FERN ETHNOBOTANY
Seminar Workbook
Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood Fern
With Sections On:
FERN BOTANY (PTERIDOLOGY): IDENTIFICATION KEYS & DESCRIPTIONS
NATIVE AMERICAN MEDICINE & MEDICINAL USE OF FERNS
TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE ENERGETICS ~ HOMEOPATHY ~ ET CETERA
FERN ETHNOBOTANY
A Pteridological and Ethnobotanical Study of Our Natural Area
in the Upper Delaware River Valley
by Nathaniel Whitmore
January 2016
Rock Cap Polypodium virginianum
Here is a botanical exploration focused on the upper Delaware River valley region. Since the Lenni Lenape
(Delaware) are the natives of the area, their particular uses of ferns would be the focus of such a paper if the
information could be easily found. I chose to focus on the Iroquoian uses, as they were in the region and
are related. Also the Cherokee uses are included as there is much information from them, and they are in
the east and are related to the Lenape. Western uses are considered to some extent, but not so much and
sometimes simply omitted from the main text, as this is intended to be first and foremost a look at our local
wild areas. Western uses are, of course, important and noteworthy, but without knowing about variations
in the nature of the ferns that can be expected with different growing conditions, I chose to mostly leave
this information out except for a bit to shed light on the nature of our local species. I have included a little
information on non-Native uses of local ferns for further insight, and for additional perspective I included
some notes about relatives of our native ferns that are used in other parts of the world. I have also included
a small section on Chinese medicine in order to explain some theory related to the medicinal use of ferns.
It is my hope that this document will stimulate dialogue on the subject of local medicinal ferns, the
recovery of information that is almost lost, and experimentation to move us forward toward a more
wholesome relationship with our surroundings and their health-promoting properties. Please forgive my
mistakes and take the time to make me aware of them. Any leads to information on the Native American
use of ferns would be greatly appreciated, especially regarding the Lenni Lenape uses.
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CONTENTS
Introduction
Descripition of Medicinal Uses of Local Ferns by Native Americans
Maidenhair
Walking Fern
Maidenhair Spleenwort
Lady Fern
Rattlesnake Fern
Fragile Fern
Hay-scented Fern
Mountain Wood Fern
Spinulose Wood Fern
Crested Wood Fern
Marginal Wood Fern
Ostrich Fern
Sensitive Fern
Cinnamon Fern
Interrupted Fern
Royal Fern
Rock Cap
Christmas Fern
Bracken
Marsh Fern
Major Medicinal Categories of Ferns Used By Native Americans
Fern Identification
Pteridology Terms to Know
Keys to Ferns of Our Area
Key One
Key Two
Key By Size (Key Three)
Key By Sori (Key Four)
Botanical Descriptions of Native American Medicinal Ferns of Our Area
Local Ferns & Relatives Used in America, Europe, Asia, & Africa
Preparation of Medicine
Lenni Lenape Medicine
Iroquois Medicine
Cherokee Medicine
Ferns & the Energetics of Chinese Herbal Medicine
Homeopathic Use of Ferns
Bibliography
Index
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6
16
19
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20
22
24
26
29
32
36
37
39
41
42
45
46
47
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INTRODUCTION
Generally ferns are mildly toxic and besides a few exceptions they are not utilized much
as food or medicine. My own experience with their medicinal uses is limited, but
historical references clearly indicate that they were once used traditionally in medicine.
This coupled with their frequency in the wild warrants some research. Several species
can be consumed as food, but even so it is recommended that you do so in moderation.
Those that are not bitter are the safest. A few are overtly toxic or emetic. Bracken Ferns
(potentially others) can lead to beri beri if consumed regularly or in excess. And it is
believed that ferns can contribute to stomach cancer. The only species that was in the
U.S. Pharmacopoeia is Dryopteris filix-mas, which was listed as a vermifuge (indicating
some toxicity).
Perhaps it is because of the toxicity of ferns or perhaps it is
because of our loss of tradition and knowledge that ferns
have fallen out of common use. As you will see in the list of
species below, ferns were used by Native Americans for
medicine; their uses falling into a few specific areas. Ferns
address stomach concerns, intestinal parasites, rheumatism,
pain, lung disorders, blood disorders, gynecological disorders
(including after labor), problems with lactation, and venereal
disease. The association with Venus (as with Maidenhair)
fits into the feminine association made by the American
Natives (an example of multi-cultural confirmation).
The use of ferns for diseases of the blood shows some
similarities between Native American medicine and traditional Chinese medicine. Wellestablished concepts in Chinese medicine, such as blood deficiency and toxic heat in the
blood, are only mentioned in passing from ethnobotanical sources about Native use, but I
assume that Native American herbalists had an equally sophisticated understanding of
blood disorders and how to treat them.
Ethnobotanical texts and popular “Native American herb” books tend to lack the practical
details required to put ferns to use as medicine. We are left to wonder about the when
and how of the emetics and fever remedies. When is Maidenhair most appropriate for
rheumatism (compared to the other remedies)? How does one use Rattlesnake Fern for
snakebite? What kind of back pain responds to Ostrich Fern?
Chinese medicine is more systematic and documented than Native American medicine.
Dryopteris crassirhizoma is considered bitter and cool, affecting the liver and stomach
channels, and is taken for parasites. Various formulas are indicated for specific uses. It
is also known that one should avoid eating fatty foods while taking this herb in order to
avoid absorbing the toxin. Drynaria fortunei (Gu Sui Bu) and Cibotium barometz (Gou
Ji) are both classified as herbs that tonify yang. Drynaria tonifies the kidneys and mends
connective tissue, while Cibotium additionally tonifies the liver and expels wind and
dampness.
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While Chinese medicine relies very much on books, Native knowledge has only begun to
be written down. We are a bit late, considering how much knowledge is already lost, but
better late than never. Herbalists today are working to preserve Native American wisdom
and knowledge, before even more is lost. The majority of my own research at this time is
into the Native use of native plants.
Ethnobotanical summaries leave us wanting for more than recipes and practical
instruction. The dry world of “this-herb-for-that” neglects the spiritual realities of the
Native. Perhaps it is such disposition that has also resisted the written word. Medicine of
the Native American was and is holistic in its inclusion of spiritual realities. The
practitioner was so very aware of such a world and looked for help from the spirits.
My teacher Taterbug used a shamanic trance to conjure up help in deciding what herbs to
use. At the same time that shamans look to the spirits, their approach is largely intuitive.
As individuals with a strong sixth sense become intimate with wild plants, they will tend
to be drawn to certain plants for reasons with little obvious rational. Such practice proves
difficult to explain in books.
So, the study of Native American herbal medicine proves to have many obstacles. This
booklet on the use of ferns is only a minor compilation of recorded information regarding
Native uses of ferns and it is a glimpse into the botany of our particular area (New York
and Pennsylvania along the upper Delaware, and including New Jersey). It is my hope
that this work will stimulate common people to become more interested in the natural
world and its herbal medicines, that it will encourage dialogue on the subject amongst my
peers, that it will help to preserve knowledge, and that it will help to refine this
knowledge towards practical aim.
Maidenhair Spleenwort Asplenium tricomanes
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Adiantum pedatum
MAIDENHAIR
Cherokee used Maidenhair for rheumatism (the effect on contracted muscles likened to
the uncurling fiddleheads)- the compound decoction or decoction of root applied with
warm hands as external rub, or infusion internally. Infusion or decoction of whole plant
was used as an emetic for fever and ague (fever with chills). Powdered leaves are
smoked for heart trouble and snuffed or smoked for asthma. They used it for paralytic
attacks, as from pneumonia in children. Sacred preparation of whole plant was used
specifically for women’s irregular heartbeat. Cherokee considered Maidenshair a
powerful medicine for the heart, and as such it is associated with the direction of East.
Costanoan of California used the decoction to purify the blood and for stomach troubles.
Hesquiat of western Canada mixed the ashes in formula for shortness of breath, and to
produce strength and endurance. They likewise used the green fronds. The northwestern
Makah chewed the fronds for weak stomach. Menomini (Wild Rice People) used a
compound decoction of the root for dysentery. They used the blade, stem, and root in
gynecology. Fox used a compound containing the root and stem for children. Micmac,
Algonquian of eastern Canada, used in decoction for fits. Potawatomi of the upper
Mississippi River used an infusion of the root for caked breasts. Natives applied poultice
of plant to sore back of babies. Wet fronds poulticed for
snakebite. Decoction used as wash for venereal disease
such as gonorrhea. Used topically by Native Americans
as a poultice or wash for bleeding, insect stings,
snakebites, arthritis, and for hair.
Hesquiat use of Maidenhair for endurance played out in
ceremonial dancing, for which the infusion would be
used, especially in winter, to prevent fatigue. Nitinaht
also used Maidenhair for ceremonial dancing. Such uses
along with the sacred preparation practiced by the
Cherokee indicate that this beautiful fern was regarded as
a sacred medicine. Additionally, the black stems of
Maidenhair were used by Potawatomi as a hunting
charm.
The subspecies pedatum was used by the Iroquois for children’s cramps, as decoction. A
compound decoction of the green roots used as a foot soak for rheumatism and taken
internally. Decoction of roots taken as a diuretic for the cessation of urine due to stones.
Infusion of plant used as an emetic for love medicine. Compound decoction or infusion
taken for excessive menstruation. Decoction of roots used to bring on menses and for
abortion. Plant used for abortion or delivery pains.
Therefore, Maidenhair is anti-rheumatic, emetic, diaphoretic, cardiotonic,
stimulant, alterative, astringent, antispasmodic, emenagogue, and antiseptic.
Energetically, Maidenhair appears dry and (cool?), with an affinity for the heart and
reproductive system.
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Asplenium rhizophyllum
WALKING FERN
Cherokee used the decoction topically and as emetic, and in
compound for swollen breasts.
Asplenium tricomanes MAIDENHAIR SPLEENWORT
Cherokee used for irregular menses, breast diseases, coughs,
and liver ailments.
Athyrium filis-femina
LADY FERN
Iroquois used subspecies angustum for mothers with intestinal fevers, to prevent water
breaking, and for men with venereal disease. Other varieties used by tribes of other areas
also used for pain, cancer, sores, caked breasts, vomiting blood, and for sore eyes. Root
tea used as diuretic, for breast pains caused by childbirth, and for caked breasts. Stem
tea used to ease labor.
Cherokee used for women’s headaches. Although I have not uncovered details of this
use, it seems likely that we are considering headaches of a hormonal nature
Used in formula with Willow and other plants for calming female anxiety.
Chippewa, or Ojibwa, used
Lady Fern root in compound
decoction for stopped urine;
grated and dried for sores.
Cowlitz of the northwest
used stem infusions for pain.
Hesquiat used unfurling
fronds for internal ailments
as with women’s womb.
Makah used the decoction of
pounded stems to ease labor
pains. Meskwaki used the
root decoction for bosom
pains caused by childbirth.
Potawatomi used root
infusions for caked breasts
and other female disorders.
It is interesting that the
female association
surrounding the used of this
fern is found from different
cultures.
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Botrychium virginianum
RATTLESNAKE FERN
Iroquois used subspecies virginianum as a cough medicine for tuberculosis as cold
infusion of root.
The Algonquian (northeast) Abnaki used as a demulcent and for children’s medicine.
Cherokee used root decoction as emetic and as concentrated syrup for external use on
snakebites (including from dream snakes), and used the juice from the frond for insect
bites and stings. Chippewa used a poultice of fresh root for snakebite and as a repellant.
Chicksaw (southwest) used as a diaphoretic and expectorant, and the root decoction as
emetic. Ojibwa used for lung trouble, such as tuberculosis; and used the poulticed root
on cuts. Potawatomi also used medicinally.
Astringent property used for open wounds.
Cystopteris fragilis
FRAGILE FERN
Navajo used Fragile Fern in compound infusion topically for injury. Yet another
example of the Doctrine of signatures.
Considering the high variability of local species, I assume the southwest species to be of
a slightly different nature than out own.
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Rattlesnake Fern Botrychium virginianum
Dennstaedtia punctilobula
Fragile Fern Cystopteris fragilis
HAY-SCENTED FERN
Cherokee used in compound infusion for
chills. Mahuna used for lung hemorrhages.
This is a common fern, forming thick patches
in the forest under-story. It is a sign of an
imbalanced ecosystem, as excessive growth
is due to deer overbrowse. Hay-scented and
New York Ferns along with invasive plants
like Barberry (Berberis) and Japanese
Knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum) can be
harvested without concern for overharvesting. Reducing their population
actually benefits competing plants, which
could be endangered or threatened. Doesn’t
it seem, in the grand scheme of things, to
make sense for us to be using such herbs as
medicines? Could they be here in abundance
for our benefit?
In my experience invasive plants are very
useful. (Hay-scented Fern is not alien, but is
a native-invasive, a native plant found in abundance because of other environmental
imbalances and not because it was introduced from a foreign area). Barberry, for
instance, is probably one of the most important wild medicinal herbs. While antibiotic
use becomes more rampant and destructive to our health, Barberry spreads with vigor as
though offering itself as a replacement of our favorite drugs. And it has been pointed out
that Japanese Knotweed seems to spread like crazy in areas that struggle with high rates
of Lyme disease. Could it actually be that Nature offers us the remedies that we need?
It is well worth it for the herbalist to consider why such plants grow in abundance.
By our material / mechanical worldview it does not make sense that a fern would show
up in our neighborhoods in order to cure certain diseases for us. Native Americans and
other indigenous people, however, lived in awe of Nature and according to different laws
of cause-and-effect (energetic / spiritual). In fact, the word “medicine” generally
translates to mean “mystery”. All of nature comes from the Great Mystery, the mystery
of life. Who is to say, therefore, that there is not a design beyond everyday
comprehension that brings forth certain plants in abundance for the sake of healing?
“Everything happens for a reason.” There must be a reason why Hay-scented Fern grows
in such abundance. There also must be a reason why deer avoid it in favor of other food.
Perhaps it has some toxic properties, which would relate to medicinal properties.
Although the list of uses is not long, the uses listed are important. Diaphoretics (herbs for
fevers) are among the most important remedies of any traditional material medica.
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Dryopteris campyloptera
MOUNTAIN WOOD FERN
Cherokee used with tree bark for cuts and other skin
problems. Considered medicine of the South.
Inuits used leaves in compound decoction for
stomachache and intestinal discomfort. Hesquiat used
young shoots for cancer of the womb.
Dryopteris carthusiana
SPINULOSE WOOD FERN
Nuxalk ate root as an antidote for poison from eating
early summer shellfish.
Dryopteris cristata
CRESTED WOOD FERN
Ojibwa used root infusion for stomach trouble.
Dryopteris marginalis
MARGINAL WOOD FERN
Spinulose W. F. Dryopteris carthusiana
Cherokee used infusion of root for rheumatism and toothache, and as an emetic. And
in formula for rheumatism. Used as a medicine of the South, specifically for rheumatism
that was exacerbated by cool, damp weather. Such use indicates a warm, dry energetic
nature (at least in the formula).
Dryopteris cristata Crested Wood Fern
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Matteuccia struthiopteris
OSTRICH FERN
Cree (Algonquian) used a decoction of sterile leaf stalk base for expulsion of afterbirth
and for back pain. Menomini used as a poultice and as an infusion for whitish urine.
Ostrich Fern, therefore, seems to be parturient, analgesic, and diuretic, with an affinity
to the reproductive and urinary systems. Perhaps kidney tonic, as the kidneys rule the
back, reproductive system, and urinary system in Chinese medicine.
This is the well-known fiddlehead fern. As a delicious springtime food it has a both
nourishing and cleansing quality.
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Onoclea sensibilis
SENSITIVE FERN
Iroquois used Sensitive Fern for arthritis, infection, blood disorders (blood deficiency,
cold in the blood, and others), intestinal troubles, weakness (root decoction) and pain
(root infusion) after childbirth, tuberculosis (decocted formula), infertility, and venereal
disease. For venereal disease a compound decoction was taken; for gonorrhea a
compound infusion; and men with venereal disease used the infusion of the plant and
female rhizomes. Externally used for sores (cold compound infusion), deep cuts
(poultice), non-flowing breasts (infusion of whole plant or roots), and venereal disease.
The root decoction was specifically used for intestinal troubles “when you catch cold
and get inflated and sore”, which indicates a warming effect on the digestive system.
This fern shows an affinity to the blood. It builds, regulates, and invigorates (warms
and moves) the blood. The fermented compound decoction was used by the Iroquois to
“make blood”, taken before meals and bed. It
was also used as a hair wash and for blood that
causes the hair to fall out. In Traditional
Chinese Medicine hair loss is considered to be a
sign of “blood deficiency”, because the blood
nourishes the hair. Perhaps the use of the root
decoction for fertility and the blood is also a
result of the blood building nature of Sensitive
Fern. The use of the rhizome infusion for
children “when blood doesn’t have a determined
path” indicates blood regulation properties.
Additionally it also has blood-moving properties.
The decoction of root is used to start menses
(which could be both for building and moving);
and for swellings, cramps, and sore abdomen
(presumably premenstrual and indicating blood
stagnation, that requires treatment with blood
moving herbs). A decocted formula that included
the roots was taken for “cold in the blood”. I
assume that the use of the poultice on deep cuts
was for staunching the blood.
Herbs that regulate the blood, such as Tienchi Ginseng (Panax notoginseng) and Yarrow
(Achillea millifolium) can be used for a wide array of blood disorders. Like Tienchi,
Sensitive Fern is used for paradoxical conditions, such as blood stagnation and bleeding.
It can build (nourish), regulate, move, and stop blood. It most likely has a warming
property, as it is used for cold in the blood, which means that it is possibly specifically
indicated for blood stagnation due to cold. By building and warming, it can create and
move blood as required for the system.
Ojibwa used decoction of powdered dried root for caked breasts.
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Osmunda cinnamomea
CINNAMON FERN
Iroquois used externally for rheumatism (decoction) and venereal disease (compound
infusion); internally the decoction was taken for headache, joint pain, colds, venereal
disease, and malaise. Roots were used for women’s troubles. Used as a diaphoretic.
Supposedly, Cherokee cooked the fronds as a spring tonic. They used the decoction of
roots (sometimes in compound, such as with Christmas Fern) externally for rheumatism.
Compound decoction used for chills. For snakebites, the root would be chewed so that
some could be swallow and the rest applied as a poultice.
Menomini used Cinnamon Fern to promote the flow of milk and for caked breasts.
Cinnamon Fern O. cinnamomea
Osmunda claytoniana
Interrupted Fern O. claytoniana
Royal Fern O. regalis
INTERRUPTED FERN
Iroquois used Interrupted Fern in cold, compound decoction for weak blood and in
compound decoction for gonorrhea.
Supposedly, the roots are used as an adulterant for Male Fern (Dryopteris felix-mas),
which is used for the treatment of intestinal worms.
Osmunda regalis
ROYAL FERN
Iroquois used for children with convulsions from intestinal worms, as an infusion with
Wild Ginger (Asarum). Women used the decoction (small handful of fronds in 1½ cup of
water down to ½ cup, to be used up in a day) for “when a woman catches cold in her
kidneys and her blood gets like water”; and the decoction was for when “girls leak rotten;
affected women can’t raise children”. Such use indicates an understanding of the
reproductive system that parallels Traditional Chinese Medicine, by relating the kidneys
and the reproductive organs.
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Polyopdium virginianum
ROCK CAP
Iroquois used compound decoction for cholera. Abnaki used decoction of whole plant for
stomachaches. Quebec Algonquin used for heart disease. The Algonquian Malecite
used infusion of pounded roots for pleurisy. Cree used decoction of leaf for tuberculosis.
Nuxalk used simple or compound decoction for stomachaches and chewed roots for sore,
swollen throat. Cherokee used poulitice for inflamed swellings and wounds, and
infusion for hives (considered a medicine of the South). Cowichan of western Canada
used rhizome for colds, stomachache, and sore throats. Cowlitz used infusion of crushed
stems for measles. Green River Group used baked or raw roots for coughs. Klallam of
the northwest used baked or raw roots for cough. Makah used peeled stems for coughs.
Quinault used baked or raw roots for cough. Saanich used rhizomes for colds, stomach
ailments, and sore throats. Skagit used for lung congestion and as a laxative.
Definitely a lung medicine. It is interesting to find so many forms of use; from whole
plant, decoction, compound decoction, leaf decoction, to crushed stem infusion, peeled
stems, to chewed raw roots, pounded root infusion, baked roots…
Polystichum acrostichoides
CHRISTMAS FERN
Iroquois used for children’s cramps (decoction), children’s convulsions (poultice),
diarrhea (compound decoction), rheumatism (foot soak), weak blood (cold compound
decoction), toxic blood, red spots on children’s skin (poultice), fevers (decoction of frond
with small leaves), listlessness (decoction), tuberculosis (root infusion as emetic),
dyspepsia (root infusion as emetic), and venereal disease. Roots used as a “lady’s
medicine” and plant taken after birth to clean the womb. The powder was inhaled and
coughed up by men who could not talk. Poultice applied to back and feet of children
with back troubles. Poultice of smashed roots was applied to the back and head for
children’s convulsions and red spots.
Cherokee used for rheumatism, chills, fever, stomachache, bowel problems, pneumonia,
and toothache. Decoction or cold infusion with Dogwood used as a wash or poultice for
rheumatism. It was also combined with Cinnamon Fern for rheumatism as well as cuts.
Malecite and Micmac used roots for hoarseness.
While so many of the ferns discussed in this booklet are used for Mom, Christmas Fern
seems to be more of a remedy for children. It still has use in gynecology, along with
rheumatism, blood disorders, fevers, and lung disorders (as we have come to expect from
the Indigenous use of ferns); but stands out as a remedy for children’s ailments.
That it finds a high percentage of its uses external, internally it is emetic, and that at least
one use of the fronds specifies that small leaves should be used indicates that there is
some toxicity. However, Cherokee ate the fiddleheads.
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Pteridium aquilinum
BRACKEN FERN
Iroquois used the decoction for diarrhea, in compound for rheumatism, for weak blood
(cold, compound decoction), in compound decoction for uterine prolapse, for suffering
after birth (decoction), in compound decoction for tuberculosis (during the early stages),
and in compound infusion for venereal
disease. The decoction was taken to make
“good blood” after menses and after birth,
probably a combination of blood building and
blood purifying. Compound decoction taken
by men to retain urine. Also used in
witchcraft.
Cherokee used the root as a tonic and for
nausea and vomiting, infections, and “choleramorbus”. Bracken was also used for stomach
cramps and kidney disorders. Recent
Cherokee use mixed Bracken with Fennel for
children’s colds and females with nursing or
bladder problems (as a medicine of the East).
Mixed with Balsam Fir, Horse Chestnut, and
Seven Bark, Bracken was used (as a medicine
of the South) for burns and sores. Combined
with Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda) Bracken
treated intestinal worms (medicine of the
West).
Hesquiat used fiddleheads for cancer. The southwestern Koasatsi used decoction of
ground roots for chest pain. Menomini used root decoction for caked breast. Micmac
used fronds for weakness in babies and elderly. Montagnals of Canada used P. aquilina
fronds as bedding to strengthen the backs of babies and for the elderly. Ojibwa used root
infusion for stomach cramps and used smoke from dried leaves for headaches. Yana
used P. aquilina roots for burns (pounded and heated).
Worn to repel black flies.
Thelypteris palustris
MARSH FERN
Iroquois used as a gynecological medicine. Since plants
that grow in wet, marshy areas tend to have an affinity
with the fluid of the bodies, my guess is that Marsh Fern
as a medicinal either removes dampness or builds fluids
(nourishes yin). Certainly it can be noted that the
reproductive system is an aspect of the traditional Chinese concept of the water element
(in the five element theory), or of the kidneys. However, it is possible that this reference
is a confusion and that this particular Iroquoian use really belongs to Cinnamon Fern.
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CATEGORIES OF MEDICINAL FERNS USED BY NATIVE AMERICANS
Native American medicinal uses of ferns can be categorized into five major groups:
those used for rheumatism, those used for the lungs, those used for gynecology, those
used for the blood, and those used for digestion. The following list is organized
according to these five categories of materia medica. When a fern species is listed more
than once, the Latin name is only used the first time. Some additional uses, such as
Cinnamon Fern’s use for snakebite and Maidenhair’s use for heart trouble, go
unmentioned in order to keep this categorization simple.
Ferns used for Rheumatism
Maidenhair (Adiantum pedatum) for rheumatism.
Marginal Wood Fern (Dryopteris marginalis) for rheumatism.
Sensitive Fern (Onoclea sensibilis) for arthritis.
Cinnamon Fern (Osmunda cinnamomea) externally for rheumatism and internally
for joint pain.
Christmas Fern (Polystichum acrostichoides) for rheumatism.
Bracken Fern (Pteridium aquilinum) for rheumatism.
Ferns used for Lungs
Maidenhair smoked for asthma.
Maidenhair Speenwort (Asplenium tricomanes) for coughs.
Rattlesnake Fern (Botrychium virginianum) as a cough medicine for tuberculosis.
Hay-scented Fern (Dennstaedtia penctilobula) for chills and lung hemorrhages.
Rock Cap (Polyopdium virginianum) for sore throat, colds, measles, tuberculosis, cough,
and lung congestion.
Christmas Fern for chills, fever, pneumonia, red spots on skin, listlessness, tuberculosis,
and hoarseness.
Bracken Fern for tuberculosis, infections, and chest pain.
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Ferns for Gynecology (including menstrual, postpartum, and breastfeeding)
Maidenhair for venereal disease.
Walking Fern (Asplenium rhizophyllum) topically and as emetic for swollen breasts.
Maidenhair Speenwort for irregular menses and breast diseases.
Lady Fern (Athyrium filis-femina) for mothers with intestinal fevers and to prevent water
breaking.
Mountain Wood Fern (Dryopteris campyloptera) for disease of the womb.
Ostrich Fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris) as decoction of sterile leaf stalk base for the
expulsion of afterbirth and for back pain.
Sensitive Fern (Onoclea sensibilis) for infection, blood disorders (blood deficiency, cold
in the blood, and others), and to restore the female system after childbirth. Externally
used for sores.
Cinnamon Fern for women’s troubles, caked breasts, and malaise.
Interrupted Fern (Osmunda claytoniana) for weak blood and gonorrhea.
Royal Fern (Osmunda regalis) for menstrual problems.
Bracken Fern for weak blood, uterine prolapse, suffering after birth, caked breast,
weakness, and headaches.
Marsh Fern (Thelypteris palustris) as a gynecological medicine.
Ferns used for the Blood
Maidenhair as a wash or poultice for bleeding.
Lady Fern for vomiting of blood.
Hay-scented Fern for lung hemorrhages.
Sensitive Fern for blood deficiency, cold in the blood, and other blood disorders.
Christmas Fern for weak blood and toxic blood.
Interrupted Fern for weak blood.
Bracken Fern to make good blood after menses or childbirth.
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Ferns used for Digestion
Mountain Wood Fern for stomachache.
Crested Wood Fern (Dryopteris cristata) as root infusion for stomach trouble.
Royal Fern for intestinal worms.
Rock Cap for stomachaches and cholera.
Christmas Fern for stomachache, bowel problems, toothache, cramps, and diarrhea.
Bracken Fern for diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, infections, diarrhea, weakness, stomach
cramps, and headaches.
Sensitive Fern for intestinal troubles.
Interrupted Fern for intestinal parasites.
Please see the main descriptions for more information. These lists were kept basic in a
preliminary attempt to categorize the ferns according to properties and to begin to see
patterns among the variety of uses. Observing such generalizations can help one tune
into the signatures of the plants and begin to know them more intimately and intuitively.
Relearning medicinal ferns poses the obvious obstacle of toxicity. Who wants to
experiment with toxins? Especially if there is the threat of some low-level toxin that will
only show symptoms with time, how do we even know if we are being poisoned? (And
our poor livers are already overwhelmed!) Possibly it was partially our increasing
awareness of the toxicity of ferns that diminished their use. I also assume, however, that
Native Americans were aware of the potential toxicity. Perhaps they knew how to
prepare the medicine in order to render it non-toxic. (See page 4 on Chinese use of
Dryopteris crassirhizoma for an example of avoiding toxicity through diet.) Perhaps they
only used ferns for special cases when they were precisely indicated. Maybe even the
ferns of the past were less toxic, their chemistry having changed with global warming or
increased pollution (such as heavy metals). Or maybe people of the past were more able
to process “toxins” when they were consumed (being less burdened by them in general).
The above categories are general and the uses mentioned only gleaned from historical
and ethnobotanical sources. Details are missing. We would like to know the indications,
the harvest times (particular seasons or stages of growth?), the dosage, et cetera. And
when the ferns are used in formulas, were they primary or supporting ingredients? This
pulication is just a start (as well as a testimony of how much has been lost). Future
editions of this publication will, if grace supports the project, contain much more
thorough information.
18
FERN IDENTIFICATION
Pteridology Terms to Know
bipinnate – pinnae are cut all the way to the costa into pinnules
blade – leafy portion of frond
costa – midvein of a pinna
costule – midvein of a pinnule
crozier – fiddlehead
entire – margin smooth (without teeth or lobes)
fiddlehead – the early growth of true fronds when still in spiralic shape
frond – the “leaf”, the above ground blade and stipe of a fern
gametophyte – tiny body producing egg and sperm that will join to form the sporophyte
indusium (pl. indusia)– flap of tissue that covers the sorus
pinna (pl. pinnae)– division of blade (not just lobed, but cut all the way to the rachis)
pinnatafid – deeply lobed (but not cut all the way to the costa or rachis)
pinnate – blade is divided fully into separate pinnae
pinnate-pinnatifid – the pinnae are deeply lobed but not divided to the costa
pinnule – pinna subdivision divided to the costa (not just lobed)
pinnulet – pinnule subdivision divided to the costule
rachis (pl. rachises, rachides) – axis of blade bearing pinnae
sorus (pl. sori) – cluster of sporangia
sporangium (pl. sporangia) – small case bearing spores
spore – tiny offspring of a fern (sporophyll) that produces the gametophyte
sporophore – fertile leaf that bears sporangia (of Botrychium and Ophioglossum)
sporophyte – spore-bearing growth stage of ferns
stipe – the stem arising from the rhizome and below the leafy blade
tripinnate – blade has pinnae divided into pinnules that are divided into pinnulets
trophophore – sterile blade (of Botrychium and Ophioglossum)
Keys to the Ferns of Our Area:
A botanical key is a tool used to identify plants. It gives you choices (in these there is always two choices)
of characteristics to observe. By choosing the description that matches your fern (or the opposite if a
choice is clearly not the fern at hand) you are led either to the name of the fern in question or to the next
step of the key. Eventually you will arrive at an answer. Since keys are not foolproof, you should check
your answer however possible- such as by reading the description and making sure it matches, looking at a
picture, or testing it with another key. Often keys demand you observe a stage of growth that is not current
(for instance, n the case of ferns this could be the fiddlehead). In order to make it likely for you to be able
to identify our ferns I have included four primary keys. As you become familiar with them, you will find
interesting sections within each that focus on a certain genera (such as Dryopteris) or characteristic (such as
whether they have fiddleheads or whether or not their fertile portions are of similar form as their sterile).
Remembering key characteristics will allow you to systematically organize your thoughts in order to
identify plants and understand their relationships. These fern keys may take time to familiarize, but as you
do you will be able to use them efficiently when in hand and to remember them when in the field.
There are 48 species in 23 genera. 20 of them are described above as medicinal species. Dryopteris has 7
species in the list. The genus represents the quintessential fern and they are quite common, though they
hybridize and can be tricky to identify. Botrychium also has 7 species on the list, but are usually small and
hard to find. Other genera have 1, 2, or 3 species on the list. All of these species are native ferns.
One should use the pteridology books listed in the bibliography to learn these ferns.
19
KEY ONE (Adapted from Plants of Pennsylvannia) A. vinelike Lygodium palmatum Climbing Fern
A. not vinelike
B. frond single not from fiddlehead
C. sterile portion of frond undivided Ophioglossum pusillum Northern Adder’s Tongue
C. sterile portion of frond pinnate to bipinnate
D. sterile blades triangular, 5-50 cm long; fronds >2.5dm: fertile segments sometimes absent
E. sterile blade thin; deciduous Botrychium virginianum Rattlesnake Fern
E. sterile blade leathery; frond appearing in late summer; evergreen
F. terminal seg. w/ acute tip; pointed teeth
B. dissectum Cut-leaved Grape Fern
F. terminal segments rounded at tip; margins with rounded teeth
G. term. seg. not elongate; fields & open woods B. multifidum Leathery G. F.
G. term. seg. elongate; alluvial woods
B. oneidense Blunt-lobed Gape Fern
D. sterile blades oblong to narrowly triangular; fronds <1dm; fertile segments always present
H. sterile blade triangular, sessile; seg. acute
B. lanceolatum Triangle Moonwort
H. sterile blades elliptic or ovate, short stalked; segments obtuse or rounded
I. sterile blade pinnate to bipinnate B. matricariifolium Daisy-leaved Moonwort
I. sterile blade entire to pinnatifid; seg. w/out midrib B. simplex Least Moonwort
B. fronds several to numerous arising from fiddleheads
J. sterile and fertile fronds dimorphic
K. fertile frond separate
L. fertile fronds in early spring, cinnamon brown Osmunda cinnamomea Cinnamon Fern
L. fertile fronds later than vegetative fronds, green when young and brown when mature
M. sterile fr. whorls from rt crown; fert. fr. inside Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich Fern
M. sterile fronds with broad, deeply pinnately lobed blade; fertile fronds scattered
N. sterile fr. w/ opp. lobes; fert. fronds persistent Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive Fern
N. sterile fronds with alternate lobes; fertile fronds much reduced
O. sterile fronds pinnately lobed
Woodwardia areolata Netted Chain Fern
O. sterile fronds pinnate-pinnatifid
W. virginica Virginia Chain Fern
K. fertile pinnae occurring in the middle or at the end of 1 or more of the vegetative fronds
P. fertile portion interrupting vegetative frond Osmunda claytoniana Interrupted Fern
P. fertile portion consisting of the terminal 1/3-1/2 of the otherwise vegetative frond
Q. frond to 7 dm tall, pinnate
Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas Fern
Q. frond >7 dm tall, bipinnate
Osmunda regalis Royal Fern
J. sterile and fertile fronds weakly to not at all dimorphic
R. sori near the edge of the blade; indusia, if present, never kidney shaped
S. cup-shapped indusia; bipinnate-pinnatifid Dennstaedtia penctilobula Hay-scented Fern
S. sporangia covered or partly so by rolled margin; fert. fr. slightly more slender than veg.
T. fronds broadly triangular
Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern
T. fronds smaller; basal pinnae not as large as the rest of the blade
U. fronds wider than long Adiantum pedatum Maidenhair
U. fronds longer than wide, bipinnate-pinnatifid Cheilanthes lanosa Hairy Lip Fern
R. sori usually near the veins of the pinnae; indusia varius
V. blade deeply lobed, leathery; sori lacking indusia
W. blades triangular; seg. m. acute Polypodium appalachianum Appalacian Polypody
W. blades narrowly ellciptic; segments rounded P. virginianum Rock Cap
V. blade once or more pinnately compound, or if merely pinnatifid, then indusia present
X. sori about as broad as long; indusia varius or lacking
Y. stipe on rachis w/ small, silvery-white, transparent hairs; no or sparse stipe scales
Z. fronds broadly triangular; sori lacking indusia
1. lowest pinna pair w/ rachis wing Phegopteris connectilis Long Beech Fern
1. lowest pinna pair w/out rachis wing P. hexagonoptera Broad Beech Fern
Z. fronds lanceolate-elliptic to narrowly triangular; sori w/ kidney-shaped indusia
2. frond elliptical overall Thelypteris noveboracensis New York Fern
2. base of frond only slightly narrower than in middle
3. veinlets of pinnae lobes unbranched T. simulata Bog Fern
3. veinlets of pinnae lobes forked T. palustris Marsh Fern
20
Y. stipe lacking hairs as above, maybe other hairs; stipe scales sparse to abundant
4. plants >4 dm tall; blades thick and leathery; scales abundant on lower stipe
5. indusia peltate; ultimate seg. of blade spine tipped Polystichum braunii Braun’s Holly Fern
5. indusia kidney-shaped; ultimate segments crenate to serrate, w/out spines
6. blades pinnate-pinnatifid throughout or bipinnate at the base only
7. sori at or near margin of segments Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood Fern
7. sori midway between margin & midrib or closer to midribs
8. low pinnae ovate, scales dark
D. goldiana Giant Wood Fern
8. lowest pinnae triangular; scales at stipe base tan
9. basal pin. 1.5-2x longer than wide D. clintoniana Clinton’s Wood Fern
9. basal pinnae about as long as wide D. cristata Crested Wood Fern
6. blades bipinnate to tripinate throughout
a. indusia & axes of segments glandular; evergreen D. intermedia Fancy Fern
a. indusia & axes of segments not glandular; fronds deciduous
b. blades ovate-lanceolate; fronds erect
D. carthusiana Spinulose Wood Fern
b. blades ovate-triangular; fronds spreading D. campyloptera Mountain Wood Fern
4. plants <4 dm tall; blades thin; scales on basal portion of stipe few, scattered, tan
c. blades broad triangular; stipe slender longer than blade Gymnocarpium dryopteris Oak Fern
c. blades narrower, mostly lance-elliptic; stipe equal to or shorter than blade; indusia present
d. blade veinlets not to margins; sori w/ bag-like indusia when young, splitting into scales
e. stipe w/joint, lower scales tan; frond lanceolate Woodsia ilvensis Rusty Cliff Fern
e. no joint on stipe, scales with stripe; frond ovate W. obtuse Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern
d. blade veinlets to margins; sori w/ hood-like indusia when young, opening to one side
f. fronds narrowly triangular, glandular Cystopteris bulbifera Bulblet Bladder Fern
f. fronds lanceolate to narrowly elliptic, glabrous or w/few glands; bulblets rare
g. pinnae diverging from rachis at acute, often curving
C. tenuis Brittle Fern
g. pinnae diverging at 90 deg., not curving toward blade tip C. fragilis Fragile Fern
X. sori much longer than broad; indusium a flap attached along one side
h. plants <4 dm tall, growing on shaded rock outcrops or rocky soil
i. frond undivided Asplenium rhizophyllum Walking Fern
i. frond divided into pinnae
j. pinnae not deeply subdivided; frond oblong-elliptic
k. pinnae oblong, 3 or more times long as wide A. playtyneuron Ebony Spleenwort
k. pinnae broadly ovate to round
A. tricomanes Maidenhair Spleenwort
j. pinnae bipinnate or bipinnate-pinnatifid; frond triangular A. ruta-muraria Wall Rue
h. plants >4 dm tall, growing in soil in rich woods or swamps
k. sori near pinnae midveins , parallel to them; blade veins anastomosing Woodwardia- see step O
k. sori parallel to the lateral veinlets of the pinnae; blades lacking anastomosing veins
l. fr. pinnate; pinn. narrowly lance-oblong Diplazium pycnocarpon Narrow-leaved Glade Fern
l. fronds pinnate-pinnatifid or bipinnate-pinnatifid
m. frond pinnate-pinnatifid
Deparia acrostichoides Silvery Glade Fern
m. frond bipinnate-pinnatifid Athyrium filis-femina Lady Fern
Bulblet Bladder Fern Cystopteris bulbifera
21
KEY TWO
A. vinelike Lygodium palmatum Climbing Fern
A. not vinelike
B. fronds with netted veins
C. oval, entire blade Ophioglossum pusillum Northern Adder’s Tongue
C. fernesque blades divided at least into pinnae
D. sterile frond with lobed pinnae, fertile frond not leafy Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive Fern
D. sterile frond with wavy or finely toothed edges, sori chainlike & paralleling midvein
E. sterile fronds pinnately lobed
Woodwardia areolata Netted Chain Fern
E. st. fr. pinnate-pinnatifid, full sun, tolerates pollution W. virginica Virginia Chain Fern
B. fronds with free or branched, un-netted veins
F. separate fertile stalk branches well above ground, with beadlike sporangia
G. sterile blades triangular, 5-50cm long; fronds >2.5dm: fertile segments sometimes absent
H. sterile blade thin; deciduous Botrychium virginianum Rattlesnake Fern
H. sterile blade leathery; frond appearing in late summer; evergreen
I. terminal segment w/ acute tip; pointed teeth
B. dissectum Cut-leaved Grape Fern
I. terminal segments rounded at tip; margins with rounded teeth
J. term. segment not elongate; fields & open woods B. multifidum Leathery G. F.
J. term. segment elongate; alluvial woods
B. oneidense Blunt-lobed Grape Fern
G. sterile blades oblong to narrowly triangular; fronds <1dm; fertile segments always present
K. sterile blades triangular, sessile; segments acute B. lanceolatum Triangle Moonwort
K. sterile blades elliptic or ovate, short stalked; segments obtuse or rounded
L. sterile blade pinnate to bipinnate
B. matricariifolium Daisy-leaved Moonwort
L. sterile blade entire to pinnatifid; seg. w/out midrib B. simplex Least Moonwort
F. sori on “regular” leafy frond or special fertile frond that is separate at rhizome (not just branched)
M. sori elongated and attached to vein; fr. <20in, long tapering, entire or lobed (inc featherlike)
N. frond undivided
Asplenium rhizophyllum Walking Fern
N. frond divided into pinnae
O. pinnae not deeply subdivided; frond oblong-elliptic
P. pinnae about 3 times long as wide
A. playtyneuron Ebony Spleenwort
P. pinnae broadly ovate to round
A. tricomanes Maidenhair Spleenwort
O. pinnae bipinnate or bipinnate-pinnatifid; frond triangular A. ruta-muraria Wall Rue
M. sori not elongated or if elongated frond >20in
Q. blades pinnatifid
R. blades triangular; seg. m. acute Polypodium appalachianum Appalacian Polypody
R. blades narrowly ellciptic; seg. rounded P. virginianum Rock Cap
Q. blades at least pinnate
S. blades pinnate with lance-shaped pinnae
T. pin. w/ lobe; sori oblong, crowded Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas Fern
T. sori enlongated along vein Diplazium pycnocarpon Narrow-leaved Glade Fern
S. blades at least pinnate-pinnatifid
U. sterile and fertile fronds dimorphic
V. fertile portion distinct section on frond otherwise like sterile frond
W. fertile portion in the middle of vegetative frond
Osmunda claytoniana Interrupted Fern
W. fertile portion at the tip of vegetative frond
O. regalis Royal Fern
V. fertile frond separate
X. fertile fronds in early spring, fiddlehead w/ fuzz O. cinnamomea Cinnamon Fern
X. fert. fronds later than sterile fronds, fiddlehead w/o fuzz Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich Fern
U. sterile and fertile fronds weakly to not at all dimorphic
Y. rachis wings or pinnae fused at connection with rachis
Z. lowest pinna pair with rachis wing
Phegopteris connectilis Long Beech Fern
Z. lowest pinna pair without rachis wing P. hexagonoptera Broad Beech Fern
Y. rachis without wings
1. blades pinnate-pinnatifid or bipinnate
2. new fronds surrounded by stubble of older stipes
3. stipe w/joint, lower scales tan; frond lanceolate Woodsia ilvensis Rusty Cliff Fern
3. no joint on stipe, scales with stripe; frond ovate W. obtuse Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern
22
2. stubble of older stipes not present around new growth
4. stipes slender with few or no scales; blades with minute, sharp hairs
5. frond elliptical overall Thelypteris noveboracensis New York Fern
5. base of frond only slightly narrower than in middle
6. veinlets of pinnae lobes unbranched T. simulata Bog Fern
6. veinlets of pinnae lobes forked
T. palustris Marsh Fern
4. stipe hairy or scaly
7. stipe & blade with dense whitish hairs Deparia acrostichoides Silvery Glade Fern
7. stipe stout and scaly Dryopteris – see key below
1. blades bipinnate-pinnatifid or tripinnate
8. lowest pinnae pair much larger than those above; blade triangular
9. frond delicate <18 in. Gymnocarpium dryopteris Oak Fern
9. frond leathery often >30 in. Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern
8. lowest pinnae pair smaller or not much larger than those above
a. lower pinnae w/ pinnules above costa shorter than those below Dryopteris – see key below
a. lowest pinnae symmetrical about costa
b. pinnae, rachis, & stipe without hair or scales Adiantum pedatum Maidenhair
b. pinnae, rachis, and/or stipe with hair or scales
c. stipe without scales, hairy
d. stipe dark brown to purplish, densly hairy Cheilanthes lanosa Hairy Lip Fern
d. stipe dark at base, reddish above Dennstaedtia penctilobula Hay-scented Fern
c. stipe with scales
e. stipe and rachis scaly
f. stipe and rachis densely scaley Polystichum braunii Braun’s Holly Fern
f. rachis w/ few scales or short hairs Athyrium filis-femina Lady Fern
e. scales only present on lower stipe
g. fr nar. triangular, glandular Cystopteris bulbifera Bulblet Bladder Fern
g. fr lanceolate to nar. elliptic, glabrous or w/few glands; bulblets rare
h. pin. diverging from rachis at acute, often curving C. tenuis Brittle Fern
h. pinnae at 90 deg., not curving toward blade tip C. fragilis Fragile Fern
Dryopteris:
A. blades pinnate-pinnatifid throughout or bipinnate at the base only
B. sori at or near margin of segments
Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood Fern
B. sori midway between margin & midrib or closer to midribs
C. low pinnae ovate, scales dark
D. goldiana Giant Wood Fern
C. lowest pinnae triangular; scales at stipe base tan
D. pinnae of fertile fronds twisted almost horizontally
D. clintoniana Clinton’s Wood Fern
D. pinnae of fertile fronds twisted horizontally
D. cristata Crested Wood Fern
A. blades bipinnate to tripinate throughout
E. lowest medial pinnule shorter than pinnule next to it; evergreen D. intermedia Fancy Fern
E. lowest medial pinnule longer than pinnule next to it; deciduous
F. lowest medial pinnule subopposite of only one above D. carthusiana Spinulose Wood Fern
F. lowest medial pinnule subopposite of two pinnules D. campyloptera Mountain Wood Fern
Giant Wood Fern Dryopteris goldiana
23
KEY BY SIZE (KEY THREE)
A. fronds greater than 12 inches (when full grown- often much smaller)
B. fronds greater than 3 feet (when full grown- often much smaller) - large ferns
C. distinct fertile section or fertile frond separate from sterile frond
D. fertile portion distinct section on frond otherwise like sterile frond
E. fertile portion in the middle of veg.; can be >5ft Osmunda claytoniana Interrupted Fern
E. fertile portion at the tip of vegetative frond, up to 5 feet tall
O. regalis Royal Fern
D. fertile frond separate
F. fiddlehead w/ fuzz; fertile fr. in e. spring; frond to 3 ft O. cinnamomea Cinnamon Fern
F. fiddlehead and stipe w/o fuzz; frond 3 to 9 ft Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich Fern
C. fertile fronds similar to sterile fronds
G. frond divided into three branches, to 6 ft tall Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern
G. frond with single central rachis
H. stipe with scales
I. pinnules rounded or slightly toothed
J. fronds 1.5 to 5 feet ___________
Dryoperis clintoniana Clinton’s Wood Fern
J. fronds 2 to 4 feet ______________ D. goldiana Giant Wood Fern
I. pinnules with definite bristles, just > 3 feet Polystichum braunii Braun’s Holly Fern
H. stipe blackish, shiny, w/ two fine grooves Woodwardia virginica Virginia Chain Fern
B. fronds less than or up to 3 feet - moderate sized ferns
K. stipe with scales
L. quite scaly
M. blades pinnate (pinnae with lobes) Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas Fern
M. blades at least bipinnate
N. blades bipinnate at the base only
O. frond 10 to 39 in Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood Fern
O. frond 14 to 30 in
D. cristata Crested Wood Fern
N. blades bipinnate-pinnatifid to tripinate throughout
P. ind. & axes of seg. glandular; evergreen, 13-35 in D. intermedia Fancy Fern
P. indusia & axes of segments not glandular; fronds deciduous
Q. bl. ovate-lanceolate; fr. erect, 8-30 in D. carthusiana Spinulose Wood Fern
Q. bl. ovate-triangular; fr. spreading, 10-36 in D. campyloptera Mountain W. F.
L. slightly scaly or scales only at base of stipe
R. rachis winged
S. veins netted, pinnae wide
T. fertile frond persisting, beadlike; 8-16 in. tall Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive Fern
T. fert fr thinner, elongated sori, 24 in. Woodwardia areolata Netted Chain Fern
S. veins branched Phegopteris hexagonoptera Broad Beech Fern
R. rachis without wings, veins branched
U. blade pinnate Diplazium pycnocarpon Narrow-leaved Glade Fern
U. blade bi-pinnate
V. frond up to 3 feet Deparia acrostichoides Silvery Glade Fern
V. frond less than 30 inches
W. frond elliptical overall Thelypteris noveboracensis New York Fern
W. frond with flattened base T. simulata Bog Fern
K. stipe without scales
X. stipe hairy
Y. dense on forest floor, stipe dark at base Dennstaedtia penctilobula Hay-scented Fern
Y. growing on cliffs, rock ledges, and slopes
Z. slightly hairy when young Woodsia obtuse Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern
Z. stipe dark brown to purplish, densly hairy Cheilanthes lanosa Hairy Lip Fern
X. stipe smooth, without hairs
1. blade branching; 12 – 26 in. Adiantum pedatum Maidenhair
1. blade with one central rachis
2. blade pinnate; 12 – 20 in. Asplenium playtyneuron Ebony Spleenwort
24
2. blade bipinnate
3. growing in wet soil, frond 18-24 inches Thelypteris palustris Marsh Fern
3. growing on limestone cliffs, 12-30 in. Cystopteris bulbifera Bulblet Bladder Fern
A. fronds less than or up to 12 inches - small ferns
4. separate fertile stalk branches well above ground, with beadlike sporangia
5. sterile blades triangular, 5-50cm long; fronds >2.5dm: fertile segments sometimes absent
6. sterile blade thin; deciduous; 6-30 in. Botrychium virginianum Rattlesnake Fern
6. sterile blade leathery; frond appearing in late summer; evergreen
7. terminal segment w/ acute tip; pointed teeth
B. dissectum Cut-leaved Grape Fern
7. terminal segments rounded at tip; margins with rounded teeth
8. term. segment not elongate; fields & open woods B. multifidum Leathery G. F.
8. term. segment elongate; alluvial woods
B. oneidense Blunt-lobed Grape Fern
5. sterile blades oblong to narrowly triangular; fronds <1dm; fertile segments always present
9. sterile blades triangular, sessile; segments acute B. lanceolatum Triangle Moonwort
9. sterile blades elliptic or ovate, short stalked; segments obtuse or rounded
a. sterile blade pinnate to bipinnate
B. matricariifolium Daisy-leaved Moonwort
a. sterile blade entire to pinnatifid; seg. w/out midrib
B. simplex Least Moonwort
4. fertile portion otherwise
b. frond undivided, entire, unlike typical ferns
c. frond arrow-shaped; 1-12 in. Asplenium rhizophyllum Walking Fern
c. frond tongue-shaped Ophioglossum pusillum Northern Adder’s Tongue
b. frond divided like typical ferns
d. frond divided into three branches, delicate <18 in. Gymnocarpium dryopteris Oak Fern
d. frond with single central rachis
e. frond pinnate or pinnatifid
f. blades triangular; seg. m. acute Polypodium appalachianum Appalacian Polypody
f. blades narrowly ellciptic; segments rounded P. virginianum Rock Cap
2 – 10 in. Asplenium tricomanes Maidenhair Spleenwort
e. frond bipinnate or bipinnate-pinnatifid
g. frond 3 – 7 inches Asplenium ruta-muraria Wall Rue
g. larger fronds greater than 8 inches (possibly)
h. rachis attached at an angle; 12 in. Phegopteris connectilis Long Beech Fern
h. stipe & rachis on continuum
i. frond 3-12 in., stipe 2/3s as long as blade Woodsia ilvensis Rusty Cliff Fern
i. larger fronds possibly over 12 inches
j. 6-14 in., lower pinnae longer than above Cystopteris tenuis Brittle Fern
j. 6-18 in., lower pinnae shorter than above Cystopteris fragilis Fragile Fern
(not included in this key is the vine-like Lygodium palmatum Climbing Fern that can get 15 feet long;
nor has, by neglect, Lady Fern been included – which will be corrected later – it is 18 to 36 inches)
Rusty Cliff Fern Woodsia ilvensis
25
KEY BY SORI (KEY FOUR)
A. fertile portion or frond distinctly different in appearance from sterile
B. fertile frond distinctly different from sterile frond
C. fertile frond brown
D. fertile frond cinnamon brown Osmunda cinnamomea Cinnamon Fern
D. fertile frond dark brown, beadlike, persisting Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive Fern
C. fertile frond green
E. appearing in summer Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich Fern
E. fert fr thinner than sterile w/ elongated sori; spring Woodwardia areolata Netted Chain Fern
B. fertile frond like sterile but with distinct fertile section
F. fertile section of frond distinct but not branching
G. fertile portion interrupts sterile-like frond midway Osmunda claytoniana Interrupted Fern
G. fertile portion at top end of frond
H. frond legume-like O. regalis Royal Fern
H. frond leathery, pinnate Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas Fern
F. separate fertile stalk branches well above ground, with beadlike sporangia
I. sterile blades triangular, 5-50cm long; fronds >2.5dm: fertile segments sometimes absent
J. sterile blade thin; deciduous Botrychium virginianum Rattlesnake Fern
J. sterile blade leathery; frond appearing in late summer; evergreen
K. terminal segment w/ acute tip; pointed teeth B. dissectum Cut-leaved Grape Fern
K. terminal segments rounded at tip; margins with rounded teeth
L. term. segment not elongate; fields & open woods B. multifidum Leathery G. F.
L. term. segment elongate; alluvial woods
B. oneidense Blunt-lobed Grape Fern
I. sterile blades oblong to narrowly triangular; fronds <1dm; fertile segments always present
M. sterile blades triangular, sessile; segments acute B. lanceolatum Triangle Moonwort
M. sterile blades elliptic or ovate, short stalked; segments obtuse or rounded
N. sterile blade pinnate to bipinnate B. matricariifolium Daisy-leaved Moonwort
N. sterile blade entire to pinnatifid; seg. w/out midrib B. simplex Least Moonwort
A. fertile portion or frond not distinctly different from sterile (sporangia on underside of “normal” frond)
O. sorus without indusium
P. blades triangular; seg. m. acute Polypodium appalachianum Appalacian Polypody
P. blades narrowly ellciptic; segments rounded P. virginianum Rock Cap
O. sorus with indusium
Q. indusium attached under sorus
R. indusium cup-like Dennstaedtia penctilobula Hay-scented Fern
R. indusium star-shaped Woodsia ilvensis Rusty Cliff Fern
Q. indusium attached on one side
S. indusium curved
T. indusium eyelash shaped Athyrium filis-femina Lady Fern
T. indusium kidney-shaped
U. sori at or near margin of segments Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood Fern
U. sori midway between midvein and margin
V. fronds up to 5 feet
W. sori midway b. margin and midvein D. clintoniana Clinton’s Wood Fern
W. sori near midvein; evenly spaced D. goldiana Giant Wood Fern
V. fronds up to 4 feet
X. indusia without glands
Y. sori small D. carthusiana Spinulose Wood Fern
Y. sori prominent; on upper pinnae D. cristata Crested Wood Fern
X. indusia with glands (sometimes in D. campyloptera)
Z. sori small
D. intermedia Fancy Fern
Z. sori prominent D. campyloptera Mountain Wood Fern
S. indusium straight or slightly curved
1. under inrolled margins
2. sori nearly round Cheilanthes lanosa Hairy Lip Fern
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2. sori oblong / elongated
3. fertile fronds rare, sporangia in continuous marginal line Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern
3. crescent inverse-indusium, at intervals along segment margins Adiantum pedatum Maidenhair
1. not under inrolled margin
4. sori chainlike
Woodwardia virginica Virginia Chain Fern
4. sori otherwise
5. sori oblong / elongated
6. short sori, indusium attached on one side along vein
7. 6 sori per segment, not paired Asplenium ruta-muraria Wall Rue
7. sori in pairs
8. 1-5 sori pair per pinna, ind. translucent tan A. tricomanes Maidenhair Spleenwort
8. 1-12 sori pairs per pin., indusium translucent white A. platyneuron Ebony Spleenwort
6. long sori
9. sori silvery, then blue-gray Deparia acrostichoides Silvery Glade Fern
9. mature sori dark brown Diplazium pycnocarpon Narrow-leaved Glade Fern
5. sori round
10. indusium present
11. indusium star, cupped at first, w/ 5-6 segments Woodsia obtuse Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern
11. indusium not star-like
12. indusium like hood / pocket / bladder , quickly fading
13. without glandular hairs Cystopteris tenuis Brittle Fern
13. indusium w/ short-stalked glands Cystopteris bulbifera Bulblet Bladder Fern
12. indusium attached at center or kidney-shaped
14. indusium kidney shaped
15. ind. ciliate, sori submarginal Thelypteris noveboracensis New York Fern
15. indusium glanded (reduced in T. palustris)
16. sori spaced, closer to margin than midvein T. simulata Bog Fern
16. sori mostly upper pinnae in rows near midvein T. palustris Marsh Fern
14. indusium round, attached at center Polystichum braunii Braun’s Holly Fern
10. indusium absent; sori small, round
17. sori at end of vein Phegopteris connectilis Long Beech Fern
17. sori just before end of vein Phegopteris hexagonoptera Broad Beech Fern
(not included in this key is the vine-like Lygodium palmatum Climbing Fern with spores at top of plant)
Ebony Spleenwort Asplenium platyneuron
27
Daisy-leaved Moonwort Botrychium matricariifolium
Braun’s Holly Fern Polystichum braunii
Narrow-leaved Glade Fern Diplazium pycnocarpon
New York Fern Thelypteris noveboracensis
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Botanical Descriptions of Native American Medicinal Ferns
These are supplemental, not stand-alone descriptions - little notes about distinctions that
can function as quick reminders if you are carrying this document and not your fern
identification books. In order to be practical, these descriptions require some familiarity
with the material. That is with the exception of a few species, such as Maidenhair and
Christmas Fern, that are so distinct that just a couple simple notes should suffice for the
careful reader to figure out. (Maidenhair tends to like rock ledges that many do not hike
through much, but Christmas Fern is very common throughout our woodlands and is
likely seen by readers on a regular basis.) Only the species included in “Descriptions of
Medicinal Uses of Ferns by Native Americans” (p. 6) are included here. However, much
information can be gained from the keys about the species not described here. Again,
this is only supplemental – refer to the bibliography.
The identification of ferns is easy as there are a relatively small number of species in any
given area; though difficult as the species are highly variable and similar to each other.
Considering that there are only, in my estimation, about 50 ferns (the 48 listed above plus
a couple hybrids and perhaps rare ferns) in 23 genera growing in our area it should be
relatively easy to get to know them.
Adiantum pedatum Maidenhair – This distinct species has purplish stems that branch
into a kind of fan shape, with fan-shaped pinnules that are incised at one edge. It likes
the moist woodlands with Ginseng and the other pointer plants.
Asplenium rhizophyllum Walking Fern – This small fern has arrowhead shaped fronds
that taper thinly to a point that sprouts another fern where it touches the ground.
Asplenium tricomanes Maidenhair Spleenwort – This small pinnate fern grows in
shaded rock crevices from short-creeping rhizomes with 15 – 35 pairs of crenate-serrate,
oblong pinnae. Blade 2 dm long. Stipe and rachis reddish-brown to black. We have two
subspecies: ssp. trichomanes has its fronds arching away from the rock face upon which
is grows with mostly alternate pinnae, while ssp. quadrivalens has its fronds pressed to
the rock face upon which it lives with mostly opposite pinnae.
Athyrium filis-femina Lady Fern – A scaly, creeping rhizome produces bipinnate fronds
(pinnules deeply lobed with toothed margins) about 16 – 36 inches long and 4 – 14 wide,
upon a greenish to reddish stipe with dark brown scales. Rachis sometimes has short
hairs or a few scales. Sori elongated and attached to indusia on the long edge. Indusia
toothed and with hairs, curved- like an eyelid (for which it is named). Common and
growing in moist woods, swamps, and fields. This fern is highly variable.
Botrychium virginianum Rattlesnake Fern – This fern appears in spring without
fiddleheads (erect vernation). The fertile section (sporophore) branches from the top of
the stipe away from the base of the sterile blade; which is bright green, triangular, and
divided into pinnae that are divided into pinnules with few, simple viens and toothed or
lobed edges. Sporophore with six or more branches with bright yellow sporangia.
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Cystopteris fragilis Fragile Fern – This small (4-10 inch fronds) bright green fern
prefers shaded cliffs. Fronds dry up in drought, but can return or will remain if moist.
Highly variable pinnules lobed with toothed (veins ending at tips) or smooth margins.
Brittle stipe a little shorter than blade with few scales near reddish brown base; becoming
green or straw-colored above.
Dennstaedtia penctilobula Hay-scented Fern – Large patches of these yellowish green
fronds covering forests floor indicate deer over-browse. Coming from a thin horizontal
rhizome, the stipe is very dark at the base and covered with white hairs, supporting the
tripinnate blade. Cup-shaped indusium at margin of pinnules.
Dryopteris campyloptera Mountain Wood Fern – This endangered fern has triangular
tripinnate-pinnatifid blades that are wider than others in the genus. Fronds 10 – 36 inches
long with 15 – 20 pairs of pinnae. Pinnules have toothed margins with bristles on the
teeth. Basal pinnae with lower pinnules longer (3-5 times) and offset compared to the
upper. Rachis and stipe are scaly, as is the rhizome. Sori halfway
between midvein and margin. Rare.
Dryopteris carthusiana Spinulose Wood Fern – This lacy
bipinnate-pinatafid fern tends to grow in clumps from a short
creeping, scaly rhizome. Rachis and stipe also covered in
scattered pale brown scales. Frond is 8 – 30 inches, with stipe 1/4
- 1/3 of frond. Lower pinnules on basal pinnae are twice as long
as the upper. Sterile fronds may stay green in winter.
Dryopteris cristata Crested Wood Fern – Also called Narrow
Swamp Fern, this pinnate-pinnatifid fern has fertile fronds that are
slightly more narrow than sterile. Fertile fronds deciduous while smaller sterile fronds
are evergreen. Fronds are 14 – 28 inches long and 3 – 5inches wide, with blunt basal
pinnae. Pinnae of erect fertile fronds are widely spaced and tilted horizontally. Rachis is
green and only scaly on the lower part. Scaly stipe is 1/4 - 1/3 of frond.
Dryopteris marginalis Marginal Wood Fern – This leathery evergreen fern has fronds
12 – 39 inches long with 15 – 20 pairs of pinnae that are divided into deeply cut lobes
without teeth. Stipe is swollen at the base and has many long scales. Rachis scales are
smaller. Sori near margins in well-spaced rows.
Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich Fern – This is a source of edible fiddleheads.
Distinctive sterile fronds large (20 – 50 inches long, 10 inches wide) and oblong, tapering
toward base, and arising from clump. Fertile fronds are light green when young,
becoming dark brown, and persisting though winter. Sterile blades pinnate-pinnatafid.
Onoclea sensibilis Sensitive Fern – This fern is common in swamps and other wet
places. Sterile fronds are light green and covered with netted veins, divided into wide,
wavy-margined pinnae. Fertile fronds compact and persist through winter (dried and
dark brown), a common sight in swampy areas.
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Osmunda cinnamomea Cinnamon Fern – This large (commonly 1 m), clump-forming
fern has sterile blades with pinnae that are divided into lobes and fertile fronds that
become cinnamon colored. The fiddleheads are bitter and covered with dense hair (white
when young and turning cinnamon brown as fronds uncoil). Grows in wet places.
Osmunda claytoniana Interrupted Fern – This large fern has distinctive fertile blades
that are “interrupted” in the middle by the fertile pinnae, which are dark green and dense.
Osmunda regalis Royal Fern – This large fern has bipinnate blades with distinctly
stalked entire pinnules (unusually large and legume-like for ferns). Fertile blades have a
cluster of dense fertile pinnules at their tips.
Polyopdium virginianum Rock Cap – This small fern (fronds usually less than 16 inches)
likes to grow on the top of boulders and rock ledges via a thin, scaley, creeping rhizome.
The dark green, leathery blade is divided into entire lobes that almost reach the rachis.
Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas Fern – This dark green evergreen fern has
stocking-shaped pinnae. It grows in clumps as one of the most common ferns in our area.
Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern – This fern is another source of edible fiddleheads.
The fiddleheads are claw-like, for they unfold into a three-sectioned blade. New fronds
are produced all season from thick rhizomes in poor soil, often spreading extensively.
Stipe and rachis grooved on upper surface, dark maroon at base.
Thelypteris palustris Marsh Fern – This rare pinnate fern is found in wet areas
(preferring areas wetter than the New York Fern). Fronds 7 – 36 inches growing from a
widely creeping and branching, black rhizome with a few scales. Its stipe has no scales.
Its blade is wide above the base. Sori mostly on upper pinnae in rows near midvein with
kidney-shaped indusia.
Ostrich Fern Matteuccia struthiopteris
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LOCAL FERNS & RELATIVES USED IN NORTH & SOUTH AMERICA,
EUROPE, ASIA, & AFRICA
This section is offered in order to further shed light on the nature of the ferns in our area
by considering the uses of related species. Also included are some descriptions of how
our native ferns have been used in other lands.
Adiantum capillus-veneris Southern Maidenhair
To some this is the Common Maidenhair, but for us it
is the Southern relative of our Maidenhair. It is used
by the Peruvian Natives in the Amazon for coughs,
colds, fevers, rheumatism, heartburn, hair loss,
gallstones, and stomach ailments; prepared as an
infusion or syrup from the fronds. Natives in the
Peruvian Andes use the rhizome decoction for hair
loss, gallstones, and jaundice. In the Brazilian Amazon
used for bronchitis and coughs. In Europe it was used
for coughs, bronchitis, sore throat, alcoholism, kidney
imbalances, and worms. It is also used in Nepal and
India for coughs and the like. Skenderi considers it
demulcent, antitussive, astringent, bitter, and
hypoglycemic; especially for inflammation of the upper respiratory system in bronchitis,
laryngitis, and cough (including whooping cough).
Asplenium adiantum-nigra Black Spleenwort
This European fern was used like Maidenhair for coughs and as a hair rinse.
Asplenium ceterach Common Spleenwort
This European relative (by genus) of our Walking Fern, Ebony Spleenwort, and Wall Rue
has been used for enlarged spleen, lung congestion, constipation, urinary gravel, and
gravel of the gall bladder.
Asplenium horridum Lacy Spleenwort
This non-local Spleenwort is used in Hawaii for blood impurities, sore mouths, fainting,
and muscle stiffness.
Asplenium nidus Birdnest Fern
This Hawaiian relative of our Spleenworts is used for ulcers, mouth sores, tuberculosis,
and for general weakness. It is especially used for sores or weakness in children.
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Asplenium ruta-muraria Wall Rue
This native to both Europe and America was used by Europeans for coughs,
spleen disorders, kidney stones, ulcers, sores, and hair loss. It was used to
rectified the blood.
Asplenium scolopendrium Hart’s Tongue Fern
This relative of our Spleenworts (Walking Fern and Wall Rue) is considered astringent,
wound-healing, demulcent, and diuretic. The full-grown fronds are used for digestive,
respiratory, and urinary inflammations, including kidney gravel. Mouthwash is used for
the mouth and throat. Externally (wash, poultice, compress, or ointment) Hart’s Tongue
Fern is used for wounds and hemorrhoids.
Athyrium filis-femina Lady Fern
Used in Europe for intestinal worms as a milder remedy than Male Fern. Nuxalk of
Western Canada used subspecies cyclosorum (which is not in our area) as a wash for sore
eyes as a simple or compound root decoction.
Botrychium virginanum Rattlesnake Fern
This native fern is used in India for dysentery. A poultice or lotion made from the roots is
applied to snakebites, bruises, cuts and sores. A tea made from the roots is emetic,
induces sweating and is expectorant. It is used in the treatment of lung ailments.
Diplazium meyenianum Meyen’s Twinsorus Fern
This relative of Narrow-leaved Glade Fern (D. pycnocarpon) is used in Hawaii for boils.
Dryopteris crassirhizoma Thick-stemmed Wood Fern / Guanzhong
The rhizome and leaf stalk base of this Wood Fern is used in Chinese medicine for
parasites. It is used for colds due to pathogenic heat in the blood, blood in the stool,
vomiting blood, bleeding irregularly between menses, and red spots due to fever. It is
classified as slightly bitter and cold, with an effect on the liver and spleen meridians.
Dryopteris felix-mas Male Fern
This a main medicinal for intestinal worms. It is recommended to avoid for children
under three, pregnant and lactating women, and for those with cardiovascular, liver, or
kidney disorders, anemia, or diabetes. Alcohol should be avoided during use.
Cheilanthes fendleri Fendler’s Lipfern
The Keres used this relative of our Hairy Lip Fern as a douche after childbirth.
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Cheilanthes wootonii Beaded Lipfern
This southwestern Lipfern is used by the Navajo for life medicine and was used for
gunshot wounds.
Gymnocarpium disjunctum Pacific Oak Fern
This relative of our local Oak Fern was used as a demulcent by the Abnaki.
Lygodium flexuosum Maidenhair Creeper
This relative of our Climbing Fern is used in India for gonorrhea and piles.
Lygodium japonicum Japanese Climbing Fern / Hai Jing Sha
The spores of this relative of our Climbing Fern is used to clear heat from the urinary
system and for sore throat. It is considered sweet and cold, with an effect on the bladder
and small intestine meridians.
Matteuccia struthiopteris Ostrich Fern
This favorite edible is used in Traditional Chinese Medicine.
Ophioglossum vulgatum Adder’s Tongue
This relative of our O. pulsillum, Northern Adder’s Tongue, was used in Europe
externally for wounds, either fresh or in preparation. In Nigeria the dried rhizome is used
externally for burns, wounds, and sores.
Osmunda japonica Japanese Flowering Fern / Ziqiguanzhong
This relative of our Osmunda is used in Chinese medicine like Dryopteris crassirhizoma.
Osmunda regalis Royal Fern
In Europe the root decoction was used for gallstones and spleen disorders, and a salve or
ointment from the root was applied to cuts, bruises, broken bones and other inflictions
due to trauma. Such indications suggest some therapeutic similarity to Sensitive Fern, as
a fern that affects the blood. Often herbs that are used in the treatment of bruises and
injury have a blood-moving property. The uses listed here could therefore seem
paradoxical, as agents used for cuts are often selected because they stop bleeding. As
discussed in the section on Sensitive Fern, this paradoxical quality is not uncommon. To
a certain degree it is to be expected from a spleen tonic
Used for wound healing, gout, consumption, and jaundice.
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Phegopteris Ako-lea
This relative of our Beech Fern is used in Hawaii during childbirth and for poor appetite.
Pleopeltis polypodioides Ressurrection Fern
This mostly Southeastern fern was formerly named Polypodium. Cherokee used in
formula for sores. The formula included our Rock Cap Fern and Plaintain.
Polypodium vulgare Polypody / Brake Fern / Rock Brake
This rhizome is used as a cholagogue, laxative, and expectorant for minor hepatobiliary
problems and for respiratory problems. It is recommended to avoid during pregnancy,
which is probably good advice regarding all ferns.
Polystichum munitum Western Swordfern
Native Americans used this relative of Christmas Fern and Braun’s Holly Fern for sores,
boils, dandruff, sore throats, disease in the womb, and to facilitate childbirth. The
Kwakiutl placed fronds under the bed of young girls numbering the amount of children to
be had.
Pteridium aquilinum Bracken
Europeans used for worms, swelling and hardness of the spleen, and stomach ailments.
Used by the Chinese as a contraceptive and to reduce the male sex drive.
Thelypteris arida
This relative of our Thelypteris species is used in India as paste for wounds and cuts.
Woodsia neomexicana New Mexico Cliff Fern
This Woodsia of the southwest, relative of our Rusty Cliff Fern and Blunt-lobed Cliff
Fern, was used by the Navajo in cold, compound infusion and as lotion for injury.
The Keres used as a douche at childbirth.
Woodwardia japonica Japonica Chain Fern
This relative of our Chain Ferns is used in Traditional Chinese Medicine.
Woodwardia radicans Chain Fern
Used in Europe for injuries. Are members of the genus are Netted Chain Fern and
Virginia Chain Fern.
35
PREPARATION OF MEDICINES
Technically, tea is made out of tea (Camellia sinensis). Green tea, black tea, white tea,
and twig tea are all from tea. Herbal “tea” is not really tea, but is generally either an
infusion or decoction. An infusion is when the herb is steeped in water that has been
heated (usually to a boil or near boil) and then taken off the flame. A decoction is when
the herb is simmered in the water. Herbalists refer to short infusion and long infusions as
well as short decoctions and long decoctions. Green tea is prepared by short infusion,
which means a short steeping time. For medicinal herbs medium and long infusions are
usually preferred for full strength preparations. A short decoction of around or less than a
quarter of an hour is often sufficient, while many preparations use a long decoction time
of several hours. A cold infusion is when the herb is soaked in water without the use of
heat.
In Native American medicine the preparation begins with the desire for help and then
with the harvesting of herbs, at which point a conversation takes place during which the
herbalist explains to the herbs and to the Creator the reason for wanting to harvest (the
story of the sick person) and asks permission from the plant to harvest.
Tantaquidgeon offers this example of a Lenape medicine gathering prayer:
Grandfather, I come now for medical treatment. Your grandson ____ needs your aid.
He is giving you a smoke-offering here of tobacco. He implores you that he will get well
because he, your child, is pitiful. And I myself earnestly pray that you will take pity on
him the sick one, I wish for him to get well forever of that which is causing pain in his
body. For with you alone rests the spiritual power sufficient to bless anyone with, and
hear now him our Grandfather tobacco, I beg of him that he will help me when we plead
with earnest heart that you will take pity on your grandchild and that you will accept this
appeal. I am thankful, Grandfather, also Creator, that you grant our appeal this day that
we ask. I am thankful Grandfather. That is enough for this time.
You will notice that many of the ferns discussed in this document are used in formulas, or
compounds, which are combinations of herbs. It is typical of traditional practices to
combine herbs, which helps to emphasize certain desired medicinal properties as well as
negate undesired properties, buffer strong effects, and avoid side-effects. The combining
of herbs is a highly sophisticated art form that can not be easily described in introductory
material. While it is difficult to explain hard fast rules for doing such, it can be equated
to cooking (which also is an art) where some ingredients combine well with others, but it
also depends on the skill of the cook.
It is interesting to note that Native Americans would have often used herbs fresh, as their
ability to store dry herbs was limited and their lifestyle was traditionally nature-based. In
contrast, today’s herbal medicine utilizes primarily dried herbs. In many cases drying
distinctly alters the medicinal action or potency of the herbs (which has been understood
for ages in spite of being largely ignored by today’s supplement industry).
36
LENNI LENAPE MEDICINE
Lenni Lenape herbalists amazed settlers with their knowledge of medicinal herbs. Most
people would have had some common knowledge of medicinal herbs and how to use
them. Herbalists were of different kinds based on their knowledge level.
As was taught to me by Taterbug and confirmed by my research, a central part of Lenni
Lenape medicine was the medicine bag or medicine bundle. Within such a bundle are
power objects such as stones, feathers, and special herbs. These bags or bundles carried
personal significance for the owner (magical, sentimental, etc.) and could have special
healing properties. One of the first things Taterbug told me was to find a stone to keep in
my medicine bag. He also at a later time gave me a stone of his selection along with
helping me make a medicine bag. These stones were central to his meditation.
Through the medicine bundle, which almost everyone had, one could diagnose and treat
illness. The Lenape’s world was a world of spirit. The medicine bundle and other
magical objects and practices allowed for communication with the spirits.
Consistent with our idea of the “primitive” concept of disease, the Lenni Lenape
considered spirits and supernatural energies to be a major cause of disease. Meteinu were
a certain kind of herbalists that worked with the spiritual and energetic causes of illness
and utilized divination as a form of diagnosis.
Dreams would also be considered when attempting to understand the cause for illness.
This is consistent with the general Native regard for dreams, which was high, and with
the spiritual and shamanistic disposition of the Native. Shamanism is largely centered
around the induced trance and dreaming as a source of other-worldly information.
Apparently visceral realization of the limit of the senses and of the ordinary waking mind
is natural for those who live close to Nature and are subject to Her whims, and this leads
to seeking out transcendental sources of information and help from the spirits and from
the Great Spirit.
As with other Native people, the Lenape would make an offering of tobacco and perform
certain ceremony while harvesting medicinal herbs. Care was taken to not weaken the
medicine’s power or reverse its curing properties with improper harvesting.
In addition to honoring the herbs and asking their permission for harvest, the Lenape had
certain interesting practices, such as stripping bark downward to use as a cathartic and
stripping upward to use as an emetic. Bark would usually be gathered from the east side
of the tree.
The sweat lodge (which was a small lodge- sapling-framed dome or stick framed into an
embankment in which red-hot stones would be placed and water pored over them) was an
important adjunct to herbal medicine. Diaphoretic herbs might be taken for the sweat.
37
Lenape herbalists would not treat themselves, but would take medicine from another.
This idea is consistent with my experience and belief that when one is in the midst of
illness help is required from outside. This is seen in the use of prayer in medicine as well
as in the help from others (healers, friends, and family) who assist in the changing of
certain patterns. This is also similar to the idea in psychology that one needs help from
outside sources (such as a therapist or loved one) to become conscious of unconscious
patterns. Preventative approaches to health, on the other hand, must be the responsibility
of the individual. No one can give completely to another the spirit, mindset, dedication,
habits, and good luck that are necessary to create health and wholeness. This is seen in
the Native lifestyle that was largely geared toward the perfection of certain survival
skills. Ancient conditions were not favorable toward laziness like those of today.
Illness must be approached with humility. The sick has done something to bring about
their illness and must be humbled in order to correct their faulty judgment and behavior.
Even the herbs themselves are approached with humility and respect – permission is
asked and offerings presented. God is appealed to for forgiveness, guidance, and healing.
The spirits and relatives are called on for help. This humility is balanced with a mastery
of the art of herbalism and a knowledge of the plants and practices related to healing.
The standard image of a Native is of someone with a superb comprehension of the
environment and their position in it. This view was generated by early accounts of
encounters with Native Americans by foreigners and is supported even today in pop
culture. However, we fail to grasp the significance of such harmony.
It is said that a Lenape could travel 200 miles to a given destination. To modern man,
dependant as we are modern technology (GPS, cell phones, etc.), this is unfathomable.
Certainly the so-called primitive man had navagation abilities similar to that of migrating
birds. It seems likely that such ability was found throughout Native life – not just in the
navigation of the hills but also in the understanding of the intricacies of the forest,
including herbal medicine.
The Lenape, like other people from all over the world (including the Chinese, Europeans,
and to the best of my knowledge all others), used the doctrine of signatures. Many
examples of this can be found above, such as the use of Rattlesnake Fern for snakebites.
Although many think that the Doctrine of Signatures, which states that a plant has some
perceivable indication of its use, is an outdated superstition it is indeed a highly
sophisticated theory. American herbalism as it exists today is quite rudimentary and
crude. Certainly as it evolves it will grow to once again include the Doctrine of
Signatures as a central idea, just as many Native ideas will be brought back into practice.
It is certainly tragic that so much has been lost. It is my hope that future editions of this
booklet will include more information from Lenape sources.
38
IROQUOIS MEDICINE
The Iroquois are of New York State. Like the Lenape and other Natives, they considered
sickness to be of spiritual origin. Acting out of balance with the Creator, Creation,
spirits, and one’s own inner needs can cause illness.
Like the Lenape, care would have been taken when harvesting medicines to be sure that
the power of the medicine was as effective as possible and that there would be no harm to
pass as the result of improper harvesting. The Iroquois believed that gathering medicine
without offering tobacco would cause the joints to swell and stiffen.
It is interesting that several recorded Iroquios formulas combine different ferns. For
instance, a blood-building formula (used to treat weak blood) combined roots of
Interrupted Fern, Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), Bracken Fern, Christmas Fern,
and a Clubmoss (Lycopodium obscurum). Clubmoss is a fern ally. Another formula (for
gonorrhea) utilizes another species of Clubmoss (Lycopodium lucidulum) and another
fern ally called Horsetail (Equisetum hymale) with Cinnamon Fern and other herbs.
A formula used for the early stages of consumption included Sensitive Fern roots, Cherry
(Prunus serotina), Witch Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis),
Braken Fern roots, Fir (Abies balsamea), and Yew (Taxus canadensis).
As with other Native tribes and traditional people from around the world, the Iroquois
understanding of the causes of disease was so deeply holistic that there was not a clear
separation of body, mind, and soul as there is (more-or-less) in the dominant worldview
of today. Iroquois etiology included taboo violation, witchcraft, and other notions related
to energy and power objects. Much disease could be attributed to moon time (menstrual)
taboo violations. (I have witnessed such Native considerations of moon time. For
instance, menstruating women are forbidden to enter the sweat lodge ceremony.) Disease
could also be due to “natural causes”; however, bad luck and good luck play into the
course of illness and health. (In macrobiotics the ability to instinctually avoid accidents
is seen as a sign of health). I assume that to the Native living the right way and observing
certain laws of Nature would insure good luck, while the violation of natural order would
create bad luck. Careful observance of ritualistic ways (including the taking of food and
medicine, hunting practices, and performance of ceremony) would provide good health.
When studying Native American medicine it is important to recognize that our own
worldview and understanding of cause-and-effect is profoundly limited. One strength of
the Native mind that the modern man would do very well to adopt is the recognition of
Mystery. Arrogance rules the world of disease care today. Modern medicine, with all its
surgery and pharmaceuticals, is distinctly aggressive. The modern practitioner is often
quicker to use the scalpel than to recommend a change in diet; and the modern patient is
often more likely to consent to surgery or take a chemical drug than to consider a change
in lifestyle or diet. Either arrogance is so thick that a person fails to recognize their own
involvement in the disease process, or they are too unwilling to change the dietary or
lifestyle factor to take a holistic route- it is much easier to take a pill.
39
Native medicine, in contrast, is one and the same with their life of prayer, ceremony, and
adherence to unwritten laws of conduct. Consider, for example, the Native American
sweat lodge ceremony, which is often (perhaps always) used for healing. Those who
wish to enter the sacred lodge must get down on their hands and knees and crawl into the
lodge that is perhaps only waste or chest high with a door that does not permit walking in
with one’s head held high. Humility is a starting point for the healing path of the Native
American, as it has been for traditional, spiritual people all over the world.
Iroquois, Lenape, and other Native people would pray for the sick person even while
gathering the herbs to be used. This form of prayer is a kind of asking for help. It is a
humble approach. Quite different in some ways from the “demand” of the surgical tools.
Many beliefs governed the practice of harvesting herbs. For instance, two plants growing
close together were considered married and breaking the marriage (taking only one plant)
would result in sickness. To the modern American, such ideas can seem silly. The
Native, however, lived in a different world than modern man. Iroquois medicine did not
include the theories of germs and did not separate physical and mental disease like the
medicine of today – rather Native medicine acknowledged that each rock, plant, and
person is made up of spiritual energy. While plant taxonomy and disease theory from
such a worldview seems strange or even ignorant to modern man. I sincerely believe that
modern man should deeply consider how our modern worldview and its theories falls
short and learn what we can from the so-called primitive mind.
An interesting cough formula combines Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara), Rattlesnake Fern,
Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), and Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) in liquor
– one root of each (small root of Bloodroot) in a 50 cent flask. Coltsfoot is a standard
cough remedy from Europe. I consider Bloodroot to be one of the strongest lung herbs,
which I reserve for difficult cases. I am always interested to learn how it has been used
(this formula is for consumption). Aralia has interested me for some time. Its common
name indicates some medicinal property, but I know of very little modern use. As a
relative of Ginseng, an herb used by Natives, and a common under-story plant, I am very
interested in learning more about this plant. I bet this is a powerful formula.
Interrupted Fern is combined with Raspberry (Rubus idaeus), Clubmoss (Lycopodium),
Buckthorn (Rhamnus alnifolia), Horsetail (Equisetum), Blackberry (R. occidentalis),
Honeysuckle (Lonicera dioica), Bush Honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera), and Larch (Larix
laricina) for gonorrhea.
Rock Cap was combined with Oak (Quercus bicolor), Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), and
Choke Cherry (Prunus virginiana) to treat colera.
A treatment for rheumatism combined Stoneroot (Collinsonia canadensis), Black Cohosh
(Cimicifuga racemosa), Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides), Maidenhair, and
False Solomon’s Seal (Smilacina racemosa).
40
CHEROKEE MEDICINE
Like the other tribes discussed here, the Cherokee had an excellent knowledge of
medicinal herbs. The average Cherokee knew about 200 hundred herbs and an herbalist
knew 800. That so many of our ferns are known by Cherokee attests to their knowledge,
as well as to their ability to preserve it.
A formula for chills includes Maidenhair Fern, Christmas Fern, Fragile Fern, Hayscented Fern, and Cinnamon Fern. Blown on patient from east, north, west, and south, in
succession four times in morning for four days. A warm infusion is prepared from the
roots.
The four directions is a common theme in Native American medicine, spirituality, and
everyday life. Cherokee and other Natives call on the spirit helpers from the four
directions. Sometimes help is requested from a particular direction because of the nature
of the illness, such as in the following formula that is associated with West because of the
association of snakebites and death.
A formula for when someone dreams of being bitten by a snake consists of Rattlesnake
Fern roots, Virginia Snakeroot (Aristolochia serpentaria), or Tulip Tree (Liriodendron
tulipifera) bark prepared as decoction. It is rubbed onto the place where the dream snake
bit and given to the person to drink. The bite spot is breathed on four times and the
decoction produces vomiting.
For swollen breasts an infusion of four plants is used four mornings to produce vomiting.
Walking Fern, Horse Balm (Collinsonia canadensis), Wild Ginger (Asarum canadense),
and Sharp-lobed Hepatica (Hepatica acutiloba) are combined as whole plants, except for
Collinsonia from which either the root or leaf is used.
Emesis seems to have been a favorite therapy of Natives, and one that has largely fallen
out of practice. One imagines that the therapy came about quite naturally from the
observation of people feeling better after vomiting. While the logic of this in flu and
food poisoning is obvious, moderners obviously see little reason to vomit for other
illnesses. Again, this is an example of knowledge that has been largely lost for better or
worse.
David Winston is an herbalist who practices Cherokee traditions along with incorporating
Eclectic and Chinese knowledge. Although he runs a school and is quite interactive with
the greater herbal community, he is protective of indigenous knowledge like many
traditional practitioners. Even so, he has done a great job of introducing some of the
Native materia medica to modern American herbalism.
41
ENERGETICS OF CHINESE HERBAL MEDICINE
It may seem strange to include a section on Chinese medicine in a paper on Native
medicine, but there are many similarities in both theory and practice. Moxabustion, for
instance, (which is widely associated with Chinese medicine) is common in both
traditions.
Traditional medicine uses theories of energetics. Greeks used humorism. Ayurveda
(traditional East Indian medicine) uses theories such as the doshas. Energetics also plays
a role in Native medicine. Herbs are classified by their thermal nature (hot or cold) and
their moisture (moist or dry). In Chinese medicine these qualities are contained within
the theory of yin and yang, with yang being hot and dry and yin being cold and moist.
Heat represents the presence of activity- the movement of chi. When pathological, heat
creates inflammation. Heat also balances or destroys the fluids (yin). Fluids cool the
heat (the fire) and nourish the tissues. When stagnant, fluids create mucus.
In the Five Element system of Chinese medicine there are five flavors: sweet, salty, sour,
bitter, and pungent. Each of the flavors tends to produce a particular therapeutic effect.
Sweet nourishes tissue. Salty nourishes minerals and balances fluids. Sour cools and
constricts tissue. Bitter cools heat and dries dampness. Pungent disperses dampness
and stimulates heat. Bitter is the predominant flavor of ferns. The Horsetails (Equisium),
which are related to ferns but not included in this document (though they are commonly
used medicinally) can be classified as salty. This classification is because of their mineral
content- they are not what the average person thinks of as salty. And, likewise, with the
ferns, many are not overtly bitter but are still bitter energetically or otherwise in quality.
(“Bitter” generally refers to an actual taste, not just to something that tastes bad.)
Bitter herbs are generally drying in nature. This is probably the case with many of our
ferns, but not entirely. I suppose many also have a salty nature and rather than just
removing fluids they help to balance them. Further, some of the blood-building ferns
have a sweet energetic nature. Ferns tend to have a cleansing (bitter) rather than building
(sweet) nature, but could be thought of as a distinct food group that supplies a certain
quality of nutrition (in the manner of a superfood).
Ferns tend to live in delicate balance. They want just the right amount of water and just
the right amount of light. This reminds me of American Ginseng, which has a distinct
yin tonic quality. Some, of course, are quite tolerant of dryness; such as the southeastern
Resurrection Fern (Polypodium polypodioides) which lives on tree branches and dries up
during dry times and then greens up and “comes back to life” when it rains, and our own
Fragile Fern which can do the same. But again we find a certain affinity with water. The
botanist certainly considers the moisture content of the soil when observing ferns and the
Native Americans used ferns as a sign that there was water nearby. So, perhaps generally
with the ferns the bitterness removes stagnant fluids while their yin nature replenishes
healthy, vital fluids and balances water in the body.
42
Considering their appearance and habitat, ferns have a decidedly yin nature. Their lacey,
delicate qualities are quite feminine. As is evidenced by the ancients’ association of ferns
with Venus, this is a widely shared perspective. The feminine nature is expressed in their
helping in childbirth, mother’s recovery, and for a large array of gynecological concerns.
There is also in the ferns some definite yang properties. Their particular hardiness has
stood the test of time, and in many uses we find a warming or yang tonic action. For
instance, Rhizoma Gusuibu (Drynaria fortunei, or “Gu Sui Bu” or “Mender of Shattered
Bones”) is bitter, warm, tonifies kidneys and treats toothaches, bones, and hair. Also,
consider Cibotium barometz, or Gou Ji, which is used as a yang tonic to treat lower back
pain (considered to be due to a weakness of the kidneys.
There is an affinity to springtime in the ferns (hence our preoccupation with fiddleheads).
In the Chinese five element theory, this aligns ferns with the element of wood. I have
already mentioned the fern association with water. Their bitterness wants us to consider
fire, but we do not see that they have been used much for heart conditions. We do see,
however, that they have an affinity with the blood and help to regulate its flow, which is a
function of the heart and vessels. There is also an association with the small intestines.
A primary use of ferns is for parasites and Europeans used several ferns for gall bladder
obstructions (which affect the intestines).
In Chinese medicine the organ names do not represent exactly the same thing as in
western physiology. The spleen, for instance, in the chart above has little to do with our
western concept of the spleen. It is sometimes said that it is more like the pancreas, but
this still does not encompass the idea of the spleen in Chinese medicine. The Chinese
spleen is a very different concept than the traditional Greek spleen, which is still different
to a large extent from the modern spleen. (The Greek spleen stores black bile, as well as
shares function with the Chinese and modern spleens.) I included the main yin/yang or
solid/hollow organ correspondences. These are the primary associations, but there are
many additional associations that relate the rest of the body to the five elements. The
skin, for instance, is related to the lungs and to the metal element. Especially noteworthy
for our subject is that the reproductive system is associated with the water element.
It is not enough to merely look at the chemical constituents (you might have noticed that I
barely discuss this at all); we must consider the energetics of the plant. By this I mean
that the plant has a certain overall quality and personality; and that it often speaks to us in
signatures- specific qualities that indicate specific uses (as has been understood by all
traditional people).
In Chinese medicine ferns tend to be associated with the liver, spleen, small intestine, and
bladder meridians (energy channels).
The Chinese spleen holds blood in place, and is a major factor in the consideration of
menstrual disorders and any kind of bleeding (such as after childbirth). Spleen tonics
tend to be sweet in flavor and help bleeding disorders. The Native American use of ferns
in gynecology fits into the Chinese association with the spleen.
43
Also under the soil element umbrella is the stomach and the stomach meridian that runs
from the face to the second and third toes, passing through the nipple. The 17th major
point (tsubo) of the meridian is located at the nipple and is called, “breast center.”
When the spleen is out of balance, it tends to create weakness and dampness. Since it is
the spleen’s job to transform food into nutrition, it plays its role in the creation of chi
(vital energy) and blood. The use of Sensitive Fern, Christmas Fern, Interrupted Fern,
and Bracken Fern to build blood reflects a spleen tonifying nature. As does uses for
damp conditions like Bracken for diarrhea (Bracken is also used for uterine prolapse, and
prolapse is due to spleen deficiency). Additionally, uses for bleeding and reckless blood
such as Hay-scented for lung hemorrhage demonstrates some spleen tonic energy.
The nutritive effect of ferns also reflects a spleen association, as the spleen governs
digestion and absorption. The “spleen” is the organ responsible for the absorption of chi
from food, which nourishes blood and supplements energy. The sweet flavor and the
ability to build blood and energy are considered to be tonic properties, as can be found in
Sensitive Fern and Bracken. The use of Maidenhair to overcome fatigue and to provide
energy for ceremonial dancing indicates some chi tonic or spleen tonic effect. Further, its
use to darken the hair indicates some blood tonic effect.
It is as if the ferns are the crystallization of the forest energy in which they grow- a
compilation of the order, purity, moisture, and vibrant energy of the natural world.
Indeed, little gems as far as medicines can go. Some are more nutritive and building,
while some are more cleansing.
It is often the case that an environment in which a plant lives acts as a “signature” of its
medicinal properties. In the case of American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), for
instance, it encapsulates both the vibrancy and moisture of its deep forest habitat to be
one of the best chi and yin tonics. Herbs that live in moisture tend to either distinctly
nourish moisture (yin) in the body or balance it. Those with a sweet flavor are more
nourishing, such as Slippery Elm (Ulmus fulva) and Marshmallow (Althea officinalis);
while those with a bitter or pungent flavor are more drying. Boneset (Eupatorium
perfoliatum), a virtual cure-all of some tribes, is very bitter and counters damp-heat.
Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus and A. americanus) has a more aromatic (pungent, spicy)
flavor and is therefore used for damp-cold. Either way, whether they increase fluids or
diminish them, all these herbs have a certain affinity with the yin of the body. This
affinity can be understood more specifically by also considering the flavor. Sweet
nourishes, spicy disperses and stimulates, and bitter drains downward.
This section on Chinese medicine was included not to distract from the discussion of
Native American medicine, but to enhance it. Our popular modern worldview is not
sufficient to enable one to grasp meaning in the ancient practices. Consider this
monograph of Drynaria fortunei, Gu Sui Bu or Hou Jiang from Kung Fu Medicine:
44
Gu Sui Bu (Hou Jiang, Hu Sun Jiang, Kun Jiang, Shen Jiang Mao Jiang)
Drynaria fortunei
Pharmaceutical Name: Rhizoma Drynariae
Properties: bitter, warm
Channels Entered: kidney, liver
Indications: Gu Sui Bu promotes the mending of the sinews and bones. It is used for
treating fractures, contusions, and sprains. It is especially useful for treating injuries to
ligaments, tendons, muscles, and bone fractures.
Dosage: Use 6 – 18 grams in a formula either in the powdered or raw form.
Common Usage: Seldom used alone, Gu Sui Bu is a major ingredient in injury
management formulas. Often referred to as the “mender of broken bones,” Gu Sui Bu is,
without question, one of the most important herbs in Chinese herbology used to treat
fractured bones.
The author (Joiner) later describes a formula that contains this fern in combination with
Astragalus, Deer antler, Acanthopanax, and Epimedium. Known as Lu Rong Gu Sui Bu
Tang. This formula has been known since the earliest publications on Chinese herbal
medicine, first appearing in the ancient text The Classic of Herbal Medicine (Shen Nong
Ben Cao Jing).
So here we can see the reverence for a medicine fern that has lasted over 2,000 years.
Yet, here in this country we seem to have forgotten that ferns have virtues at all. If
people continue to only listen to the medical establishment (which is married to the
pharmaceutical industry), we risk losing this knowledge of how to heal with the humble
plants that are all around us.
45
THE HOMEOPATHIC USE OF FERNS
It is important to point out that homeopathy and traditional herbal medicine are two
different practices and the names are not synonymous. Homeopathy grew from herbal
medicine, but the remedies undergo a process of dilution.
Adiantum Maidenhair
This fern is reportedly used in homeopathy, perhaps for lungs like its use in herbal
medicine. Even though herbal medicine tends to be, in theory, the opposite of
homeopathy we find that in practice homeopathic remedies are often used for the same
conditions as the herbal preparations of the same herb.
Asplenium adiantum-nigrum Black Spleenwort
This relative of our Spleenworts (Ebony Spleenwort and Maidenhair Spleenwort) is
reportedly used in homeopathy, perhaps for reasons related to its use as an herb: for
coughs, spleen disorders, jaundice, and eye inflammation. Since the fern is used to
promote sterility in women, it stands to reason that the homeopathic preparation would be
useful to cure just that.
Dryopteris felix-mas Male Fern
The homeopathic preparation is used for worms, especially with constipation; lymphatic
inflammation; tuberculosis in young patients with no fever and limited lesions; blindness;
abdominal ailments (bloating, gnawing pain, worse with sweets, diarrhea and vomiting;
hiccough).
Osmunda regalis Royal Fern
Perhaps the homeopathic remedy from this fern could be used like the herbal preparation
for gallstones, spleen disorders, menstrual disorders, and cold kidneys. It is interesting
that Royal Fern was specific for trauma. I imagine that this association plays into the
homeopathic application.
46
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Native American Ethnobotany by Daniel Moerman
Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian Indians by Gladys Tantaquidgeon
Iroquois Medical Botany by James W. Herrick
Plants of the Cherokee by William H. Banks
The Cherokee Herbal by J. T. Garrett
The Lenape by Herbert C. Kraft
History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations by John Heckewelder
William Penn’s Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians by William Penn
Indians of Pennsylvania by Paul A. W. Wallace
A Modern Herbal by Maud Grieve
Herbal Vade Mecum by Gazmend Skenderi
Ethnobotanical Studies of Some Important Ferns by Kamini Srivastava
Importance of Ferns in Human Medicine by Kamini Srivastava
Ethnomedicinal uses of Pteridophytes of Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India
by Kanchan Upreti1, Jeewan S. Jalal1, Lalit M. Tewari1, G. C. Joshi, Y.P.S.Pangtey, and Geeta Tewari
Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica by Dan Bensky & Andrew Gamble
Pharmacology and Application of Chinese Materia Medica by Hson-Mou Chang & Paul Pui-Hay But
Homeopathic Materia Medica & Reperatory by William Boericke
Plants of Pennsylvania by Anne Fowler Rhoads
Manual of Vascular Plants of Northestern United States and Adjacent Canada
by Henry A. Gleason & Arthur Cronquist
Illustrated Companion to Gleason and Cronquist’s Manual by Noel H. Holmgren
Eastern/Central Medicinal Plants and Herbs by Steven Foster & James Duke (Peterson Field Guides)
Ferns by Boughton Cobb, Elizabeth Farnsworth, and Cheryl Lowe (Peterson Field Guides)
The Ferns and Fern Allies of Pennsylvania by Thomas R. Lord & Holly J. Travis
A Key to the Ferns of Pennsylvania by Elsie Deane Canon
Fern Finder by Anne C. Hallowell and Barbara G. Hallowell
Guide to Eastern Ferns & The Fern Guide by Edgar T. Wherry
How to Know the Ferns by Frances Theodora Parsons
Atlas of New York State Ferns by Richard S. Mitchell
The Gardener’s Fern Book by F. Gordon Foster
Drawings taken from online USDA Plant Database.
Climbing Fern Lygodium palmatum
47
INDEX
Appalachian Polypody 17, 20, 22, 25, 26
Braun’s Holly Fern 18, 21, 23, 24, 27, 28,
34
Blunt-lobed Cliff Fern 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 34
Blunt-lobed Grape Fern 20, 22, 25, 26
Bog Fern
20, 23, 24, 27
Bracken Fern 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 23,
24, 26, 31, 34, 39
Brittle Fern
18, 20, 23, 25, 27
Broad Beech Fern 17, 20, 22, 24, 27, 34
Bulblet Bladder Fern 20, 23, 25, 27
Christmas Fern 14, 16, 17, 22, 24, 26, 31
34, 39, 41
Cinnamon Fern 13, 16, 17, 23, 24, 26,
31, 39, 41
Climbing Fern 17, 21, 25, 26, 27, 33, 34,
40
Clinton’s Wood Fern 20, 23, 24, 26
Crested Wood Fern 10, 15, 18, 21, 23, 24,
26, 30
Cut-leaved Grape Fern 20, 22, 25, 26
Daisy-leaved Moonwort 20, 22, 25, 26, 28
Ebony Spleenwort 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 32, 39
Fancy Fern
18, 21, 23, 24, 26
Fragile Fern
6, 7, 8, 18, 20, 23, 28, 25,
30, 36, 41
Giant Wood Fern 18, 21, 23, 24, 26
Hairy Lip Fern 17, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27, 33
Hay-scented Fern 9, 14, 16, 17, 20, 23,
24, 26, 30, 41
Interrupted Fern 13, 17, 24, 26, 31, 38
Lady Fern
7, 17, 18, 21, 26, 29, 33
Least Moonwort 20, 22, 25, 26
Leathery Grape Fern 20, 22, 25, 26
Long Beech Fern 17, 20, 22, 25
Maidenhair 2, 4, 6, 14, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23,
24, 26, 29, 32, 39, 41
Maidenhair Spleenwort 5, 7, 16, 17, 18, 21,
22, 25, 27, 29, 38, 39
Marginal Wood Fern 1, 10, 15, 16, 18,
21, 23, 24, 26, 30
Marsh Fern 10, 15, 17, 20, 23, 25, 27, 31
Mountain Wood Fern 10, 14, 17, 18, 21,
23, 24, 26, 30
Narrow-leaved Glade Fern 21, 24, 27, 28,
33
Netted Chain Fern 20, 22, 24, 26, 35
New York Fern 17, 20, 23, 24, 27, 28
Northern Adder’s Tongue 22, 25, 27, 34
Oak Fern 18, 21, 23, 25, 26, 34, 41, 47
Ostrich Fern
2, 11, 14, 17, 20, 22, 24,
26, 30, 31, 34
Rattlesnake Fern 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 13, 17, 20,
22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 41
Rock Cap 2, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 24,
25, 26, 31, 34
Royal Fern 13, 15, 17, 18, 24, 26, 31, 34,
39, 46
Rusty Cliff Fern 21, 22, 25, 26, 34
Sensitive Fern 9, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20,
22, 24, 26, 30, 38
Silvery Glade Fern 21, 23, 24, 27
Spinulose Wood Fern 10, 21, 23, 24, 26, 30
Triangle Moonwort 20, 22, 25, 26
Virginia Chain Fern 20, 22, 24, 27, 35
Walking Fern 7, 17, 20, 22, 25, 29, 32, 41
Wall Rue
20, 22, 25, 26, 27, 32, 33
Oak Fern Gymnocarpium dryopteris
~
It is a rare bird
who cares for ferns
and other wild things of nature
It is a rare bird
who cares to learn
about the wild world around him
This book is for you
the rare bird who
has opened up the eye inside you
This book is for you
one of the few
rare birds who
will listen to
the wild.
48