ARH 2050: History of Visual Arts I
Dr. S. Bundrick
10, 15, and 17 October 2002
ART & ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT ROME
The Republic:
Temple of Portunus (“Fortuna Virilis”), Rome, ca. 75 BC
Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Praeneste, late 2nd c BC
Portrait of a man (“Torlonia Man”), ca. 75-50 BC
Samnite House, Herculaneum , late 2nd c BC
First Style wall painting
Villa of P. Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale, ca. 50-40 BC
Second Style architectural wall paintings
Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, ca. 60-50 BC
Second Style wall paintings
Augustus and the Julio-Claudians (27 BC–AD 68):
Statue of Augustus, from Prima Porta, ca. 20 BC
Ara Pacis Augustae, 13-9 BC
Exterior view; detail with “Tellus” panel;
detail of south frieze with imperial family
Villa of Livia, Prima Porta, ca. 30-20 BC
Detail of garden landscape painting
Imperial Villa, Boscotrecase (“Villa of Agrippa Postumus”) ,
ca. 10 BC
Detail of Third Style wall painting
Pont du Gard (aqueduct), Nîmes, ca. 16 BC
Domus Aurea (Golden House of Nero), Rome, AD 64-68
Octagonal hall
Fourth Style wall paintings
The Flavians (AD 69–94):
Portrait of emperor Vespasian, ca. AD 69-79
Portrait of a Flavian lady, ca. AD 90
Colosseum (Flavian amphitheater), ca. AD 70-80
Arch of Titus, after AD 81
House of the Vettii, Pompeii, ca. AD 70-79
Fourth Style wall paintings (“Ixion Room”)
Trajan (AD 98–117):
Forum of Trajan, Rome, dedicated AD 112
Markets of Trajan
Architect: Apollodorus of Damascus
Column of Trajan, dedicated AD 112
10.1
10.3
10.6
10.14
10.16
10.15
10.25
10.27-29
10.17
10.18
10.31
10.33
10.20
10.35
10.36
10.34
10.37–10.39
10.21
10.41, 43-44
10.42
Hadrian (AD 117–138):
Portrait of Hadrian as general, from Tel Shalem, Israel,
ca. AD 130-138
Pantheon, Rome, ca. AD 118-125
The Antonines (AD 138-192):
Column base of Antoninus Pius, Rome, ca. AD 161
Apotheosis of Antoninus and Faustina
Decursio
Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, ca. AD 175
10.47
10.48-10.50
10.57–10.58
10.59
The Severans (AD 193-235):
Painted portrait of Septimius Severus, Julia Domna, and their
children Caracalla and Geta, ca. AD 200
Portrait of Caracalla, ca. AD 211-217
Baths of Caracalla, Rome, AD 212-216
The Soldier-Emperors (3rd century AD):
Bronze statue of Trebonianus Gallus, from Rome, AD 251-253
Ludovisi battle sarcophagus, ca. AD 250-260
The Tetrarchs & Constantine:
Porphyry portraits of the Tetrarchs, ca. AD 305
Palace of Diocletian, Split, Croatia, ca. AD 300-305
Arch of Constantine, Rome, AD 312-315
Colossal portrait of Constantine, Rome, ca. AD 315-330
Basilica Nova (Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine), Rome,
ca. AD 306-312
10.64
10.65
10.67-10.68
10.70
10.71
10.74
10.75
10.76
10.78
10.79
Review the list of major emperors and an outline of Roman history on
Gardner pg 247
Terms:
pseudoperipteral
cuirass
Octavian
damnatio memoriae
patrician
plebeian
adlocutio
Actium
atmospheric perspective
oculus
Dacia
verism/veristic
Domitian
Parthians
philhellene
pietas
Serapis
spolia
ROMAN ART LECTURE NOTES:
-April 21st, 753 BC—founding of Rome
-509 BC—founding of the Republic, after expulsion of Etruscan king Tarquinius
Superbus
-Republic: power belongs to the senate and two elected consuls (sometimes a dictator,
under extraordinary circumstances)
-patricians: wealthy landowner class
-plebeians: small farmers, merchants, freed slaves
-211 BC: Marcellus, conqueror of Syracuse brings the art of the city to Rome,
inaugurating the “craze for Greek art” (Livy)—increased exposure to Greek art as
Romans conquered Greek lands: 146 BC—Greece becomes a Roman province;
133 BC: Attalos III wills Pergamene kingdom to Rome
-diversity and eclecticism of Roman art—Greek + Etruscan + sometimes other
influences= a distinctively Roman art
The Republic:
*Temple of Portunus (“Fortuna Virilis”), Rome, ca. 75 BC
cf. Model of a typical Etruscan temple
-the architecture of the Roman Republic combined Etruscan and Hellenistic Greek
influences with native Roman traditions
-the so-called Temple of Portunus in Rome is an example of the small urban temples
favored during this period-it stands near the Tiber River and was likely dedicated to
Portunus, god of harbors and ports
-the temple incorporates some Greek features, such as the use of the Ionic order and the
presence of pediments-however, note that instead of having a peripteral colonnade all
around the building, this temple has freestanding columns only at the porch, while the
columns around the cella are engaged-reference is made to the Greek tradition of
peripteral colonnades without actually being one--pseudoperipteral plan
-Etruscan influence is also evident-the plan includes a simple cella and deep porch like
the Veii temple-it is also raised on a high podium like Etruscan temples, with a stairway
allowing descent only at the front
-cella itself made of tufa, would have been covered in stucco in imitation of Greek marble
temples--freestanding columns made of travertine
-this design would become standard for Roman temples
-Ionic columns with flutes and bases
*Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Praeneste, late 2nd c BC
-the sanctuary of Fortuna Primagenia at Praeneste (Palestrina) shows again Greek
influence combined with Roman traditions and ideas
-the design and size of the sanctuary complex are indebted to Hellenistic Greek
architecture with its great colonnades and colossal scale--the interest in moving the
viewer through the architecture seen here is also characteristic of Hellenistic architecture-the viewer is taken from level to level via variously placed ramps, directed through the
complex to the actual temple, which is a tiny tholos in comparison with the rest of the
complex--the plan overall is very axial and symmetrical, with all the elements balanced
around a central axis
-noteworthy is the technique of construction--the sanctuary is built of concrete, a Roman
invention that was not used in the Hellenistic East--the concrete consisted of powdered
lime, sand, and rubble, mixed with water that hardened these elements into a solid massthe concrete was faced with stucco and finely cut limestone to keep out moisture-concrete made it possible for the Romans to construct vaults and arches, which were
much more difficult to execute in stone--it was also much cheaper to construct in
concrete as quarrying and transport were not required as for stone, also because only a
semiskilled as opposed to skilled work force were needed
-here concrete barrel vaults support the terraces and cover the ramps leading to the central
staircase
-“subjection of nature to human will and rational order was the first full-blown
manifestation of the Roman imperial spirit”--Gardner
*Portrait of a man (“Torlonia Man”), ca. 75-50 BC
-wealthy patricians kept portraits (imagines) of their ancestors in their homes
-style of Republican portraits derives to some degree from Hellenistic, Etruscan, and
possibly from Ptolemaic Egyptian portraits, but certainly are one way in which the
patrician class celebrated its status
-Republican portraits typically show men of advanced age, for the held the power
-meant to make a statement about the individual’s personality: serious, experienced,
determined
-The Roman Republican interest in verism in portraiture can be seen even more vividly in
the so-called "Torlonia Man," a portrait of an unknown patrician (Roman noble)
-the man is shown frontally, with a somber expression-the sculptor has emphasized every
line and wrinkle, creating an almost topographic map of the face-he has a large hooked
nose, a strong jutting chin, high cheekbones, and is extremely lifelike
-the portrait illustrates the Roman republican interest in recording reality by delineating
exactly a person's individual facial features-this approach to portraiture is very different
from anything we have seen thus far in this class-if we compare to the Pergamon Alex for
example, that portrait was very idealized and although somewhat based on reality was not
intended to present Alexander's exact appearance-here the opposite is true
-the focus on age and sobriety in this image is meant to convey the experience and
wisdom of the subject
-Greek marble imported from elsewhere—Greek artist??
*Portrait of a general, from Tivoli, ca. 75-50 BC
-Republican style head on a heroic Hellenistic body
-found at Sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli
-cuirass as symbol of his rank
-multiple messages: conveys his status, rank, and heroism
-also suggests the patron’s interest in Greek art (here talk about the conquest of Greece)
-August 24, AD 79—eruption of Vesuvius
-Pompeii first settled by the Oscans (an Italic tribe), then taken over by late 5th c BC by
the Samnites, who expanded the town influenced by Greek neighbors—80 BC: Sulla
founded a new Roman colony at the site with Latin as official language
-February AD 62: earthquake damages the city
-late 19th century: August Mau divides Pompeian mural paintings schemes into four socalled Pompeian Styles
*Samnite House, Herculaneum, late 2nd c BC
First Style wall painting
-fauces: “throat” of the house—the entryway leading to the atrium
-wall painting as important expression of owner’s tastes and status—Roman houses not
strictly “private”—clienteles, visitors all the time—painting, sculpture, and other forms
of decoration not only meant for the inhabitants, but also to impress guests
-“First Style” also called “Masonry Style”—imitating costly marble panels using
paintedstucco relief
-illusion of colored marbles from throughout the Mediterranean
-not uniquely Roman—First Style walls documented in the Greek world from the late 4th
c BC—use of the style in Italy is another example of Hellenization
-note that plaster itself could be mixed with marble dust if owner could afford it
*Villa of P. Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale, ca. 50-40 BC
Second Style architectural wall paintings
-we know a fair amount about house construction and decoration in the Republican
period, thanks largely to the excavation of the sites around Mt. Vesuvius south of Rome
on the Bay of Naples-an earthquake in AD 79 destroyed the towns of Pompeii and
Herculaneum, as well as other nearby towns and residential villas
-one of these was the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor near the modern town of Boscorealethe villa itself no longer exists due to another earthquake in the 1920s, but its wall
paintings were removed and divided between the museum in Naples and the Metropolitan
-one of the bedrooms, known as a cubiculum, has been reconstructed in the Metropolitan
-the walls are painted in the so-called Second Style of Roman wall painting-past scholars
identified four major styles as represented in Pompeii and Herculaneum, and
chronologically ordered them-we won't worry about the First Style, but both it and the
Second Style were popular during the Roman Republican period
-the Second Style as it is explored in this room focuses on the depiction of imaginary
painted architecture, given the illusion of spaces beyond the wall itself
-however, if we look at one panel from the room, we see that the space portrayed really is
illusionary, as the artist does not use a perspective system such as we are used to-here
herringbone perspective is shown, with multiple lines of perspective that do not
converge-the prominent door, the framing columns, and the mask at the top suggest that
the artist was trying to play with the viewer's perception of reality and space, that he was
not really trying to fool the eye
-detail with the tholos: use of linear (single vanishing-point) perspective
-it is possible that this style of painting in fact derived from theatrical stage painting
*Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, ca. 60-50 BC
Second Style wall paintings
-a different manifestation of the Second Style is seen in a room of the so-called "Villa of
the Mysteries," a large suburban villa just outside Pompeii
-this room also has decoration wrapping around all four walls, consisting of a frieze with
large figures set against a red architectural background-this type of figural painting may
have been based on Hellenistic Greek painting then adapted for Roman interests
-the subject of the frieze is very enigmatic and has not been conclusively
explained...DETAIL
-Gardner says “this chamber was probably used to celebrate in private the rites of the
Greek god Dionysos. Dionysos was the focus of an unofficial mystery religion popular in
Italy at this time among women…the figural cycle in this room…is thought to provide
some evidence for the cult’s initiation rites”-this is the traditional interpretation of the
frieze and the room, but this explanation has not been proven and not everyone agrees
with it-I for one do not buy the cult room idea, for the simple reason that the cult of
Bacchus was a mystery cult, where initiates were forbidden to reveal events and rituals-it
doesn't make sense that the owner of the house would decorate such a room so
expensively, for relatively few people would have seen it-it is also a fairly large room that
is prominently placed in the house-doesn't really seem secretive!-the frieze does refer to
Bacchus clearly, since he is included here, but his presence does not guarantee a religious
function to the room or necessarily a cult interpretation of the painting
The Age of Augustus (27 BC–AD 14):
-44 BC: Octavian inherits Caesar’s fortune, not yet 19
-31 BC: Actium, not yet 32
-27 BC: Senate confers title of Augustus on Octavian—“birth” of the Empire—Empire
ostensibly reocgnized as continuation of the Republic, but Augustus as princeps (first
citizen) held all the key positions: consul, imperator (commander in chief), and after 12
BC, pontifex maximus (chief priest)
*Statue of Augustus, from Prima Porta, ca. 20 BC
cf. Doryphoros; Aule Metele
-assimilation of earlier sculptural traditions to new context
-use of imperial portraiture for political propaganda—new image of the ruler
-shows Augustus as imperator, head of Rome's military forces
-orator gesture (gesture of adlocutio or address) cf. Aulus Metellus (Roman traditions)gesture activates space around statue and dominates the viewer
-at time when statue first conceived, Aug in his early forties but still rep'd as youthfulhead of statue in Classical Gk tradition-shape of head, cap of hair, smooth and idealized
features cf Doryphoros, although Aug's personal physiognomy is also present-a
recognizable but artificial image-broad cranium, narrow chin, aquiline nose, rounded lips,
sharply ridged eyebrows distinctive features of the emperor
-classicizing pose and body proportions cf. Doryphoros (Gk traditions)-interest of
Augustus in promoting Rome as heir to Hellenic culture
-Cupid on a dolphin-refers to claim of emperor's family (Julii) to be descended from
Venus via Aeneas-dolphin refers to victory at Actium
-wears cuirass and hold's commander's baton-bare feet, indicating apotheosis?posthumous work?-marble copy of earlier bronze original?-controversy that may never be
solved
-idealized features of young, vigorous ruler
-decoration on cuirass alludes to Aug's victory over the Parthians in 20 BC-Parthian
returns a Roman standard to a Roman soldier (Parthians had taken the standards in 53
BC)-first significant Augustan victory since Actium--this historical scene framed by
mythological figures-sky god, earth goddess, personifications of Spain and Gaul
-different approach to portraiture than we saw in the Republican pd (contrast Torlonia
Man)
-"projects image of the emperor as a benign ruler, touched by the gods, governing by
reason and persuasion, not autocratic power"
*Portrait bust of Livia, from Faiyum, Egypt, early 1st c AD
-Livia-Augustus' second wife (her second marriage too)-her son Tiberius would become
2nd emperor of Rome-also had son Drusus
-childless marriage with Augustus, but influential in promoting social legislation aimed at
increasing the Roman birth rate-supported laws favoring marriage and family, provided
increased legal protection to married women, and penalized bachelors, uinmarried
women, and childless wives or widows-made family life desirable state plus patriotic
duty
-importance of empress portraiture in Imperial art-visibility of the royal women
-portrait features and hairstyle but image also loosely based on Greek goddess style
-part of a larger family group set up in Egypt with statues of Augustus, Livia, and
Tiberius—probably put up after Aug’s death
-she was 60 at time of Aug’s death
-oval face, large almond-shaped eyes, strong aquiline nose, small rounded mouth
*Ara Pacis Augustae, 13-9 BC
Exterior view; detail with “Tellus” panel;
detail of south frieze with imperial family
-Pax Augusta (or Pax Romana)—peace established by Aug. which prevailed for two
centuries
-constructed to commemorate Augustus' triumphal return to the city following the end of
civil war and the establishment of firm Roman rule in Spain and France-permanent
monument to his achievement of the pacification of the known world
-emperor's dynastic ambitions, social policies, and religious affiliations also celebratedsubtle references to military victories that made peace possible
-Ara Pacis rebuilt by Mussolini in the 1930s
-altar's foundation stone laid on 4 July 13 BC-completed three and a half yrs later and
dedicated on Livia's birthday, 30 January 9 BC-deliberate choice of day-Livia as
foundation of imperial family
-Roman adaptatation of Greek and Hellenistic altars (cf Great Altar at Pergamon)
-"decoration is thoughtful union of portraiture and allegory, religion and politics, the
private and the public"
-north and south friezes: procession of senators and imperial family members-cf
Parthenon frieze--depicting actual individuals not generic Romans-Agrippa, Gaius, Livia,
Tiberius, Antonia, Drusus--depiction of children, eg Germanicus, Antonia's son-reflects
Aug's desire to promote private family life--subject distinctly Roman but style
incorporates Classical Greek elements--blending the real and the ideal again
-the two Kleiners say this is a specific event, probably the inaugural ceremony of 13
BC—however, it may be more “timeless” than that, because there are people here who
could not have been at the actual ceremony –Drusus was on military campaigns in the
north
-never before on a state relief have men been depicted with wives and childrenimportance of children in social legislation—Aug enacted series of laws designed to
promote marriage, marital fidelity, and raising children in response to decline in birthrate
among Roman nobility—portrayal of men with their families as a moral exemplar
-attempting to convey depth by carving closest in high relief, farther back in lower relief
-"Tellus" relief-allegorical representation of peace and prosperity brought to the Empire
by Augustus-debate over her identity--Tellus (Earth), Venus, Ceres, Peace, Italia?-holds
two chubby babies-accompanied by two young women with billowing veils, one seated
on the back of a swan, other reclining on sea monster of dragon-swan as land wind,
symbolizing fertility of the Roman lands-sea wind symbolizes Aug's dominion over the
Mediterranean-entire theme of Abundant Earth, with animals, flowers, and fruit symbolic
of fertility and growth-message: Peace brings prosperity and time for planting and
harvesting and the security to raise children and plan for the future through the peace
brought to Italy by Augustus-note Corinthian pilasters, Greek key pattern-lower zone
displays decorative acanthus leaf pattern arranged in spiral designs-acanthus not merely
decorative-carry primary message of the altar: peace leads to growth and rebirth-cf
contemporary literature
-note inclusion of swans in the acanthus-Apollo as patron deity of Augustus
-Horologium Augustae: on Sept 23 (Aug’s birthday), cast shadow on the altar
-extensive use of Carrara marble in Rome—quarries opened during the 1st c BC—Aug’s
boast that he found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble
-Res Gestae 12.2: “On my return from Spain and Gaul in the consulship of Tiberius Nero
and Publius Quintilius, after I had successfully arranged affairs in those provinces, the
senate decreed tht an altar of the Augustan Peace shoul be consecrated next to the
Campus Martius in honor of my return, and ordered that the magistrates and priests and
the Vestal Virgins perform an annual sacrifice there”
*Villa of Livia, Prima Porta, ca. 30-20 BC
Detail of garden landscape painting
-vaulted underground room covered with landscapes on all four sides
-Second Style, but focuses on landscape not architectural motifs (contra Boscoreale)
-naturalistic approach to landscape (contra Springtime Fresco, Thera)
-illusionary orchard with heavily laden fruit trees, carefully observed birds
-does not emphasize deep perspective or distant views
-room itself is partially subterranean, and may have been a summer dining roomoccupants intended to feel as if they were outdoors
-no great vistas of depth
-low wicker fence in foreground-stone balustrade behind, recessed at intervals to
accommodate a tree
-in forest proper there is foreground plane of more carefully and sharply painted trees and
shrubs, but beyond this the background is blotted out by impenetrable mass of light,
bluish green foliage--atmospheric perspective (things meant to be further off are shown
less distinctly)
-accuracy of representation of individual species-plants and birds painted precisely-have
identified spruce, oak, pine, cypress, palm, pomegranate, laurel, myrtle, roses, poppies,
periwinkles, chrysanthemums, daisies, violets, ivy, iris, ferns, acanthus
-flowers and fruits of all seasons appear together-contrary to nature-deliberate? meant to
suggest the prosperity and fertility of Italy in an era of peace? (cf Ara Pacis)
*Imperial Villa, Boscotrecase (“Villa of Agrippa Postumus”)
ca. 10 BC
Detail of Third Style wall painting
-Third Style—painters reassert the primacy of the wall surface rather than trying to deny
it as in Second Style
-note Gardner calls it the Villa of Agrippa Postumus—yay!
-Vitruvius on the Third Style
*Pont du Gard, Nîmes, ca. 16 BC
-aqueduct-bridge—Rome had built aqueducts as early as the 4th c for Rome itself
-aqueducts (along with roads and bridges) became important signs of Roman power
throughout the Mediterranean as empire expanded
-provided about 100 gallons of water a day for each inhabitant of Nimes from a source
thirty miles away—gravity flow allowed for the water, because channels had continuous
gradual decline—the three story bridge helps to maintain the height of the water channel
over the Gard River—each arch spans ca 82 ft and consists of blocks weighing up to 2
tons each
-aesthetic sense—rhythm of the arches, three above to each one below
The Julio-Claudians (AD 14–68):
*Portrait of Caligula, ca. AD 37-41
*Portrait of Nero, ca. AD 54-68
*Domus Aurea (Golden House of Nero), Rome, AD 64-68
Octagonal hall
-AD 64: the great fire of Rome—afterwards Nero had architects Severus and Celer to
build imperial palace on plot of fire-ravaged land near Forum Romanum
-walls of most rooms of brick-faced concrete, with concrete vaults
-most important rooms on southern side facing villa’s lake
-rich decoration: marble paneling, painted and gilded stucco, frescoes
-octagonal hall shows architects’ innovative approach to concrete architecture
-ceiling is a dome modulating from an eight-sided to hemispherical form as it rises
toward the oculus
-smaller rectangular rooms covered with concrete vaults radiate outward from the five
inner sides—include decorative recesses—middle room contained a waterfall—rooms lit
by leaving spaces between their vaulted ceilings and central domes exterior—here for the
first time walls and vaults do not limit space but shape
-central domed octagon defined by eight angled piers, with wide square openings—
complex and dynamic three-dimensional composition—central hall and radiating rooms
are a unified space—progressive in recognition of malleable nature of concrete
Fourth Style wall paintings
10.20
-Fourth Style: became popular around time of Pompeian earthquake in AD 62—return to
illusionism
-Domus Aurea: early Fourth Style, reveals kinship to 3rd style—monochromatic creamy
white background with motifs—framed landscape paintings—but views through the wall
are also featured, although “irrational architectural fantasies” (Gardner)—fragments of
buildings, etc.
The Flavians (AD 69–94):
*Portrait of Vespasian, ca. AD 69-79
10.35
-Vespasian: first emperor of the Flavian line
-portrait of a veteran general who had fought successfully in all parts of the empire
-man of simple origins and simple tastes, sought a return to Republican simplicity-good
administrator-honest, humerous
-blunt, rugged aspect of the soldier-very little idealization-balding pate, lined face and
neck-distinctive facial characteristics include a broad forehead, closely set eyes, arched
brows, hooked nose-thin, tightly closed lips
-depicted realistically as strong military leader
-deeply lined forehead, creased cheeks, rings of lines encircling his neck-hair recedes at
the temples-few remining thin strands on top are combed toward his forehead, and the
hair grows long on the neck
-very different from the smooth features of the Julio-Claudians, youthfulness and tousled
hair—deliberate reaction to the art of Nero
-this veristic style of portraiture can be seen in other Flavian portraits-cf. portrait bust of
an older woman, Stokstad fig. 6-44
*Portrait of a Flavian Lady, ca. AD 90
10.36
-dates from the reign of Domitian
-a second approach to Flavian portraiture-more idealized
-departure from the usually stern portraits of Roman women-union of sensitive beauty,
noble elegance, lucid intelligence
-elaborate coiffure with corkscrew curls shaped by the use of the drill-striking textural
contrast with delicate, softly modeled features
-talk about how we can date female portraiture by hairstyle
-there is another replica portrait of the same woman-of imperial rank?-has been suggested
to be Trajan's niece Vibia Matidia
-a few folds of drapery delicately embrace her shoulders
-facial features: oval face, almond-shaped eyes, straight feathery brows, aquiline nose,
delicately modeled mouth
-swanlike neck, head tilted to the left
*Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre), ca. AD 70-80
10.34
-built during the reign of Vespasian-construction began in AD 72, and was dedicated by
Titus in AD 80—dedication marked by 100 days of games
-615 x 610 ft-159 ft high (height of a 16-story bldg)—76 numbered entrances led to
seating area
-home to variety of athletic events and spectacles, includign animal hunts, fights to the
death between gladiators or between gladiators and wild animals, performances of trained
animals and acrobats, and even mock sea battles (flooded by built- in mechanism)
-built to bolster popularity of the emperor in Rome-only two other amphitheaters in
Rome at the time were temporary wooden structures and could not accommodate the
needs of the population-larger, permanent stone amphitheater needed
-choice of site deliberate: the valley bottom that had housed the artifical lake of Nero's
Golden House--erased part of his predecessor's memory, central ready-excavated, esaily
drained site
-nickname Colosseum derives from the Colossus, a statue of Nero that had been left
stnading next to it
-floor laid over a foundation of service rooms and tunnels-backstange area-floor covered
in sand (arena in Latin)
-some 50,000 spectators could easily move through 76 entrance doors to the three
sections of seats and the standing area of the top
-velarium or awning could shield spectators from sun or rain
-oval with surrounding exterior wall and ascending tiers of seats laid over barrel-vaulted
corridors that provided access to them-entrance tunnels connected ring corridors to inside
ramps and seats on each level-walls on the top level of the arena supported an awning
system that could shade the seating areas
-=outer wall consists of three levels of arcade surmounted by a wall-like attic (top) storyeach arch framed by engaged columns, which support entablaturelike bands marking the
divisions between levels-each level uses a different architectural order: Tuscan order on
the ground level, Ionic on the second, Corinthian on the third, flat Corinthian pilasters on
the fourth
bronze shield shaped ornaments called cartouches
-all these elements purely decorative with no structual function
-orderly, dignified, and visually satisfying way of articulating the facade
-much of the facade and the resto f the Colosseum dismantled as a source of marble,
metal fittings, and materials for later buildings
*Arch of Titus, after AD 81
10.37–10.39
-arch commissioned by Domitian after his accession in AD 81, to honor his brother and
deified predecessor, Titus-Stokstad calls it a triumphal arch but it really isn't one because
would not have been used on a triumph-it is a consecration monument to honor the
deified Titus
-triumph: formal victory celebration granted to general or emperor on his return to Rome
after a significant campaign-leader paraded with troops, captives, and booty through the
city-triumphal arches commemorated these occasions
-Arch of Titus commemorates the capture of Jerusalem in August, AD 70
-constructed of concrete and faced with marble-freestanding gateway pierced by
passageway covered by a barrel vault
-originally arch served as a giant base (50 ft tall) for a statue of four horse chariot and
driver
-applied to faces of arch: columns in the composite order (capitals formed by
superimposing Ionic volutes on Corinthian capital) supporting an entablature
-inscription: "The Senate and the Roman People to the Deified Titus Flavius Vespasianus
Augustus, son of the Deified Vespasian"
-Titus' capture of Jerusalem ended in fierce campaign to crush revolt of the Jews in
Palestine--troops sacked and destroyed Second Temple of Jerusalem and carried off his
sacred treasures--the spoils were displayed in Rome during Titus's triumphal procession
-reliefs on the inside walls of the arch show Titus' soldiers flaunting the booty as they
carry it through the streets of Rome-rendering space among figures by showing close
elements in higher reliefs than those more distant-menorah from the Temple of Jerusalem
dominates the scene--arch positioned on the right on a diagonal, through which the
procession is about the pass—very high relief, producing strong shadows, adding to the
sense of movement
-opposite side: Titus riding in his chariot as a participant in the ceremonies-he carries
Jupiter's scepter and holds a palm branch-he is accompanied by Victory crowning him
with a laurel wreath-chariot accompanied by the Genius Populi Romani and the Genius
Senatus and is led by four horses-they are guided by Roma who welcomes the general
home-protagonists of the scene are both human and divine-this panel is the first
monumental state relief in which the two coexist-this does not represent a specific
historical event (in relief life Vespasian would have been there too)—note female
personification of Valor (Virtus) leading the horses—first known instance of divine
beings interacting with humans on a state relief
-apex of vault: square panel showing apotheosis of Titus-he is carried to heaven on the
back of an eagle-at moment of cremation, an imperial slave let go an eagle to carry the
emperor's soul
-note that the spoils relief has the figures marching from left to right, in the triumph panel
from right to left, so that both scenes are oriented in the directoion of the Temple of
Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill
-spandrels: Victories carrying Roman banners, trophies, laurel wreaths, and palm
branches
-small frieze: triumph of Vespasian and Titus in AD 71-figures carved in very high relief
-note that the arch was dismanted and reerected in 1822 by Raffaele Stern and Giuseppe
Valadier-had been incorporated into a fortress for the Frangipani family in the Middle
Ages
*House of the Vettii, Pompeii, ca. AD 70-79
10.21
Fourth Style wall paintings (“Ixion Room”)
-"Ixion Room"-includes elements of all three previous styles-First Style type incrustation
in the lower zone, architectural panels (cf 2nd Style) set into ornate, 3rd Styel wall
articulation, also reflected in the individual picture panels
-Fourth Style is more eclectic, where Second Style had been dominated by architectural
illusionism, and Third Style had created a purely ornamental canon based upon color,
miniaturism, and the impenetrability of the surface (Ling)
-most examples of Fourth Style painting in Pompeii date after the earthquake of AD 62style persists until eruption in AD 79
-Ixion Room has scheme of red and white fields the red carrying mythological panels,
white decorated with floating duets (satyrs and personifications of the Seasons)interspaces occupied by "windows" opening above pale blue parapets crowned with
paintings of sea batles and still lifes (Ling)
-note Ixion Rm is a triclinium
-later Fourth Style—“crowded and confused compositions and sometimes garish color
combinations” (Gadner)
-house was remodeled and repainted after the AD 62 earthquake—owned by two
brothers, Aulus Vettius Restitutus and Aulus Vettius Conviva, probably freedmen who
made their fortune as merchants—able to purchase a house that in the past would have
belonged to a patrician
Trajan (AD 98–117):
-Domitian assassinated in AD 96, had angered senate and populace (dominus et deus)—
elderly Nerva chosen as next emperor, didn’t rule very long but established a pattern of
succession that lasted for a century—he adopted Trajan, a general to whom he was not
related by blood—Trajan was a Spaniard and the first non-Italian emperor of Rome
-after the Flavians: the Five Good Emperors=Nerva (96-98), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian
(117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180)
-long period of stability and prosperity—empire reaches greatest extent during this time
*Portrait of Trajan
c. AD 108
-Trajan came to power at the age of 45, and he is represented as being that age throughout
his principate-he was actually 55 when this portrait was carved
-Trajan so popular he was granted title optimus (the best)
-celebrates his decennalia (10 yr anniversary of his accession)
-bust length portrait-wears the paludamentum (military cloak, esp. general's cloak) and
balteus (girdle or belt serving to hold a weapon)
-different type of military image from Vespasian
-facial features recognizable from other portraits, but here features have been ennobled,
simplified, and energized
-note long strands of cap of hair
-Trajan expanded the borders of the empire to their farthest reaches-much of Trajan's art
reflects his military exploits and their consequences for Rome
*Forum of Trajan, Rome, dedicated AD 112
10.41, 43-44
Markets of Trajan
Architect: Apollodorus of Damascus
-centerpiece of Trajan's Rome was the Forum of Trajan with its vast forecourt, grandiose
basilica, Greek and Latin libraries, and column retelling his Dacian (Dacia=roughly
modern day Romania) exploits-he launched major building campaign in Rome-also built
Baths of Trajan, major roads and bridges
-his Forum was financed by spoils of war
-the Forum was as large in size as all the earlier imperial fora together
-reflects the military nature of his art and architecture
-carefully orchestrated architectural space calculated to serve as a civic and religious
center and also as an advertisement for Trajan's military successes
-forum was dedicated in AD 112-desired to build forum next to that of Augustus
-Apollodoros of Damascus-chief architect and engineer for the emperor, worked on the
forum
-forum with its extensive sculptural program was constructed with the spoils of Trajan's
Dacian campaigns of AD 101-102 and 105-106 and celebrated those very victories-the
victory in Dacia ensured establishment of Dacia as a Roman province-for his victory he
was awarded a triumph in Rome and the title Dacicus-the Roman populace celebrated
123 days of games
-in overall architectural form, Trajan's forum is modeled on that of Augustus although
larger in scale-same vast, open rectangular space, same semicircular exedrae-built for the
most part of Luna marble
-forum entered through convex facade no longer preserved
-great open rectangular space of the forum had equestrian state of Trajan in centercaptive Dacians on the upper stories of the flanking colonnades alternating with portraits
on shields
-north end of temple occupied by law court or basilica, called Basilica Ulpia from
Trajan's family name, Ulpius-fronted by commemorative doorway in form of triumphal
arch
-Basilica Ulpia: large, roofed structure with central nave, two side aisles, timber-trussed
roof sheathed with gilded bronze, and interior relief frieze-basilica: large, rectangular
building with rounded extension (apse) at each end-400 ft long (wihtout apses) and 200 ft
wide-illumination afforded by clerestory windows, provided by elevation of timberroofed nave above colonnade aisles
-Basilica Ulpia led to small plaza flanked by Greek and Latin libraries and had Column
as its centerpiece
-Temple of Divine Trajan at northern end added under emperor Hadrian
-during the site preparation for the forum, much of the commercial district on the
adjoining Quirinal Hill was razed-Trajan ordered construction of public markets to make
up for the loss-complete extent of the much-damaged structure unknown-remaining
buiding is semicircular structure following shape of the hudge exedra in the east wall of
the forum-market had more than 150 individual shop spacs on several levels and included
large groin-vaulted main hall-made of brick-faced concrete in compliance with the city's
building code—basic unit was the taberna, single room shop covered by barrel vault
-forum ostensibly a practical monument built to serve as a law court and a meeting and
marketplace-had a deeper significance-meant to serve as a political message in stone
commemorating Trajan's military victories in Dacia and exalting Trajan as Dacicus
*Column of Trajan, dedicated AD 112
10.42
-made of Luna marble-consists of base, shaft, and capital-was originally capped by a
gilded bronze, heroically nude statue of Trajan (know this from coins)-statue was
replaced in 1588 by one of St Peter
-column is 125 ft tall-commemorates the engineering feat that made the construction of
the forum possible-also a victory monument because spiral frieze encircling from base to
top depicts Trajan's two Dacian campaigns-also was a funerary monument serving as
tomb of Trajan and Plotina-two golden urns housing their remains were found in a burial
chamber at the base of the column and its spiral staircase of 185 steps
-base sculpted with weapons and tropies=shaft has spiraling narrative frieze
-spiral frieze appears to have been creation of Apollodorus of Damascus
-individual scenes rep traditional Roman military events: building of cities, making of
sacrifices, adventus, profectio, etc.-earlier state reliefs served as prototypes, prob also
Roman triumphal paintings and illustrated scrolls
-frieze c. 625 ft long-155 individual scenes on the column-over 2500 figures, 23
superimposed spirals-scenes clearly divided from one another by architecture or
landscape elements-emperor present in most of them-only about 1/4 of the scenes
dedicated to battle scenes-not about battles alone but all aspects of war-special attention
paid to what happens before and after a battle-Dacians heroically portrayed
-first campaign begins on the Dacian frontier, where the Roman soldiers unload their
provisions on the banks of the Danube-scene of Trajan's troop detachments crossing a
pontoon bridge over the Danube is rendered in detail and identified by the presence of a
personification of the Danube River, a half-length bearded male figure seen from the
rear-one of only four personifications or gods on the column
-scene above: solderis have begun constructing a battlefield headquarters in Dacia
-frieze could be viewed from the plaza or from second stories of the flanking librarieswhen visitor was standing in front of the forum or in the court, he couldnt' see the frieze
at all, but only the bronze statue of Trajan above the Basilica Ulpia-apotheosis effect
Hadrian (AD 117–138):
*Portrait of Hadrian as general, from Tel Shalem, Israel,
10.47
ca. AD 130-138
-Spaniard Hadrian chosen by Trajan to be his successor
-more portraits survive today of Hadrian than any other emperor except Augustus
-Hadrian's portraits present him as a never-aging adult-rep'd always at age of accession
(41)-smooth, wrinkle-free skin-no deep lines in forehead, no creases on cheeks
-wears a full beard-first Roman emperor to do so-probably wore it as a Greek affectationbeards worn by Greek poets, philosophers, and statestmen of the past
-set and trend and exerted lasting legacy-every Roman emperor since Hadrian wore a
beard until fourth century
-new also: drilling of pupil and iris with eye-before this, added in paint
-beard and drilled pupil/iris added new textures to face and new areas for artistic
experimentation
-full head of curly hair brushed in thick waves from crown of head-neat moustache, short
but full beard-military portrait here with general's cloak
-this portrait probably executed toward end of Hadrian’s lifetime when Rome put down a
second Jewish revolt and Judaea was reorganized as new province (Syria Palaestina)
*Pantheon, Rome, ca. AD 118-125
10.48-10.50
-dedicated to "all the gods"
-built on site of temple erected by Agrippa in 27-25 BC but later destroyed
-entrance porch originally raised ona podium
-rotunda=20 ft thick walls that rise nearly 75 ft
-huge, round, bowl-shaped dome, 143 ft in diameter, 143 from floor at its summit
-ceiling coffers
-oculus (central opening)=29 ft wide
-sophisticated design and engineering
-surface of marble veneer disguises internal brich arches and conrete supporting it
-internally-walls are disguised by architectural details, two tiers of columns, exerae,
pilasters, and entablatures-seven niches (rectangular alternating with semicircular)
originally held statues of the gods-simple repetition of square against circle (cf.
rectangular portico against rotunda) repeated throughout the building
-coffers inside the dome help lighten the weight of the masonry
-inscription above entrance: "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, who was consul three
times"-acknowledging Agrippa's earlier building at the site rather than glorifying himself
-revealed full potential for concrete as a building material and as a means for the shaping
of architectural space
-façade of 8 Corinthian columns
-single, unencumbered interior space of overwhelming scale
-domed rotunda fronted with rectangular portico
-original effect different, for originally the back and one of its sides was hidden-also, the
portico once stood at one end of a lost colonnaded court
-dome is shell of concrete that gradually thickens toward the base to augment structural
strength where it is most needed—heavy basalt used in concrete mix at the foundations
and featherweight pumice used at the top to lighten the load—thickness also decreases
nearer the oculus
-oculus as only source of light for the interior
-floor is slightly convex-drains are cut into shallow depression in center under the oculus
to carry off any rains that falls into interior
*Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli, ca. AD 130-138
10.51
-Hadrian had his architects recreate his favorite places throughout the empire, especially
buildings and monuments in Athens and Alexandria-recreating his travel experiencescommissioning buildings to serve as monumental tourist souvenirs
-not a single building but architectural complex of many buildings, lakes, and gardens
spread over half a square mile-sculptural program that reflected his eclectic taste and
documented the extent of his travels-copies of famous Greek statues
-focus on landscape and attractive views
-complex buildings-ingenious examples of Roman planning and engineering
-Canopus: area with long reflecting pool, reflecting site at Canopus near Alexandriaframed by fanciful arcuated colonnade-spaces between columns filled with copies of Gk
statues-testifies to his eclectic tastes
-Serapeum at one end-very modern Roman concrete building-not actually a temple
though-pumpkin shaped dome supposedly designed by Hadrian himself
The Antonines (AD 138-192):
-Hadrian adopted 51-yr old Antoninus Pius as his successor in AD 138—Hadrian also
required that Antoninus Pius adopt Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180) and Lucius Verus (r.
161-169) so as to assure a peaceful succession—Hadrian proclaimed a god after his death
-Antoninius ruled for 23 years
-Marcus Aurelius (Ant P’s wife’s nephew) and Lucius Verus became Rome’s first coemperors after that
*Column (Base) of Antoninus Pius, Rome, ca. AD 161
Apotheosis of Antoninus and Faustina
-reign of Antoninus Pius generally a time of peace and prosperity-smooth transition from
Hadrian to the Antonines-had been adopted by H. as his heir
-adoptive sons and successors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus commissioned the
column of Antonius Pius after his death in AD 161 to honor him and his wife Faustina
the Elder—dedicatory inscription on one side
-scene of imperial apotheosis
-figure in lower left is personification of Campus Martius (where column was erected)balanced on right by figure of Roma
-nude winged male personification, probably genius of the Golden Age transpots the
deceased emperor and empress on his back-emperor carries scepter crowned by an eagle,
attribute of Jupiter-pair thus assimilated to Jupiter and Juno-flanked by two eagles,
symbols of their souls, which stand for those which were actually let loose by a slave
after the imperial cremation ceremonies
-classicizing style-large elegantely proportioned figures placed againt a blank
background-quiet, dignified mood
-note Faustina the Elder had died 20 yrs before—suggestion that Antoninus had been
faithful ever since and now they would be reunited in the afterlife
Decursio
-on the two adjacent sides of the apotheosis relief are two decursio reliefs—ritual circling
of the imperial funerary pyre
-break with classical tradition—stockier figures than on the apotheosis relief—relief
shows the whole ground, with soldier and horses shown on floating patches of earth
-the design convention here had been seen before in plebeian art
*Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, ca. AD 175
-emperor Marcus Aurelius was successful military commander and was also an
intellectual
-only complete surviving bronze equestrian imperial statue
-once-gilded bronze equestrian statue-the reason it survived is because the early
Christians thought it represented Constantine, and so was not melted down-until recently
it was the centerpiece of Michelangelo's Campidoglio piazza
-wears tunic and short, heavy cloak of a commander
-raised foreleg of horse poised to trample figure of a crouching barbarian, now lost
-head resembles Hellenistic philosopher portraits-thick, curly hair and full beard-cf.
portraiture of Hadrian
-reaches out in gesture of address, cf Augustus Prima Porta-or gesture of clemency
towards the fallen figure, as Kleiner indicates?—Gardner: gesture “is both a greeting and
an offer of clemency”—some evidence suggests presence of an enemy underneath
-difficult to balance composition of an equestrian portrait so that the rider stands out as
dominant figure without making horse look too small-sculptor here pulls it off
-horse's high-arched neck, massive head, short body suggest a Spanish breed, prized as
war steeds
*Portrait of Commodus as Hercules, ca. AD 190
-Commodus="a man without political skill, administrative competence, or intellectual
distinction"-devoted himself to luxury and frivolous pursuits
-portraiture very different from other examples we have seen
-marble bust of Commodus as Hercules
-sensitive modeling, expert drillwork-play of light and shadow on the figure, bring out
textures of hair, beard, facial features, and drapery
-probably insane-claimed to be reincarnation of Hercules sometimes-would dress up in
public
-here Commodus carries club, wears lionskin and carries apples of the Hesperides
-typical of his portraiture: long oval face, arched brows, half-closed eyes, large nose,
small mouth, arrogant expression-deeply drilled tousled hair, plastically rendered full
beard
-dates to end of his principate, c. 191-192
-bust origianlly flanked by two male tritons who held a curtain over his head
-imperial coinage of the time also depicts him in guise of Hercules
-sources say he was fond of donnign attributes of Hercules in public and that he saw
himself as god on earth
-Commodus was assassinated—civil conflict after his death
The Severans (AD 193-235):
*Painted portrait of Septimius Severus, Julia Domna, and their
children Caracalla and Geta, ca. AD 200
-he was from North Africa, she was from Syria
-to proclaim his legitimacy, Septimius claimed to be Marcus Aurelius’s son—adopts
some of Marc Aure’s characteristics in his portraits
-art flourished under their rule
-Caracalla and Geta succeeded him as co-emperors in 211, but Caracalla murdered his
brother in 212 and ruled alone until he himself was killed in AD 217
-rare example of a painted imperial portrait—only surviving painted likeness of any
Roman emperor
-from Faiyum, Egypt, known for its painted wooden coffins and mummy portraits
-emperor recognizable by distinctive divided beard and curles moustache-darker skin
reflects North African heritage-he was first empeor since Trajan and Hadrian to be born
in the provinces
-Julia Domna equally recognizable-full face, large nose, masses of waving hair
-Geta's features have been defaced-Caracalla decreed a damnatio memoriae on Geta after
his murder-owners of this painting complied with the decree
-focus on crowns, jewels, forecful expressions
-very stylized drawing style
-tempera (pigments in egg yolk) on wood
-note slightly uplifted eyes, wide and staring, of Severus and Caracalla-becomes a
hallmark of imperial portraiture
*Chariot procession of Septimius Severus, from the arch of
Septimius Severus, Lepcis Magna, Libya, AD 203
-Lepcis Magna was Septimius’s hometown—built extensively there
-Arch of Septimius Severus built at a crossroads, friezes on the attic on all four sides
-“stately stillness” (gardner)—chariot procession of Septimius and his two sons
-frontality and floating figures—new to official art but part of private vocabulary for a
long time—new aesthetic
-note heads of both boys are obliterated
-chariot in profile but figures in it are frontal
*Portrait of Caracalla, ca. AD 211-217
-Caracalla consistently shown with a scowling expression-meant to convey message to
viewer of hard-nosed military men ready to defend himself and empire-different though
from the military image of Vespasian and Trajan
-note again the drilled pupils
-has beard, but it is close-cropped, more military in style than the full beards of Hadrian
and Marcus Aurelius—incision used to show hair and beard
-intensity of expression—knotted brow, abrupt turn of the head over the left shoulder
-Caracalla assassinated during the sixth year of his reign
*Baths of Caracalla, Rome, AD 212-216
-“greatest in a long line of bathing and recreational complexes erected with imperial
funds to win the public’s favor” (gardner)
-brick-faced concrete, covered by vaults springing to 140 ht high—covered over 50 acres
-symmetrical design along central axis
-frigidarium: cold baths
-tepidarium: warm baths
-caldarium: hot baths
-natatio: open swimming pool
-today caldarium used for open-air opera performances
-note slide is recon of the frigidarium (central hall)
-dome of caldarium almost as large as the Pantheon
-lavishly decorated with stucco, mosaics, marble, and sculpture—Farnese Herakles found
here
-baths had been begun by Septimius Severus and were finished by Caracalla
-open spaces for gymnastic exercise—
The Soldier-Emperors (3rd century AD):
-Severan dynasty ended when Alexander Severus murdered (AD 222-235)—constant
civil war after that with rapid succession of emperors—very little significant building
activity because of political instability
*Bronze statue of Trebonianus Gallus, from Rome, AD 251-253
-short lived emperor
-over lifesize bronze portrait—heroic nudity—but not the idealized athletic nudity of
Greece, more of a wrestler’s body with massive legs and torso—heavyset body, small
head—note nervous expression in the head
-note close cropped military-style hair and beard
*Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus, ca. AD 250-260
-sarcophagi as an art form began to develop under Hadrian, when burial practices shifted
from cremation to inhumation
-discovered in Rome in 1621 and purchased by Cardinal Ludovisi
-chaotic scene between Romans and northern enemies (probably Goths)---no illusion of
space behind them—composition gives effect of battle
-piling of figures uncharacteristic of classical style
-can still pick out the central figure despite the crowded composition—bareheaded,
thrusts out hand without weapon—maybe one of the sons of emperor Trajan Decius—
fearless commander image—on his forehead is carved a symbol of Mithras, mystery cult
particularly popular with the army
The Tetrarchs & Constantine:
-Diocletian proclaimed emperor by the troops, decided to share power with his potential
rivals—formed a tetrarchy (rule by four)—made himself Augustus of the East—ruled
together without strife until Diocletian retired in 305, then infighting began and the
tetrarchy collapsed—empire did continue to be divided into east and west afterwards
*Portraits of the Tetrarchs, Venice, ca. AD 305
-more stylized and symbolic than earlier portraiture-does not realistically depict the
Tetrarchs (Diocletian, Maximian, their two Caesars)
-almost a symbolic rep. of four-man rule
-two figures with beards probably D. and M. and two without probably their adopted sons
the Caesars-the four figures are nearly identical, dressed in military garb and grasping
swords-embrace each other in show of imperial unity, concerted strength and vigiliance
-piece of propaganda, summary of state of affairs at the time
-porphyry-purple stone from Egypt reserved for imperial use-very hard stone, which may
have contributed to more abstract style-disregard for normal human proportionssimplification of natural forms to more geometric shapes-emphasis on message or idea
-Augusti: Diocletian and Maximian-Caesars: Galerius and Constantius Chlorus
-concordia
-large cubical heads on squat bodies
*Palace of Diocletian, Split, Croatia, ca. AD 300-305
-huge and well-fortified imperial residence at Split, on the Dalmatian coast (Serbian
Croatia)-built after Diocletian retured from active rule in 305
-revolutionary in design, recalling compact, regular plan of Roman army camp-contrasts
with irregular, sprawling, semi-public design of Hadrian's Villa
-surrounded by a wall, reflection of unstable conditions of the time
-rectangular enclosure 650 x 550 ft crossed by two colonnade streets dividing the palace
into quarters, each with specific function—entire complex covers about 10 acres
-emperor's residential complex faced thee sea-included reception hall on main n-s axis of
the palace
-colonnaded street led from main gate at north to a peristyl court, which ended in a grand
facade with an enormous doorway through which emperor made ceremonial appearancescolumns support arches, cf. Canopus-note broken pediment of entablature at end of the
peristyle court
-arcade opens onto Diocletian's mausoleum on one side of the court, onto the Temple of
Jupiter on the other
-period after Diocletian’s abdication marked by conflict for two decades, eventually
ending in restoration of one-man rule—eventual victor (Constantine) was son of
Constantius Chlorus, Diocletian’s Caesar of the West
-Constantine invaded Italy in AD 312—defeated and killed chief rival Maxentius at the
milvian Bridge, attributed victory to help of the Christian God
-AD 324: Constantine defeats another rival, Licinius, near Byzantium and becomes
undisputed ruler of the empire—founded a new city at Byzantium—Constantinople
-AD 325: Council of Nicaea: Christianity became official religion of the Roman Empire
-AD 337: Constantine baptized on his deathbed
-Constantinian period marks transition from classical to medieval eras—he was a builder
in the grand tradition of emperors before him…but built many churches too
*Arch of Constantine, Rome, AD 312-315
-erected by the Senate as a memorial to Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the
Milvian Bridge in AD 312-inscription: "To the Emperor Constantine from the Senate and
the Roman People. Since through divine inspiration and great wisdom he has delivered
the state from the tyrant and his party by his army and noble arms, [we] dedicate this
arch, decorated with triumphal insignia"
-sculptural decoration of the arch includes panels from monuments of earlier emperors,
eg Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius--good emperors as role models for Constantine-lintel with Constantine addressing the people (first public speech after triumph over
Maxentius)--short, stocky, mostly frontal figures-significant change in style and
composition that distinguishes them from Hadrianic and Aurelian elements in the arch
-emperor's head is missing-he stands on a speaker's platform in the Republican Forum in
front of monument of Tetrarchs and flanked by images of Marcus Aurelius and Hadrian
-Constantine setting himself up as worthy successor to Trajan, hadrian, et al.
-two dimensional, hierarchical approach and stiff style-emphasis on authority, ritual and
symbolic meaning-this style was adopted by early Christians-Constantinian art is bridge
between art of imperial past and art of European Middle Ages
-reuse of earlier bits of sculpture often cited as evidence of decline in creativity—but
more likely a deliberate choice to associate Constantine with prior “good emperors”
-detail in Gardner shows emperor distributing largess to grateful citizens—Constantine’s
head was carved separately and set into the relief, is now lost
-respecting the past and yet rethinking classical ideals of representation
*Basilica Nova (Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine), Rome,
ca. AD 306-312
-last important imperial government building erected in Rome itself
-begun by Maxentius during his short reign-completed by Constantine prior to leaving
Rome for new capital of Constantinople
-functioned as an administrative center and provided magnificent setting for the emperor
when he appeared as supreme judge
-earlier basilicas had been columnar halls, but Maxentius' architects created a large,
unbroken, vaulted space, cf. public baths
-central hall covered with groin vaults-side aisles covered with lower barrel vaults acting
as buttresses (projecting supports) for central groin vault-allowed generous window
openings in the clerestory areas over the side walls
-three of the brick-and-concrete barrel vaults still survive
-originally measured 300 by 215 ft-vaults of central nave rose to height of 115 ft-groin
vaulted porch extended across the short side on the southeast, sheltered a triple entrance
to central hall
-opposite end of long axis was apse, which acted as focal point for the building
-Constantine's architects added another entrance to the SW, probably to accomodate
crowds, and another apse on the short side
-interior was richly marbled and stuccoed
-spacious, fully illuminated, uninterrupted by rows of vertical supports, constructed of
highly malleable, versatile, fireproof material-monument to ingenuity of Roman
architects
*Colossal portrait of Constantine, Rome, ca. AD 315-330
-from the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine-statue of seated emperor-only a few
marble frags survive--head, hand, knee, elbow, foot
-brick core, wooden torso covered with bronze and head and limbs of marble
-seminude seated portrait based on Roman images of Jupiter—held an orb (global symbol
of power) in his extended left hand
-head is 8 1/2 ft high and eights over eight tons
-frontal aspect
-eyes large inproportion to rest of the head-directed upward
-colossal 30 ft portrait statue placed in original apse of the basiica-permanent standin for
the emperor rep'ing him whenver conduct of business legally required his presence
-features of traditional Roman portraiture plus abstract qualities cf Tetrarchs
-heavy jaw, hooked nose, jutting chin typical of Constantine-incorporated into rigid,
symmetrical pattern in which other features (eg eyes, eyebrows, hair) have been
simplified into geometric arcs
-return to the youthful ideal established by Augustus, break with tetrarchic or soldieremperor style—cf also images of Trajan
-first beardless imperial image since Hadrian
Constantine and Christianity:
-baptized on his deathbed
-AD 313-Edict of Milan-granted freedom of worship to Christians
-appointed Christians to official posts, personally rejected paganism
-transformed Christianity from minority religion practiced in secret to empirewide
religion publicly celebrated in imperially sponsored buildings
-encouraged construction of churches in Rome and elsewhere