BIO 234
Study Guide for FINAL EXAM
As I mentioned in class…Chapter 17 comprises approximately 35% of
the exam. Nervous system is covered to a lesser extent than the other
chapters.
GOOD LUCK!!!
Chapter 1/Atlas A:
Review Homeostasis and feedback loops (negative and positive)
Review body cavities, membranes, planes/sections.
Major Historical Figures – covered on 1st exam
Major themes of evolution
Chapter 3: Cell Structure & Function
Cell Theory –
All organelles: structure and function(s) –
Cell membrane structure and composition
Lipids – phospholipids bilayer, cholesterol, glycolipids
Integral vs. peripheral proteins – types of integral proteins
Glycocalyx
Vesicular transport: endo/exocytosis – types and mechanism
cell cycle – including mitosis and cytokinesis – know stages and sequence
Chapter 5: Histology
 4 primary tissue classes
 Know types of epithelium and Connective tissues – composition, function and
where they are located in the body
 Simple vs. stratified
 How do we name stratified epithelium?
 What types of cells do we find in various connective tissues?
 What is the predominant feature of each tissue type? (ex: fibers are predominant
in dense CT)
Cartilage – 3 types – structure and where they are located in body?
Types of cells/fibers?
Muscle tissues – skeletal, smooth and cardiac – know structural differences
What type of tissue is blood considered to be?
Chapter 6: Integumentary System
Functions of the integument
Know strata of epidermis and their purpose/function
What cells do we find in each layer? Function? (keratinocyes, melanocytes, Merkel,
Dendritic, etc)
Layers of dermis and type of CT present in each
What are dermal papillae? friction ridges?
Structures/glands in the dermis?
Hair follicle – structure
Sweat glands – merocrine vs. apocrine; fct. Of each
Sebaceous glands
Ceruminous glands
Hypodermis – features and functions
Chapter 7 – Osseous Tissue
 Functions of skeletal system
 Compact (aka cortical) vs. trabecular (aka spongy, cancellous) bone
 General features (Anatomy) of long bones (diaphysis, epiphysis, marrow cavity,
periosteum, endosteum, etc)
 Structure of flat bones
 Cells/Matrix of Osseous Tissue (Osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteocytes, etc)
 Haversian System (Osteon) – know all components and how it forms
o Concentric vs. circumferential lamellae
o Canaliculi
o Volkman canals
 Intramembranous vs. Endochondral ossification
 Interstitial vs. appositional growth
 Calcium-phosphate homeostasis – including PTH, calcitriol, calcitonin
Chapter 9 – Joints
 Joint classification:
 Structural (Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial, bony) and
 Functional (diarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, synarthrosis)
 Know general structure and components of a synovial joint.
o 6 types of synovial joints with description and examples
(ball&socket, hinge, condyloid, saddle, pivot, gliding)
 You should know all of the ranges-of-motion we covered in lecture (ex:
flexion/extension/hyperextension; protraction/retraction; abduction/adduction, etc)
 You should know the structures of the major synovial joints we covered including
major tendons, ligaments, and supporting structures:
o Shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, ankle
 Difference between RA and OA.
Chapter 10 – Muscles
 Anatomy of individual muscles including connective tissues of muscles
(epimysium, perimysium, deep fascia, etc)
 Define: Agonist, synergist, antagonist, fixator
 Define: Intrinsic vs. extrinsic muscles
 Know all groups of muscles covered in lecture
 Do not need to know origins and insertions of each muscle, but you do need to
know the actions of the muscles (what do they do?)
Chapter 11 – Muscle Tissue
 What is a motor unit?
 Structure of NMJ (synaptic cleft, motor end plate, receptors, etc)
 You need to know, in detail, the 4 parts of muscle activity
o Excitation
o Excitation-contraction coupling
o Contraction
o Relaxation
 Why does muscle relaxation require energy?
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Slow vs. fast twitch fibers – differences in structure? Function?
What is happening chemically during muscle fatigue?
Explain the phenomenon of rigor mortis in terms of muscle structure/fct.
Ch 12 – Nervous Tissue
 CNS vs. PNS – subdivisions of each
 Structure of neuron (dendrites, axon, body, etc)
 Axonal transport – anterograde, retrograde and axoplasmic flow – describe each.
 Neuroglial cells
 Physiology of synaptic transmission
 EPSPs and IPSPs. Temporal vs. spatial summation of local potentials.
 Neuronal circuits – converging, diverging and reverberating circuits
Ch 13 – Spinal cord, Spinal Nerves, Somatic reflexes
 Anatomy of spinal cord
 Meninges
 White (columns) and gray (horns) matter of spinal cord.
 Nerve anatomy – epineurium, perineurium, endoneurium, axoplasm, dendrites,
soma, axon, etc.
 Review spinal nerve anatomy – DRG, roots, rami
 Somatic reflexes – stretch (myotatic) withdrawal, crossed-extensor
Ch 14 – Brain & Cranial Nerves
 Brain – know general anatomy (lobes, hemispheres, gyri, sulci, brainstem,
midbrain, cerebellum, etc)
 Ventricular system and CSF – functions and pathway of flow of CSF
 Know general function of medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, cerebellum.
 Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus – know function of each
 Function of cerebral lobes (ex: vision – occipital) also association areas? What
are they and where are they located?
Ch 15 – Autonomic Nervous System
 Know the function of the ANS and its 2 subdivisions _sympathetic and
parasympathetic NS
 Where is the SympatheticNS located? \Parasympathetic?
 What are the sympathetic chain ganglia? What are 3 possible pathways for
sympathetic nerves that enter the chain?
- spinal nerve pathway, sympathetic nerve pathway, splanchnic nerve
pathway…
Chapter 17 – Endocrine System
 4 ways cells communicate with one another
 endocrine vs. exocrine – differences (ducts, intracellular vs. extracellular effects)
 Endocrine vs. Nervous System – comparison
 Know the anatomy and mechanism of communication between the hyopothalamus
and the anterior (adenohypophysis) and posterior (neurohypophysis) pituitary
glands. In other words, what are the hypophyseal portal system and the
hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract? What is an endocrine axis?
 Know the 9 hypothalamic hormones (GnRH, TRH, CRH, PRH, PIH, GHRH,
Somatostatin, ADH, OT). The first 7 travel thru portal system to adenohypophysis;
OT and ADH are released by neurohypophysis via tract.
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Know the 6 anterior pituitary hormones and their target. (FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH,
PRL, GH)
Know functions of GH in the body (widespread effects)
2 Posterior pituitary hormones and their target (function) – OT, ADH
What are neuroendocrine reflexes? Give examples of – feedback inhibition
mechanisms.
Know location and function of all endocrine organs covered in lecture, including
functions of all hormones they release
o Pineal
o Thymus
o Thyroid – Thyroid Hormone, Calcitonin
o Parathyroid - PTH
o Adrenal
 Cortex – know 3 zones, their hormones and fcts.
 Medulla – (nor)epinephrine – Sympathetic NS connection?
o Pancreas – insulin, glucagon
o Gonads
 Ovaries – estradiol, progesterone, inhibin
 Testis – testosterone, inhibin