2010 Anatomy & Physiology-Training Handout 2/2/10
 BASIC ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY





Skeletal system
Muscular system
Endocrine system
Major diseases
Treatment and prevention of diseases
 PROCESS SKILLS - observations, inferences, predictions, calculations, data analysis, and
conclusions.
 BE SURE TO CHECK THE 2010 EVENT RULES FOR EVENT PARAMETERS AND TOPICS
FOR EACH COMPETITION LEVEL
INTERACTION OF SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR
SYSTEMS:





Skeletal and Muscular systems works together to allow
movement
Bone attaches to bone via ligaments
Muscle attaches to bone via tendons
Skeletal muscles produce movement by bending the skeleton
at movable joints. Muscles work in antagonistic pairs.
Skeleton provides structure of body and muscles allow
skeleton mobility – pull by contraction of muscle.
SKELETAL SYSTEM:
Functions









Support & shape to body
Protection of internal organs
Movement in union with
muscles
Storage of minerals (calcium,
phosphorus) & lipids
Blood cell production
Skeleton
206 Bones
Axial skeleton: (80 bones) in
skull, vertebrae, ribs,
sternum, hyoid bone
Appendicular Skeleton:
(126 bones)- upper & lower
extremities plus two girdles
Half of bones in hands & feet
1
Types of Bone:





Long bones: longer than they are wide; shaft & 2 ends (e.g.: bones of arms & legs, except wrist, ankle
& patella)
Short bones: roughly cube-shaped (e.g.: ankle & wrist bones)
Sesamoid bones: short bones within tendons (e.g.: patella)
Flat bones: thin, flat & often curved (e.g.,: sternum, scapulae, ribs & most skull bones)
Irregular bones: odd shapes; don't fit into other classes (e.g.: hip bones & vertebrae)
Types of Vertebrae:



Cevical (7)- transverse foramina,
bifid spinous processes
vertebral prominens
o Atlas- 1st; supports head
o Axis- 2nd; pivots to turn head
Thoracic (12)- long spinous processes, rib facets
Lumbar (5)- large bodies thick,
short spinous processes
Types of Synovial Joints






Ball & Socket - allows for complete range of
motion Example: shoulder, hip
Pivot – one bone pivots in the arch of another
Example: Axis/Atlas, and proximal radioulnar
joint
Saddle – two directional movement between
thumb and trapezium carpel
Hinge – like door hinge – bending & extending
Example: elbow, knee, finger joints
Ellipsoid (Condyloid) – side to side and back &
forth Example – radius end into carpal bones
Plane or Gliding – least moveable – side to side
only Examples: intercarpal & intertarsal
joints, between vertebrae
2
Cellular Structure of Long Bone
Compact bone
The hard outer layer of bones is composed of compact bone tissue, so-called due to its minimal gaps and spaces.
This tissue gives bones their smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass
of an adult skeleton. Compact bone may also be referred to as dense bone or cortical bone.
Spongy bone
Filling the interior of the organ is the spongy bone tissue which is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like
elements that make the overall organ lighter and allowing room for blood vessels and marrow. Spongy bone
accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass, but has nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone.
3
Types of cells constituting the bone

Osteoblasts – bone forming cells synthesize and secrete unmineralized ground substance and are found
in areas of high metabolism within the bone

Osteocytes – mature bone cells made from osteoblasts that have made bone tissue around themselves.
These cells maintain healthy bone tissue by secreting enzymes and controlling the bone mineral content;
they also control the calcium release from the bone tissue to the blood.

Bone lining cells - made from osteoblasts along the surface of most bones in an adult. Bone-lining cells
are thought to regulate the movement of calcium and phosphate into and out of the bone

Osteogenic cells - respond to traumas, such as fractures, by giving rise to bone-forming cells and bonedestroying cells

Osteoclasts – bone absorbing cell – large cells that break down bone tissue – important to growth,
healing, remodeling
Red and Yellow Bone Marrow
The formation of blood cells, termed hematopoiesis, takes place mainly in the red marrow of the bones.
In infants, red marrow is found in the bone cavities. With age, it is largely replaced by yellow marrow for fat
storage.
In adults, red marrow is limited to the spongy bone in the skull, ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae and pelvis.
Red marrow functions in the formation of red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets.
Cartilage – Characteristics and Types




Mostly water; no blood vessels or nerves
Tough, resilient
New cartilage forms from chondroblasts
Heal poorly

Hyaline Cartilages: fine collagen fiber matrix- most abundant type- found in articular (movable joint)
cartilages, costal cartilages (connect ribs tosternum), respiratory cartilages (in larynx & upper respiratory
passageways) & nasal cartilages
Elastic Cartilages: similar to hyaline cartilage, more elastic fibers (very flexible) – found in external ear
& epiglottis (larynx covering)
Fibrocartilage: rows of chondrocytes with thick collagen fibers; highly compressible with great tensile
strength- found in menisci of knee, intervertebral discs & pubic symphysis


4
Typical Bone Fractures
Bone Repair Process






Injury – broken blood vessels, hematoma
Invasion of blood vessels & generalized cells (2-3 days)
Fibroblasts develop (1 week)
Chondroblasts develop
Callus forms (4 weeks)
Remodeling with osteoclasts (8 weeks)
Skeletal Disorders









Spinal Stenosis-narrowing of the spinal column
Achondroplasia-Defect in the formation of cartilate at the epiphysis of long bones (dwarfing)
Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis-chronic inflammatory diseases involving the joints or other organs in
children under 16
Ankylosing spondylitis-immobility of a joint in the spine
Osteosarcoma-malignant sarcoma of bone
Osteoarthritis-A type of arthritis marked by progressive cartilage deterioration in synovial joints and
vertebrae
Osteoporosis-Loss of bone mass that occurs throughout the skeleton. Predisposes people to fractures
Disc Herniation-Rupture of the soft tissue that separates two vertebral bones into the spinal canal
Scoliosis-a lateral curvature of the spine.
5
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle Function:






Stabilizing joints
Maintaining posture
Producing movement
Moving substances within the body
Stabilizing body position and regulating organ volume
Producing heat– muscle contraction generates 85% of the body’s heat
Characteristics of Muscle Tissue




Excitability- receive and respond to stimuli
Contractility- ability to shorten and thicken
Extensibility- ability to stretch
Elasticity- ability to return to its original shape after contraction or extension
Skeletal Muscle
Smooth Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Location
Attached to
bone
On hollow organs, glands
and blood vessels
Heart
Function
Move the whole Compression of tubes &
body
ducts
Heart contraction to
propel blood
Nucleus
Multiple,
peripheral
Single, central
Central & single
Control
voluntary
involuntary
involuntary
Striations
yes
no
yes
Cell Shape
Cylindrical
Spindle-shaped
Branched
6
Skeletal Muscles
There are nearly 650 muscles
attached to the skeleton. See
muscle list for competitions.
They work in pairs: one muscle
moves the bone in one direction
and the other moves it back again.
Most muscles extend from one
bone across a joint to another bone
with one bone being more
stationary than another in a given
movement.
Muscle movement
bends the skeleton at moveable
joints.
Muscles are anchored firmly to
bone by tendons made of dense
fibrous connective tissue shaped
like heavy cords. Though very
strong and secure to muscle,
tendons may be injured.
Attachment to the more stationary
bone by tendon closest to the body
or muscle head or proximal is the
origin and attachment to the more
moveable bone by tendon at the
distal end is the insertion.
During movement, the origin
remains stationary and the
insertion moves.
The force producing the bending is
always a pull of contraction.
Reversing the direction is produced
by the contraction of a different set
of muscles. As one group of
muscles contracts, the other group
stretches and then they reverse
actions.
Muscle contractions can be short,
single contractions or longer ones.
7
Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
Each muscle has thousands of muscle fibers in a bundle
running from origin to insertion bound together by
connective tissue through which run blood vessels and
nerves.
Each muscle fiber contains many nuclei, an extensive
endoplasmic reticulum or sarcoplasmic reticulum, many
thick and thin myofibrils running lengthwise the entire
length of the fiber, and many mitochondria for energy.
The basic functional unit of the muscle fiber is the
sacromere which consists of thick filaments with myosin
(protein) molecules and thin filaments with actin (protein)
molecules plus smaller amounts of troponin and
tropomysin.
When view under the microscope, they appear as
striations of dark A bands and light I bands. The
A bands are bisected by the H zone with the M line
or band running through the center of this H zone.
The I bands are bisected by the Z disk or line.
A sacromere consists of the array of thick and thin
filaments between two Z disks.
Sliding-Filament Model
In the thick filaments, myosin molecules contain a
globular subunit, the myosin head, which has
binding sites for the actin molecules of the thin
filaments and ATP.
Activating the muscle fiber causes the myosin heads to
bind to actin molecules pulling the short filament a
short distance past the thick filaments.
The linkages break and reform (using ATP energy)
further along the thick filaments. Thus the thin
filaments are pulled past the thick filaments in a
ratchet-like action. No shortening, thickening or
folding of individual filaments occurs.
As the muscle contracts, the width of the I bands and
H zones decrease causing the Z disks to come closer
together, but there is no change in the width of the A
band because the thick filaments do not move. As the
muscle relaxes or stretches, the width of the I bands
separate as the thin filaments move apart but the thick
filaments still do not move.
8
Muscle and Tendon Injuries
Strains – injuries from overexertion or trauma which involve stretching or tearing of muscle fibers.
They often are accompanied by pain and inflammation of the muscle and tendon. If the injury is
near a joint and involves a ligament, it is called a sprain.
Cramps – painful muscle spasms or involuntary twitches.
Stress-induced muscle tension – may cause back pain and headaches.
Muscular Disorders:
Poliomyelitis – viral infection of the nerves that control skeletal muscle movement.
Muscular Dystrophies – most common caused by mutation of gene for the protein dystrophin which
helps in attaching and organizing the filaments in the sacromere. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy and
Becker muscular dystrophy are the two most common types. The gene for dystrophin is on the X
chromosome so the disorder is sex-linked. Muscle function is impaired.
Myasthenia gravis – autoimmune disease affecting the neuromuscular junction. Patients have smaller
end plate potentials due to the antibodies being directed against the receptors. affecting the ability of the
impulse to cause the muscle contraction. Administering an inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase can
temporarily restore contractibility.
Effects of Exercise on Skeletal and Muscular System
Skeletal System




Exercise slows decline in minerals and maintains joint mobility
Stress of exercise helps the bone tissues to become stronger
Hyaline cartilage at the ends of the bones becomes thicker and can absorb shock better
Ligaments will stretch slightly to enable greater joint flexibility
Muscular System






Exercise helps muscles become more effective and efficient.
Tendons will become thicker and able to withstand greater force
High intensity exercise for short duration produces strength, size and power gains in muscles
Low intensity exercise for long durations will give endurance benefits
Trained muscles have better tone or state of readiness to respond
Exercise promotes good posture enabling muscles to work effectively and helps prevent injury
9
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:




Basic anatomy and physiology of the human endocrine system
Definition of hormones
Types of endocrine glands and their hormonal effects
Endocrine related problems
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
 Endocrine Glands - secrete chemical (hormones) into blood
 Hormones - communicate and control slower than nerves
 Hormones - act on Target cells
Classes of Hormones:
peptides – short chains of amino acids (most hormones)
pituitary, parathyroid, heart, stomach, liver &
kidneys
amines - derived from tyrosine and secreted by thyroid
and adrenal cortex
steroids - lipids derived from cholesterol secreted by the
gonads, adrenal cortex, and placenta
Mechanism of Hormone Action:
Peptides and Amines – non-steroid water soluble
Protein hormones (1st messengers) - bind to receptor on
target cell triggering 2nd messenger to affect cell’s activity
 hormone (1st messenger) does not enter the cell
 bind to receptor on the plasma membrane receptors
 hormone-receptor complex activates G protein
 generates chemical signal (2nd messenger) – most
common is cAMP and IP3
 2nd messenger chemical signal activates other
intracellular chemicals to produce response in target cell
 responses may be phosporylation, activation of enzymes
release of calcium ions into cytosol from ER, turn on
transcription factor CREB for protein production.
Steroid hormones – fat-soluble hormones bind to receptors
within target cell and influence cell activity by acting on
specific genes
 hormone diffuses freely into cell where cytoplasmic and/
or nuclear proteins serve as receptors
 hormone binds to receptor (hormone-receptor complex)
 complex bonds to steroid response element (sections of
DNA receptive to the hormone-receptor complex
 hormone-receptor complex acts as transcription factor
to turn target genes “on” or “off”
10
11
12