Business Studies
HSC Course
Topic 3:
Section 3.5:
Marketing
Developing Marketing Strategies
Section Overview:
3.5.1
Market segmentation and product/service differentiation
3.5.2
Product and service
– positioning
– branding
– packaging
3.5.3
Price including pricing methods — cost, market and competition-based
– pricing strategies/tactics — skimming, penetration, loss leaders, price points
– price and quality interaction
3.5.4
Promotion
– elements of the promotion mix — personal selling, advertising, below-the-line
promotions, public relations
– the communication process including opinion leaders and word of mouth
3.5.5
Place/distribution
– distribution channels and reasons for intermediaries
– channel choice including intensive, selective, exclusive
– physical distribution issues including transport, warehousing, inventory
3.5.6
Environmental effects on distribution — technology, local government
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3.5.1 Market Segmentation and Product/Service Differentiation
MARKET SEGMENTATION is the process of identifying niche markets within mass
markets or putting it another way, the breaking of the total market into smaller parts based
on similar characteristics. This is often necessary as the total market for a product is often
too wide and complex to be treated as an individual unit.
Once the market has been broken down into smaller parts (segmented), and information has
been gathered about the market segments important to the business, a TARGET
MARKET, or number of target markets are selected. A target market is the group of
customers at which the business focuses its marketing program.
By focusing on a particular market, businesses can develop the right products for their target
market (or markets). In fact, the whole marketing program can be tailored to suit the target
markets, setting prices at the best level, using the right sort of promotion to get the attention
of customers, and distributing the product through the appropriate channels. Through
segmentation, businesses can better identify the needs of their customers and try to satisfy
these needs more efficiently and more accurately. This means happier customers, greater
sales, less waste and increased profitability.
There are several easily identifiable factors that allow us to segment the market. These
factors are considered below.
A)
Demographic Segmentation
Demographic segmentation breaks down the market into variables such as age, sex,
education, religion, job and level of income. Most businesses use a combination of
demographic variables to segment a market. As you can imagine, the number of
possible combinations is large.
B)
Geographical Segmentation
Geographical segmentation groups customers according to some geographic feature
such as location. Consider the needs of the consumer in a particular location, for
example, a resident of far North Queensland. This consumer may have a greater
need for sunscreen and lightweight cotton clothing than a resident of Tasmania. In
this example, the needs and wants are clearly influenced by their location.
Geographical factors other than location include topography (physical geography:
mountains, rivers, lakes, oceans), climate, and region (such as rural or urban).
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C)
Developing Marketing Strategies
Psychographic Segmentation
Psychographic segmentation is concerned with lifestyle characteristics, including the
personality types of consumers (beliefs, aspirations, interests) and their perceived
social class. These factors are often difficult to measure accurately, as they are
concerned with the way people ‘feel’ about a particular product.
D)
Behavioural Segmentation
Behavioural segmentation divides buyers into groups based on their attitude and
responses to a product. The main behavioural groupings are purchase occasion,
benefits sought, usage rate, and user loyalty.
i)
Purchase occasion
Customers can be grouped according to the occasions when they buy a
product or a service. Some products are usually consumed at particular times
of the day, like breakfast cereal, or particular times of the year like Easter
eggs.
ii)
Benefits sought
Customers buy products for different reasons and expect different benefits.
Some customers will buy a product because they think it will give them status
or prestige; others will buy a product because they believe it has the best
quality and reliability.
iii)
Usage rate
Customers can be grouped as light, medium or heavy users of a product.
Knowing the usage rate can help a business to better promote a product.
For example: airlines collect information on passengers through their
frequent flyer programs. Those that fly regularly are treated to upgrades and
access to other privileges such as lounges.
iv)
User loyalty
Customers can have loyalty to a particular product. For Example: A person
may choose Coca-Cola every time as their cola of choice, they may support
the same football team year after year, they mat fly with the same airline
every time they fly. Businesses can learn a lot by looking at usage and loyalty
patterns in their markets.
By studying its own customers, a business can really learn more about them.
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PRODUCT DIFFERENTIATION is how businesses separate themselves from the
competition by altering their product and creating a competitive advantage. Product
differentiation can be achieved by changing the look of the product, the way the product
operates, its quality or its image.
Product/service differentiation occurs for two reasons:
1)
To tailor a base product for a different target market: by altering their products
to suit the needs of different markets, businesses can penetrate a range of markets
and increase their chance of success.
2)
To be different from the competition: one way of encouraging consumers to buy
your product is to make it appear superior to competitors’ products.
Using successful product differentiation can not only give a business more market share than
their competitors, but it can also allow a business to increase its prices without losing market
share – as consumers now feel they are getting a superior product. An example of a
company that successfully differentiated its product offering is Apple. It introduced a
radically different look and a variety of features when it released its iMac range.
The MARKETING MIX refers to the combination of the marketing tactics of product,
price, promotion and place. These four elements are commonly referred to as the 4 P’s of
marketing. A marketing mix must be designed to satisfy the wants of customers and achieve
the marketing objectives of the business. These will now be considered in turn.
3.5.2 Product and Service – Positioning, Branding and Packaging
A PRODUCT refers to a good, service or idea which is going to be exchanged in the
market. A product is characterised by a set of tangible and intangible benefits or attributes
which are aimed at satisfying the customer’s demands and needs.



TANGIBLE BENEFITS are physical attributes such as size, colour, shape and
model.
INTANGIBLE BENEFITS relate to non-physical attributes such as prestige of
the label or brand name, and the reputation of the company.
The combination of all these benefits combine to produce what is known as a
TOTAL PRODUCT CONCEPT.
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As part of this marketing element, there are other additional factors complementing or
helping to create a total product. These are positioning, branding and packaging.
A)
Positioning
POSITIONING is about creating a certain perception or image of the good or
service in the eyes of the consumer.
For Example:
B)
Streets Magnum Ice Creams are considered to be a superior
type of ice-block. They are promoted as an indulgence and as
one of lifes little luxuries. They have been priced accordingly.
In this example, Magnum has been positioned using a
strategy of price and quality.
Branding
BRANDING is a symbol, name, term, design, or any combination of these that
identifies the product and distinguishes it from its competitors.
For Example:
Arnott’s
Nike
McDonald’s
To be successful, a brand must:


Attract attention
Be memorable


Assist in communicating the position of the product
Be easily distinguishable from its competitors
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If consumers associate a certain level of quality with a brand, it not only increases
brand loyalty and encourages repeat purchases, it also allows a business to sell its
products at a premium to its competitors.
C)
Packaging
PACKAGING is an activity concerned with designing and producing a wrapper or
container for the product. Packaging plays an important part in creating an image
for the product in the marketplace and helps create a difference between the product
and the product’s competitors.
For Example:
The different beers have been packaged in such a way that
many have become very easy to identify at a glance. i.e. a
Crown Lager as compared with a Hahn Premium.
Crown Lager
Hahn Premium
3.5.3 Price Including Pricing Methods — Cost, Market and
Competition-Based
- Pricing Strategies/Tactics — Skimming, Penetration, Loss
Leaders, Price Points
- Price and Quality Interaction
The price of a product is one of the most important factors in a customer’s decision to buy a
product. Consumers usually choose from a number of competing products which offer
similar benefits. Price is often the difference that will push a customer to buy one product
over another. The most important strategic pricing decision is whether the product will
compete against the competition on price, or use product differentiation to lower the
significance of price to consumers. Once firms have decided which strategy to employ, they
must choose from three different pricing methods: cost, market or competition-based.
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i)
Developing Marketing Strategies
Cost Based Pricing
If the business derives its prices using a cost-based method, it adds an amount to the
cost of producing each product and uses that new total as the price. There are two
methods of cost based pricing:
1)
The business adds a profit margin to the cost of the product.
For Example: If a bicycle costs a store $100, they could add a 50% margin
and sell the good in their store for $150 ($100 x 1.50).
2)
The business adds a fixed profit amount to the cost of the product.
For Example: In the case of the bicycle store above, they might decide that
they want to make $70 for each bike sold, so they will set the price at $170
($100 + $70).
Although cost-based pricing is easy, it ignores the customer and the competition. It
is impossible to predict demand or competitors’ actions by only looking at costs.
For these reasons, cost-based pricing is becoming less popular.
ii)
Market Based Pricing
Some businesses have to accept a price that is set by the market, regardless of what
costs were involved in getting the product to market. This can be found in a range
of markets such as produce and commodity markets, where there are a large number
of suppliers. Prices are set in auction style, and determined by supply and market
demand.
The real-estate auction market is an example of market-based pricing. Here, the
market decides the price of the house regardless of what it costs.
iii)
Competition-Based Pricing
As the name suggests, competition-based pricing methods set prices according to the
prices of competitors’ products. Businesses can either price their products at the
same level, or above or below competitors’ prices.
A)
Pricing Strategies and Tactics
Businesses have a number of pricing strategies that they can use. They include
market skimming, penetration, loss leaders and price points.
i)
Market Skimming
This is where a new product is priced relatively high in order to achieve
maximum returns before the entry of competitors. When competitors enter
the market, prices can be dropped to maintain sales.
For Example: Hyper-Colour T-Shirts
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The high levels of pricing can only be successfully performed if there is little
or no competition within the market. If a new competitor entered the
market, they could seek to gain large percentages of market by severely
undercutting the business’s product. However, the new competitor could
also choose the same pricing strategy, maintaining the high prices.
ii)
Penetration
This is where the business sets the price of the product below the price of
competitors, making its product more attractive. It is a pricing strategy
commonly employed by new products. Offering such low prices is an
attempt to induce customers to trial the product, hoping that they will then
make repeat purchases, increasing the product’s market share. Initially, some
businesses may enter the market at a loss, hoping that the long term revenues
from increased market share will compensate.
iii)
Loss Leaders
Loss leaders are products that are priced below their cost of production in
order to attract customers. The aim is to get customers into the shop and
then encourage them to stay to buy other normally priced goods. For
Example: McDonald’s and Bunnings Hardware.
iv)
Price Points
In many industries, businesses use well established price points for their
product range. Price points are normally used when a business has a number
of products in a particular product line. Marketers have to develop
significant differences in quality, design or function to support the price
differences. This is because, in many cases, products can be substituted for
each other. A $550 suit is a substitute for one costing $750. Customers will
ask what the higher priced good will deliver that the cheaper one doesn’t
(and whether it is worth the extra cost).
The role of the marketing department is to select the pricing strategy that will best
help achieve the objectives of the marketing plan. The price chosen must make the
product accessible to the customers in the target market. The price should also
cover the business expenses and include an appropriate profit margin.
B)
Price and Quality Interaction
When consumers are purchasing an unknown product, they often employ price as a
measure of the product’s overall quality. In this way, price creates perceptions of
quality. Pricing strategies that give a product a lower price than its competitors will
not always gain a greater market share.
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Customers may attribute the lower price to lower quality inputs and production
techniques and thus be reluctant to purchase it, despite the lower price. Conversely,
a high price can attract an image of quality. For Example: Lexus motor cars were
originally released onto the Australian market at significantly lower prices than its
competitors such as BMW and Mercedes. However, the price of Lexus cars soon
rose to near their competitors as they failed to attract luxury car buyers because of
their low price.
3.5.4 Promotion
– Elements of the Promotion Mix — Personal Selling,
Advertising, Below-the-line Promotions, Public Relations
– The Communication Process Including Opinion Leaders and
Word of Mouth
Any business wanting to sell a good or service has to bring it to the attention of its target
market and try to make sure that the consumers recognise and want it. Effective
communication with the target market is essential for the success of any product and
business. PROMOTION is designed to inform the marketplace about who you are, how
good your product is and where they can buy it.
A)
Elements of the Promotion Mix
Essentially, promotion is about changing the buying behaviour of the consumer. In
order to capture the hearts, minds and dollars of the consumer, businesses have a
variety of promotional methods available to them. The elements of the promotion
mix include: personal selling, advertising, below-the-line promotions and public
relations.
i)
Personal Selling
Is where the consumer is directly approached by the sales-person. The aim is
to persuade the customer to buy the product. Therefore, the key element in
using this method is the effectiveness of the salesperson in selling the
product. Matters such as explaining the benefits, educating the customer and
responding to questions about the product are important in promoting the
sale of the product. Cars are sold in this manner. However, this tool is
expensive in terms of running a sales team and equipping sales people
properly.
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ii)
Advertising
Is any paid, non-personal presentation or message which is communicated to
the consumer through the use of the mass media. It is probably the most
effective and efficient way of communicating with the largest number of
people in a variety of geographical areas. It has a low cost per consumer
contact. The medium used to communicate to the consumer can be one, or
a combination, of the following:
magazines, radio, television,
newspapers, billboards, brochures, the Internet.
iii)
Below-the-line Promotions
Below-the-line promotions are sales promotions using direct methods to
induce customers to purchase the business’s products. Below-the-line
promotions use promotional tools such as free samples or discounts. Belowthe-line promotions are an effective method of inducing product trial
amongst potential customers. For Example: Free taste tests at the
supermarket, shampoo samples in your letterbox. They also allow the
business to directly measure the success of the campaign by observing the
usage rates of the potential tool.
iv)
Public Relations
Public relations is the use of publicity and other non-paid forms of
advertising to develop a good image with the business’s market or the general
public. Good examples of this are mentions of products in magazines and
newspapers, when a product wins a prize in a design or quality competition
and gets talked about in news items, or when a celebrity is seen wearing or
using a brand of product.
As with all the other elements of the marketing mix, the promotional mix will be
trying to achieve the objectives of the marketing plan in the most effective manner,
and the marketing plan will include a combination of these promotional tools.
Depending on the amount of money available for promotion, most businesses will
use some mix of the four types discussed above to communicate with customers.
B)
The Communication Process Including Opinion Leaders and
Word of Mouth
Effective communication can be difficult to achieve because consumers are
bombarded by thousands of messages daily. Marketers need to understand how
communication works, how consumers can interpret the information, and what can
interfere with the communication process. The main stages of the communication
process have been depicted in Figure 3.5.1 below.
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Source
Encoding
Message
Channel
Decoding
NOISE
Receiver
Feedback
Figure 3.5.1
The stages of the communication process
Source
The source of most marketing information will come from a group
of marketers working for or with the business. Here they decide
what information needs to be released.
Encoding
At this stage, the marketers decide how they want the information to
reach the target market. It needs to be put into terms that will be
easily understood by the target audience.
Message Channel
The means by which the message is released to the target audience.
It could be a television commercial, a promotional flyer, the Internet
or a range of other communication techniques.
Decoding
Hopefully, the intended receivers of the marketing information will
receive the information by viewing or hearing the message. They will
then absorb the information and interpret it.
Receiver
The receiver is a person within the target market.
Feedback
Feedback is the response of the consumer to the marketing message
such as purchasing the product or complaining about the message.
Noise
Any distraction that reduces the effectiveness of the message. Noise
is present at all stages in the marketing process and must be
minimized if the communication process is to be successful.
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OPINION LEADERS are people that have the ability to drive or influence the
decisions of others. Opinion leaders include such people as celebrities or research
groups such as Choice magazine. Opinion leaders will often gain their following by
being an expert in a particular field.
Word of mouth (WOM) can be a powerful force influencing the success of a
product. WOM advertising occurs when there is a conversation about a product,
service or idea. One of the dangers of WOM advertising is that it is always difficult
to influence what customers will say to other customers about your product.
Research has shown that people will commonly hold the opinion of a friend or
relative in higher regard than industry professionals, making it a powerful influence
on purchasing decisions. The satisfaction of customers is the only way that a
business will use WOM to its benefit.
3.5.5 Place/Distribution
– Distribution Channels and Reasons for Intermediaries
– Channel Choice Including Intensive, Selective, Exclusive
– Physical Distribution Issues Including Transport,
Warehousing, Inventory
Place really refers to the methods and channels that can be used to get the product to the
marketplace – how it is distributed. This involves things such as transportation and storage
of the product, as well as what type of stores will sell the product.
A)
Distribution Channels and Reasons for Intermediaries
A DISTRIBUTION CHANNEL is a business, or group of businesses, involved
in moving goods and services from the manufacturer to the point of final use. In
other words, the distribution channel connects a manufacturer or service provider
with consumers.
The simplest form of distribution channel is direct distribution, where the
manufacturer sells its product directly to consumers.
For Example: A farmer that sells produce from his farm to passing motorists is
operating a direct distribution chain.
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Traditionally, however, manufacturers will not sell their products directly to
consumers and will make use of INTERMEDIARIES instead. Intermediaries are
independently owned businesses (such as wholesalers, agents, brokers and retailers)
that move products from the producer to the end users.
A distribution channel that involves the use of an intermediary is referred to as
indirect distribution.
For Example: A retailer such as HMV is acting as an intermediary between the
manufacturer (i.e. Sony Music) and the customer.
There are two major reasons for using intermediaries:
B)

Firstly, they increase the efficiency of the market. They exist to move functions
of distribution away from manufacturers allowing them to concentrate on their
core purpose.

Secondly, they also reduce the amount of transactions and hassles that a
manufacturing business must incur.
Channel Choice Including Intensive, Selective, Exclusive
Businesses need to decide on a number of issues in relation to their distribution
channels, such as the number of channel levels that will be used, and the intensity of
distribution.
The number of channel levels indicates how many intermediaries are involved in
transferring the product form the manufacturer to the consumer.
For Example: A three-stage channel would exist if a manufacturer sells to a
retailer who then in turn sells to a customer, and a five-stage
channel may include an agent and a wholesaler. (See below).
Manufacturer
Manufacturer
Retailer
Agent
Wholesaler
Customer
Retailer
Consumer
It is important to note that many manufacturers use a multiple channel system to
reach the widest number of consumers in as many ways as possible.
For Example: Country Road distributes products through company-owned
Country Road stores, as well as major department stores.
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Before a business can determine which particular intermediaries it will deal with, it
must determine the intensity of its distribution channels. INTENSITY refers to
the number of intermediaries (generally retailers) involved in each stage of the
distribution process. There are three main intensity choices for distribution
channels:
C)
i)
Intensive
Intensive distribution is where the product is available at every possible
outlet (i.e. all possible intermediaries are used). An intensive channel choice
is usually used if the product is a low margin, high volume product and the
business needs to maximise sales by maximising market exposure. Typically,
consumer products such as milk or cleaning products will use intensive
distribution channels, particularly at the retailing stage.
ii)
Selective
Selective distribution is used when a manufacturer wants to widely distribute
their product but does not want to use an intensive strategy. For example,
certain brands of hair shampoo can only be purchased at hairdressers and not
supermarkets or chemists.
iii)
Exclusive
Exclusive distribution severely restricts the intermediaries involved in the
distribution of the product. Usually the products are very expensive, or
aiming to achieve a very elite image. This channel choice is vital in the
creation of a status or prestige related product such as Versace clothing or
Ferrari cars.
Physical Distribution Issues Including Transport, Warehousing,
Inventory
The producer of the product or the business aims to physically get the product to the
place of sale or the marketplace at minimum cost. Management of physical
distribution involves balancing customer service with efficient operations. Physical
distribution costs such as transportation, warehousing and inventory levels make up
a significant part of the total marketing costs. Therefore, costs need to be controlled
in order to maintain profitability.
Furthermore, if one part of the distribution channel should fail, then it has
implications for all the businesses that have dealings with that part that has failed. It
has the potential to bring down a business.
There are three key components of physical distribution: transport, warehousing
and inventory control. These will be considered below.
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i)
Transport
Transport is the movement of products by air, rail, water, road or any other
means (such as pipelines) and is the most obvious function required in
distribution channels. The choice of transport method depends on the type
of product, the speed with which products need to be delivered, and the
distances that need to be covered. Fresh seafood needs to be moved quickly
to the markets, whereas furniture has a long lifespan. A business must
choose the most efficient form of transport, considering how and when the
goods are required and the costs of each different form of transport.
ii)
Warehousing
Warehousing is the storing of products until they are ready to move to the
next stage in the distribution channel. Businesses must decide where to store
their goods, how to store them and how to organise them when they need to
be moved. Having more warehouses spread around the market means that
consumers get their orders faster; however, costs increase dramatically.
iii)
Inventory Control
Managing its level of stock or inventory is a constant challenge for
businesses. Holding too much stock is expensive, and things can go wrong
such as theft, fire or water damage. However, inventory levels also affect
customer service. Having low stock levels could mean losing customers who
do not want to wait for a product to be made or delivered if they can buy it
from a competitor instead.
3.5.6 Environmental Effects on Distribution — Technology, Local
Government
Changes in the business environment have had significant impact on the whole range of
distribution activities. Technological innovations such as the Internet have changed the
concept of distribution channels, while developments in computer technology and robotics
have changed the nature of warehousing and materials handling.
Technological advances can increase the efficiency and cost effectiveness of distribution
channels by speeding up the administrative processes and decreasing the lags associated with
a multi-stage process.
Local governments can also have an influence on distribution channels, although this
influence is usually minor. The most important function of local councils relates to their
control of most land zoning regulations and building codes. (i.e McDonald’s in the mountains)
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DEFINITIONS:
Branding
A symbol, name, term, design, or any combination of these
that identifies the product and distinguishes it from its
competitors.
Distribution Channel
A business, or group of businesses, involved in moving goods
and services from the manufacturer to the point of final use.
Intangible Benefits
Non-physical attributes of the product such as prestige of the
label or brand name, and the reputation of the company.
Intermediaries
Independently owned businesses (such as agents, brokers and
retailers) that move products from the producer to the end
users.
Marketing Mix
A combination of the marketing tactics of product, position,
price, promotion and place.
Market Segmentation
The process of identifying niche markets within a mass
market or the breaking of the total market into smaller parts
based on similar characteristics.
Opinion Leaders
People that have the ability to drive or influence the decisions
of others.
Packaging
An activity concerned with designing and producing a
wrapper or container for the product.
Positioning
Creating a certain perception or image of the good or service
in the eyes of the consumer.
Product Differentiation
How businesses separate themselves from the competition by
altering their product and creating a competitive advantage.
Promotion
The part of the marketing mix that a business uses to inform,
educate, persuade and remind customers.
Tangible Benefits
Physical attributes or characteristics of a product such as
colour, size and shape.
Target Market
The part of a market in which the business focuses its
marketing activities.
Total Product Concept
The combination of both the tangible and the intangible.
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HOMEWORK ACTIVITIES:
Activity 1:
Read the Case Study “Yahoo!” on P.228/229 of the Text.
Activity 2:
Complete the Activities (Questions 1, 3 – 7) on P.236 of the Text.
Activity 3:
Complete the Activities (Questions 1 – 3) on P.243 of the Text.
Activity 4:
Computer Room
Visit the website: http://www.unilever.com.au
Read and Complete the Case Study “Unilever cuts small brands” on P.247
of the Text.
Activity 5:
Complete the Activities (Questions 1 – 3 and 1 – 2) on P.248 of the Text.
Activity 6:
Complete the Activities (Questions 1 – 3) on P.254/255 of the Text.
Activity 7:
Complete the Activities (Questions 1 – 2) on P.256 of the Text.
Activity 8:
Complete the Activities (Questions 1 – 4) on P.258 of the Text.
Activity 9:
Complete the Activities (Questions 1 – 5) on P.265 of the Text.
Activity 10:
1)
2)
3)
What is a distribution channel?
List the three activities involved in the physical distribution of a
product.
List four reasons why an efficient and effective distribution system,
including channels and physical movement, is essential to successful
marketing.
Activity 11:
Read and Complete the Case Study “Woolworths sees the light” on P.269
of the Text.
Activity 12:
Identify the impact of environmental factors on distribution channels.
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