Japanese Drama: Noh Play
The Noh play, created in the middle of the fourteenth century and reaching its zenith in the
middle of the fifteenth century, is a classic Japanese dance-drama containing stylized action, a
chorus, elaborate costumes, simple scenery, and a heroic theme. It is an examination in
aesthetics, literature, and theater, Noh plays, composed in part-prose and part-verse and adapted
from established literature already in the minds of the people, are in the vernacular of the
Japanese Court of the fourteenth century. The two styles of Noh are kotoba (words) and fushi
(melody). The performance of fushi is either yowagin (soft) or tsuyogin (strong), which appears
in masculine and warrior scenes. Noh’s adherence to tradition and its continued popularity are
the genius of two men, Kwannami Kiyotsuga (1333-1384) and his son Zeami Motokiyo (13631444).
Kwannami was a Shinto priest of the Kasuga Temple near the city of Nara, an actor, and
a writer of sarugaku (monkey music). The third Ashikaga shogun Yoshimitsu (1368-98), who
ruled absolutely in Kyoto (formerly Heian) at the time, saw one of Kwannami’s performances,
admired his acting ability took him under his protection, and became his patron. His patronage
elevated Kwannami and his theatrical style to a new position, making Noh the official theater of
the ruling class. Yoshimitsu was a devotee of Zen Buddhism, the religion of choice for many of
the great patrons of the arts, and Kwannami merged sacred Zen Buddhism practices, theatrical
conventions, and poetic forms to create Japan’s classic art form, the Noh drama. His son Zeami
refined the art form under Yoshimitsu’s patronage, giving it seriousness and merit. He published
Kwadensho (Book of the Flower), which outlines the principles of Noh plays, illustrates the
fundamentals of mai (dancing), monomane (miming), and yokyoku (song). Zeami insisted on
perfection in these art forms. His purpose of perfecting these three theatrical forms is to achieve
yugen or ultimate aesthetic expression, meaning “what lies beneath the surface.” Yugen
emphasizes suggestion rather than representation, subtlety rather than obviousness, implication
rather than reality. The influence of Zen Buddhism with its dedication to allusion dominates the
Noh drama as an art form.
Noh derives from three forms associated with the shrine, marketplace, and rusticity. They
are sarugaku (monkey music), sangaku (acrobatic performance), and dengaku (field music).
Sarugaku originally was a shrine pantomine ritual play which evolved into theater comedy. It
also was a masquerade which was an escape from the solemn Shinto rituals. When Kwannami
adapted other conventions into sarugaku, it became Sarugaku no Noh, which is now Noh.
Sangaku grew out of the popularity of sarugaku. Acrobats of sangaku, marketplace performers,
were always visible in Heian city life; Chinese acrobats later joined the sarugaku performance.
Another influence, dengaku, was the ritualistic folk dances of the rice-planting labor class. It
evolved into an opera-like theatrical performance that included dance and poetry. Other forms
incorporate the Noh tradition. Kusemai (tune dance), various poetic forms, mystery plays,
Buddhist liturgy, ballads, and the Chinese dances that were essential to the Japanese Court
tradition contribute to the adaptation of the independent art form called Noh.
Zeami’s principles of Noh attracted students who desired to abide by his tenets. As a
result, Kanze, the first school of Noh, emerged, later followed by other schools, Hosho,
Komparu, Kita, and Kongo. All the schools adhere to the strict construction of the Noh stage.
The traditional Noh theater, originally constructed out of doors but built in an auditorium today,
established its roots at Kyoto in 1464. A theater experience in Noh drama includes five Noh
plays and three kyogen comedies. Kyogen comedies as a general rule exclude music but
occasionally contain party songs or folk songs. The 240-play Noh repertoire, always performed
accompanied by music, has five categories of characters: a god, a warrior, a woman, an insane
woman or miscellaneous subjects, and a devil. The theatergoer sees one from each category.
A Noh play’s actors are always men who also play the roles of females. The play’s
principal actor is the shite, and the play centers around him. He combines the decorum of Zen
Buddhist priests and the movements of the martial arts in his interpretation of the character. The
secondary actor or assistant is the waki, who comes on stage first to give an exposition of the
shite’s character and the reason he dances the central dance.
The structure of a Noh play contains the Jo (introduction), Ha (exposition), Nakairi
(interlude), and Kyu (denouement). The musical ensemble contains the nohkan (flute) and the kotsuzumi, o-tsuzumi, and taiko, three types of drums. The singing style of the Noh chorus is a
derivation of Buddhist chanting. The chorus, consisting of eight to twelve people, sings the
yokyoku (also called utai). The jigashira (chorus leader) lengthens the sounds, thus managing the
tempo of the chant. Another function of the chorus is to sing the shite’s words when his dance
steps prevent him from singing. Noh costumes (robes) are elaborate creations, originally from
the Japanese Court, military. nobility, and priesthood. Their construction is of woven and
embroidered silks with various color arrangements, continuous geometric ground patterns, and
repeated motifs. The motifs are an indication of the function and dignity of the personality of the
character portrayed in the Noh drama. The masks used in Noh drama are made of wood and
covered the faces of only the shite and his subordinates. Although no single component of Noh
drama is original, their combination into a finished mosaic forged a magnificent art form.