Chapter 8: Political Identities and Landscapes
Ⅰ、Learning Objectives
By reading this chapter you will be able to:
1. Define and differentiate between nations, states, and nation-states, and describe
how multi-state nations or divisions of nations amongst states arose.
2. Identify the different theories of how nationalism arises and how nation-states
form.
3. Describe how the formation of nation-states in Europe and subsequent empire
building and colonialism affected the boundaries of states today.
4. Explain how states may be ruled, and the factors which lead to stability or
instability of a state.
5. Describe how colonialism and imperialism has related to a variety of unstable and
even failed states.
Ⅱ、Chapter Summary
Chapter 7 described how to identify and analyze cultures of dominance and the
differentiation of the ‘other’. Humans have a tendency to partition space and exert control
over that space as a group, often in the pursuit of resources. This tendency gives rise to
states, nation-states, and empires, which are ruled by a variety of forms of government.
How a state develops has implications for factors which affect both the internal and
external issues of the state.
A state is an area with defined and internationally acknowledged
boundaries—sovereignty is the acknowledgment that government has authority over the
population of a state. A nation is a group of people sharing a common culture and an
attachment to a particular territory. A nation-state is the combination of these concepts in
that it is a politically recognized territory with a principal national group. Nationalism
assumes that the nation-state is the natural political unit. However, when there is
incongruence between the national group and the state’s territory, either as the division
of nations by state boundaries or the inclusion of many nations in one state, this may
give rise to many problems of cohesion within the state. However, most states in Europe
did not start as nation-states. For the most part, nation-states emerged in contemporary
Europe in part due to reorganization and social and economic changes. Europe still
contains some multi-national states, most notably Belgium, and these states have
tended toward the instability or discontent of the minority nation. This is not always the
case, though, as Switzerland, with several national groups, is quite stable.
Many European states undertook periods of exploration and expansion, trying to
build their empires by colonizing countries in Asia, Africa, and South America. Much of
this exploration was driven by the desire for resources, capitalist expansion, and religion.
However, the areas taken over as colonies were selected by the colonizing empires
splitting many nations amongst empires or combining multiple nations within states: this
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period of time accounted for the harsh treatment, enslavement, or elimination of native
populations.
This history of state creation has led to many discussions amongst human
geographers. First, Ratzel, Jones, and Deutsch all proposed models of state creation.
Geopolitics examines international relations through space and distance. Hartshore
described centrifugal and centripetal as the forces which work to keep the state together
or apart, thereby affecting the stability of a state. While boundaries delineate where a
state should be, some states are divided, some are controlled by other states due to
imperialist forces, and others are unstable or even failed. One can easily examine maps
to look at how various national groups have been divided or merged into states on
continents such as Africa to see some of this discord. Levels of discord in some
countries are so strong that they lead to separatist movements, such as those in
Northern Ireland, Wales, and Scotland amongst others. A recent significant example of a
failed state is the collapse of the USSR.
Further to adding to the complexity and variation amongst states is the ways in which
they are ruled: states can be democratic or ruled by a monarchy, oligarchy, or
dictatorship. States may also devolve power from federal levels to lower levels of varying
degrees. In democratic states, voting processes select government; however, these can
also fall to biases via gerrymandering, malapportionment.
Symptoms of instability can include conflicts, civil war, terrorism, or control by drug
trade. These are all contemporary issues which affect geopolitics. Whether globalization
will improve or worsen these issues is debated. Although the world is becoming more
connected, there may be more instances of clashes between different national groups
and the discovery of strong cultural contrasts and differences. Some argue that tribalism
will become more prevalent and others argue that the importance of the state is in
decline.
Ⅲ the key points of the text
A state constitutes the basis for political organization and action. Each state is a sovereign unit.
Some states are stable, while others seem to be in a constant state of turmoil. The variations in types of
states and governments, the stability and safety within and between states, and the changes taking place in
terms of governance and interrelationships among states are key ideas to keep in mind when trying to
examine the spatial variations of states.
Regions become significant creations when states combine to form unions or similar multinational
structures. The nature of the region within the ideas of political geography is another central theme. Our
identities attached to states also shape the landscapes we inhabit and our culture shapes the existence and
nature of the state.
State Creation
International boundaries reflect the security, territorial integrity, and political power of a state.
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Defining the Nation-State
A nation state is a clearly defined cultural group occupying a clearly defined political territory. The
concept of the nation state is important because

it is commonly used to refer to the political unit of a state

it plays an important role in the contemporary political world
Predecessors of the Nation-State
Before c.1600, the territories of kings depended on the allegiance of people rather than clearly defined
boundaries (the exceptions to this situation were Greece and some Italian cities). Until the sixteenth
century, divisions based on religion characterized European empires. Medieval Europe consisted of feudal
states with continually changing boundaries that were replaced by absolutist states with monarchy
systems. It was only about 200 years ago that these states were replaced by more defined and structured
nation states.
The Rise of the Nation-State
Nationalism
The idea of sovereignty was established following the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. Independent states
emerged shortly thereafter.
Identity shifted from one based upon a particular leader, be that a prince or monarch or religious person,
and the rule of law from that person or institution to one based upon boundaries and culture and history.
The cultural attachment to the state becomes the basis for nationalism.
Explaining nationalism
Nation states evolved in Europe in response to the rise of nationalistic political philosophies. People
wanted to be close to people of similar cultural backgrounds.
Nationalism marked the logical transition from feudalism to capitalism. It also illustrated the need for
effective communication within a large unit.
Nation states in the contemporary world
There are several multinational states, particularly in Africa. Italy and Denmark are examples of nearly
ideal nation states.
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Exploration and Colonialism
European countries tried to develop world empires in the 1500s, achieving maximum domination in the
late nineteenth century. Most of these empires dissolved during the twentieth century.
Exploration
Overton states that the process of creating a nation state begins with exploration, which in due course
becomes ‘development’ of new area. Development translated into exploitation and the discovery of raw
materials.
Colonialism
Explorers, and their governments, determined the economic, social, and political activity in the new area
(dependent on its need and perception). Colonialism took the form of territorial conquests.
Explaining colonialism
Besides greed and glory, economic need for both raw materials and new markets was the main reason for
European colonialism. Additional reasons included ambitious officials, business interests, strategic value
of territories, and national prestige.
Decolonization
Most new states have obtained independence from a colonial power. In fact, the number of states that
have been decolonized has increased from 70 in 1938 to 190 in 2003.
Effects of colonialism
The vast areas colonized by the British in Canada, Australia, and South Africa reduced population
pressure in Britain. The dependency theory states that many countries became poor due to colonization
while the colonial countries progressed at their expense.
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State Creation: Some Conceptual Discussions
Ratzel
Ratzel viewed the state as a living organism that progressed through a continuous life cycle. He devised
seven laws to define the spatial growth of states.
Jones
Jones proposed a chain of events beginning with a political idea and finishing with the creation of a
political state. Between the idea and the state there is movement followed by political decisions and a
field of activity.
Deutsch
Deutsch proposed the creation of a state in eight stages based on human actions.
Geopolitics (and Geopolitik)
Geopolitics is the study of the relevance of space and distance in international relations. Kjellen, who
expanded on Ratzel’s seven laws of state growth, first coined the term.
Geopolitical Theories
Mackinder’s heartland theory contented that the Europe–Asia landmass was the world island and that it
was comprised of two regions, an interior heartland and a surrounding inner crescent. Location and
physical environment explained the world power distribution.
‘Geopolitik’ is the specific interpretation of general geopolitical concepts. It focused on state as an
organism, the subordinate role played by people of a state, and the right of a state to expand and acquire
sufficient living space.
Spykman’s rimland theory, based on Mackinder’s ‘inner crescent’ (rimland), proposed that the power
controlling the rimland would control all of Europe and Asia, and thus all the world.
Geopolitics has been used to define theories about how states should use, adapt, take over, or leave other
territories. There have been very serious misuses of the ideas found within geopolitics, most notably
preceding the Second World War.
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New World Order—Or Disorder?
The bipolar division that occurred during the Cold War between the democratic capitalist states of the
West and the communist states no longer exists. The collapse of communist governments, the
reunification of Germany, and the collapse of the USSR were all contributing factors to this change.
O’Loughlin proposed a geoeconomic view of the world as comprised by three major core regions: North
America, Western Europe, and East Asia.
The Stability of States
Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces
Hartshorne defined centrifugal forces as those that tear a state apart and centripetal forces as those that
bind a state together. Both are closely related. Common centrifugal forces include internal divisions in
language and religion. Some centripetal forces include a long state history.
Internal Divisions
Several internal divisions create conflict within nation states:

Nations within multinational states wish to create their own separate state.

Members of the same nation living in various states wish to create a separate state.

A state seeks the return of its former people or territory (irredentism).
Nation and state discordance in Africa
Today there are very few examples of nation states in Africa, though national identity was apparent in
pre-colonial Africa. European neglect of African national identities is the main cause for instability in
many states. The establishment of the African Union is expected to augment national identities, stimulate
cooperation, and lead to the emergence of a singular African voice.
Nations and states in Europe
Present-day states are more closely related to national identity.
Rokkan identified two axes:

a north–south cultural axis from the Baltic to Italy with Protestants in the north and Catholics in
the south
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
an east–west economic axis with the main commercial centres in the west and weaker urban
centres in the east
Separatist movements in Europe
Regionalism and separatist movements remain strong in Europe. Some favour separation while others
favour self-government through devolution. Most areas that are trying to assert a separate identity are
peripheral and economically depressed (for example, Northern Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and Brittany).
The former USSR
With the collapse of the USSR (which was really an empire and not a state) five independent central
Asian countries were born: the republics of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and
Kyrgyzstan.
South Asian conflicts
The complex distribution of many ethnic groups and religious rivalries is the cause of instability in the
area. In some cases ethnic groups war against the state and in others they war against each other.
Internal divisions in Canada
Inhospitable land and a pluralistic society with a number of national groups are both major factors of
instability.
Cores and peripheries
The core–periphery economic spatial structure of state is one of the main causes of social unrest.
Peripheries feel disadvantaged both from the point of view of the national identity as well as from their
state of economic well-being.
Boundaries
The types of boundaries around a nation state often determine the state’s stability. Boundaries are
artificial and may be antecedent or subsequent. Often, barriers are constructed to serve only as physical
structures.
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Divided states
States are often divided into two or more separate parts to fulfill the political wishes of other states instead
of the wishes of the people themselves. It is believed that artificial and externally imposed boundaries do
not last long.
Groupings of States
The contemporary world displays two divergent trends:

Many regions and people are actively looking to create their own separate state.

Some groups of states are actively planning to unite.
European integration
Europe presents a complex scenario where undivided states are integrating with one another in spite of
serious internal stresses. The formation of the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957 and the
European Free Trade Association in 1960 have aided the process of European Integration. The EU is now
dominant with 25 member states and a population of 453 million.
The main reasons for this integration are the perceived threats from the United States and the former
USSR, as well as the inherent appeal of a united Europe.
Other groupings of states
Apart from the EU, combinations of states usually involve areas that participate in international trading
(for example, NAFTA and ASEAN). Other groupings are the Commonwealth, the Community of West
African States, and the Latin American Integration Association. Since 1945, the United Nations has been
trying to limit world conflict by encouraging nation states to integrate and work together.
The Role of the State
There are many different ways in which a state can be governed.
Forms of Government
Democracy implies rule by the people and involves universal suffrage, an accountable government,
freedom for citizens, and a provision of equal opportunity for all.
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A monarchy is rule by single person. An oligarchy is rule by a few wealthy people.
A dictatorship is established by force and intimidation.
Socialist Less Developed States
Socialist states have two general characteristics:

They aim to remove all traces of capitalism.

They are powerful enough to make significant changes to society.
Socialism has had a major influence in the less developed world. One version of socialism is Maoism.
Maoism has two components: a revolution to obtain power and the practice of socialist policies.
Substate Governments
Paddison has classified three levels of power centralization:

unitary (most centralized)

federal (least centralized)

compound unitary (midway between unitary and federal, with sub-national governments holding
substantial power)
Exercising State Power
Spatial variations exist in the ways that state mechanisms are utilized. The form of government and its
political philosophy determine the manner in which state power is exercised.
The politics of protest: social movements and pressure groups
People may reject the state’s authority or the specific governing body’s power, thus leading to internal
conflicts. Social movements are collective attempts at creating change.
Elections: Geography Matters
Geography is an important factor in elections because it determines the boundaries of voting districts,
affects voting behaviour, and impacts government actions.
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Creating Electoral Bias
‘Gerrymandering’ is the deliberate spatial reorganization of a district to favour a particular political party,
either by concentrating or scattering supporters in one district.
‘Malapportionment’ is the method by which rural electoral districts are drawn to contain a small number
of rural voters exerting greater influence than the same number of voters in a large urban district.
Voting and Place
Four types of local influence over voting are

sectional effects when differences in local and regional political culture produce spatial variations
in the support provided

environmental effects such as existing unemployment levels

campaign effects that cause vote-switching

contextual effects that occur when people are influenced by their social contacts
The Geography of Peace and War
War became a state activity in the eighteenth century with the creation of national armies.
Conflicts can be categorized into four types:

traditional conflicts between states

independence movements against foreign occupations

secession conflicts, such as that of Tibet

civil wars that result in regime changes
A 2003 World Bank study found lack of development to be the main cause of civil wars.
Conflicts between states cause the greatest disruption of human life. Though civil wars are restricted to
states, there are spillover effects. This is a cause for concern because there were 25 ongoing civil wars in
2003.
The Costs of War
It is estimated that about $16 trillion was spent on defensive and offensive purposes between 1945 and
1990.
About 25 million people have died in conflicts since 1945. The majority of these people were from the
less developed world. Most of the weapons used originated in the developed world.
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The Geography of Nuclear War
Nuclear war would mean the national suicide of any country, and a large-scale war would affect all
environments. Geographers have the responsibility to develop a global understanding to prevent a nuclear
war.
Our Geopolitical Future?
Perpetual Peace
One school of thought believes that with the end of the Cold War all major wars have ended, though
local, more minor, wars may continue. Many local and regional conflicts as well as acts of terrorism have
made it unlikely that the world will reach what Kant called ‘perpetual peace’.
Clash of Civilizations
Huntington has identified nine major cultures and believes that there will be an ongoing clash of cultures.
Six reasons have been cited for cultural division-based conflicts, including cultural differences, religious
fundamentalism, and economic regionalism.
Terrorism
Terrorism has been a threat in many countries for quite some time. Some of the terrorist activities are
informally sponsored by nation states.
Conflict Over Resources
Future conflicts will be based on access to resources, particularly those with limited availability. Regions
that produce resources such as oil, gas, water, and other important commodities will be major sites of
conflict.
A Single Superpower
We have moved from a multipolar to a bipolar (Soviet Union and United States) world, and then to a
unipolar world (United States). The United Nations is expected to play an increasingly important role in
world affairs because it represents most of the countries of the world.
The three dominant regions of the contemporary world are North America, Europe, and east and southeast
Asia. The growth of some nations’ economies may see the rise of additional superpowers (such as India
and China).
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Democracy and National Identity
People are increasingly unwilling to accept authoritarian rule. Since 1980 civilian government has
replaced thirty-three military regimes.
Democratic states also face a number of challenges. These challenges are internal (from marginalized
groups) and external, as well as an internal–external combination (for example, the issue of identity).
Political Globalization
Improvements in technology and the spread of transnational corporations are producing an integrated
world economy. Political globalization is also linked to the end of the Cold War and the emergence of a
new world political order that placed the United Nations in a stronger position. Globalization is dependent
on the spread of democracy, and so promotes it. The status of the United Nations is important to follow as
it can be an indicator of the current state relative to global governance and the ability for multinational
conflict resolution (thereby avoiding more conflicts within and between nations).
Decline of the State
The role of the state is changing with increasing globalization. Ohmae proposes that region states or
economic areas are more important for study than nation states.
Tribalism: Not One World, but Many?
Groups of people with a common identity are increasingly claiming their distinctiveness as a right to a
separate and independent state. The acceptance of multiculturalism may lead to the weakening of central
authority as tribal identities become stronger.
Uncertain Times
Initially scholars thought that the scenarios described above would be part of a transitional period as the
world moved towards a reduction in the number of conflicts; however, we can now see that we are in a
period of uncertainty, rather than transition.
Ⅳ、Study Questions
1、Short Answer Questions
1. Why are the boundaries between Italy and Switzerland changing?
Answer: Italy and Switzerland based their boundary on a watershed, marked by a
glacier. Currently the glacier has melted enough that it has declined by 10 meters,
thereby shifting the boundary between the countries.
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2. What are some of the common features of those nations that are trying to separate
from multinational states?
Answer: Typically, a nation trying to separate from a state has a depressed economy
and speaks a different language. Attempts to separate can sometimes include
terrorism or activities which can be considered terrorist activities. It is common that
the state offers forms of devolution of power and more control to the nation wishing to
separate.
3. Describe the levels of centralization of government.
Answer: A unitary government is the most centralized form of government, and local
governments are used by the central state to organize and maintain control over
regions. Federal states are the least centralized, as one form of government is
restricted from dictating to another. A compound unitary government devolves
substantial powers to subnational governments, but not as much power is devolved
as in the case of federal states.
4. What are civil wars linked to?
Answer: Civil wars tend to be linked to the control of natural resources, lack of
development, and are sometimes associated with drug production and distribution.
5. Why did arctic sovereignty become an issue in 2005?
Answer: In 2005 the extraction of resources from the arctic became more feasible
due to global warming. Resources contained there include diamond mining, oil
exploration, pipeline development and navigation.
2、Research Questions
1. Discuss the extent to which theories of state creation are most accurate and why.
2. Have there been successful cases of the devolution of power in multinational states?
Give examples in your discussion.
3. Discuss the importance of examining space and voting patterns.
4. Discuss the factors which contribute to a failed state. Consider history, geopolitics,
and internal processes in your answer.
5. Is the world closer now to democracy and perpetual peace? Why or why not?
3、Links of Interest
United Nations Decolonization of States
http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/main.htm
Foreign Affairs and International Trade on Failed States
http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/discussions/fragile/index.aspx?lang=eng
National Endowment for Democracy http://www.ned.org/
Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI) http://www.cigionline.org/
Global Geopolitics http://globalgeopolitics.net/wordpress/
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