of drum and tank plugging and patching.
ii) Collect the drum into a salvage drum. Salvage drums are oversized (80 gal.) to
collect the damaged drum. Salvage drums and handling equipment are available
from Lab Safety Supply (1800-356-0783).
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Emergency Response Operations
Objective: By the end of this section, participants will be able to recognize the five
emergency response roles, their training requirements, their limitations and their
responsibilities.
Levels of Emergency Response

First Responder Awareness Level

First Responder Operations Level

Hazardous Materials Technician

Hazardous Materials Specialist

On Scene Incident Commander
First Responder Awareness Level

Individuals who are likely to witness or discover a hazardous substance release and
who have been trained to initiate an emergency response sequence by notifying the
authorities of the release

Have sufficient training or have had sufficient experience to objectively demonstrate
competency in the following areas:

An understanding of what hazardous substances are, and the risks associated with
them in an incident.

An understanding of the potential outcomes associated with an emergency created
when hazardous substances are present.

The ability to recognize the presence of hazardous substances in an emergency.

The ability to identify the hazardous substances, if possible.

An understanding of the role of the first responder awareness individual in the
employer's emergency response plan including site security and control and the
U.S. Department of Transportation's Emergency Response Guidebook.

The ability to realize the need for additional resources, and to make appropriate
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notifications to the communication center.
First Responder Operations Level

Individuals who respond to releases or potential releases of hazardous substances
as part of the initial response to the site for the purpose of protecting nearby persons,
property, or the environment.

Trained to respond in a defensive fashion without actually trying to stop the release
by containing the release from a safe distance, keeping it from spreading and
preevening exposures

Must receive at least eight hours of training or have had sufficient experience to
objectively demonstrate competency in the following areas (in addition to those listed
for the awareness level):

Knowledge of the basic hazard and risk assessment techniques.

Know how to select and use provided personal protective equipment.

An understanding of basic hazardous material terms.

Know how to perform basic control, containment and/or confinement operations
within the capabilities of the resources and personal protective equipment available
with their unit.

Know how to implement basic decontamination procedures.

An understanding of the relevant standard operating procedures and termination
procedures.
Hazardous Materials Technician
Individuals who respond to releases or potential releases for the purpose of stopping the
release. They assume a more aggressive role than a first responder at the operations level
in that they will approach the point of release in order to plug, patch or otherwise stop the
release of a hazardous substance. Hazardous materials technicians shall have received at
least 24 hours of training equal to the first responder operations level and in addition have
competency in the following areas and the employer shall so certify:
a) Know how to implement the employer's emergency response plan.
b) Know the classification, identification and verification of known and unknown
materials by using field survey instruments and equipment.
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c) Be able to function within an assigned role in the Incident Command System.
d) Know how to select and use proper specialized chemical personal protective
equipment provided to the hazardous materials technician.
e) Understand hazard and risk assessment techniques.
f) Be able to perform advance control, containment, and/or confinement operations
within the capabilities of the resources and personal protective equipment available
with the unit.
g)
Understand and implement decontamination procedures.
h) Understand termination procedures.
i) Understand basic chemical and toxicological terminology and behavior.
Hazardous materials specialist
Hazardous materials specialists are individuals who respond with and provide support
to hazardous materials technicians. Their duties parallel those of the hazardous
materials technician; however, those duties require a more directed or specific
knowledge of the various substances they may be called upon to contain. The
hazardous materials specialist would also act as the site liaison with Federal, state,
local and other government authorities in regards to site activities. Hazardous materials
specialists shall have competency in the following areas and the employer shall so
certify:
a) Know how to implement the local emergency response plan.
b) Understand classification, identification and verification of known and unknown
materials by using advanced survey instruments and equipment.
c) Know the state emergency response plan.
d) Be able to select and use proper specialized chemical personal protective
equipment provided to the hazardous materials specialist.
e) Understand in-depth hazard and risk techniques.
f) Be able to perform specialized control, containment, and/or confinement operations
within the capabilities of the resources and personal protective equipment available.
g) Be able to determine and implement decontamination procedures.
h) Have the ability to develop a site safety and control plan.
i) Understand chemical, radiological and toxicological terminology and behavior.
On scene incident commander
Assume control of the incident scene. They must receive at least 24 hours of training
equal to the first responder operations level and in addition have competency in the
following areas and the employer shall so certify:
a) Know and be able to implement the employer's incident command system.
b) Know how to implement the employer's emergency response plan.
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c) Know and understand the hazards and risks associated with employees working in
chemical protective clothing.
d) Know how to implement the local emergency response plan.
e) Know the state emergency response plan and the Federal Regional Response
Team.
f) Know and understand the importance of decontamination procedures.
Who to Call for Assistance
The Chemical Transportation Emergency Center (CHEMTREC: 1.800.424.9300) and the
National Response Center (NRC: 1.800.424.8802) work cooperatively to provide 24-hour
assistance and expert advice to emergency responders, carriers, shippers, and all others
handling hazardous materials. Federal law requires that anyone who releases a reportable
quantity of a hazardous substance into the environment must immediately notify the NRC.
CHEMTREC is a service of the chemical industry which ensures that the industry's
capabilities are available in emergency situations. Callers can be transferred between
NRC and CHEMTREC to obtain the needed services. If the spill is in water, the NRC will
contact the appropriate Coast Guard station.
The caller to either center should attempt to provide as much of the following information
as possible:
1)
Caller name and call back number
2)
3)
Name of carrier, shipper/manufacturer or facility operator, and responsible party
Nature, location and time of the incident
4)
Name of material released or any identifying information
5)
Container type, rail car/truck number, vessel name, or other identifying information
If a spill occurs in the water, the following information is needed and should be reported
immediately to the U.S. Coast Guard.
1)
Name of chemical (available from the crew of vessel, shipping papers, cargo
manifest, cargo information cards, cargo warning signs and placards, certificates of
inspections, or observable characteristics)
2)
Time that spill began (available from the crew of vessel, nearby vessels or
witnesses)
3)
Where the spill occurred (available from crew, navigation charts or aids, nearby
vessels or witnesses)
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4)
Extent of leak (available from crew, shipping papers, cargo manifest, nearby
vessels or witnesses, certificates, estimated)
5)
Wind speed and direction (estimated preferably from wind sock)
6)
Cloud conditions (estimated)
7)
Current speed and direction (estimated)
8)
Width and depth of waterway (estimated)
9)
Diameter of hole (estimated if visible)
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