WORD
FORMATION
Namazova Ləman 302
18.12.10.
Word formation is a means of forming new words by using
the linguistic building material that is at hand in a given
language.
a) Derivation
Affixation is a basic means of word formation in English. It
is a device which has been productive in all periods of the
history of this language.
An analysis of Modern English vocabulary shows that it
includes words formed by affixation during the Old and
Middle English periods. Words formed by affixation in
Modern period are no less numerous. Such an analysis also
reveals that the productivity of the different affixes varies in
the different periods. In English the affixes are of native as
well as of foreign origin. Some linguists overestimate the role
of foreign affixes in English, thus arriving at the conclusion
that English has exhausted its own creative powers in word
formation and is making use of foreign means. Such a
conclusion may hold good only if one counts the affixes in all
borrowings in English irrespective of whether they are
productive in that lang. or not. Affixes are not borrowed as
word formatives. In English we distinguish prefixes and
suffixes. Infixes were never productive in English. In Old
English there were a few verbs with the infix [n]; standan-to
stand, wacnan-to waken for Modern English. The function of
prefixes in English is semantic. They are used to give a
certain nuance to the meaning of the word. So that the same
prefix may be used as a formative of different parts of
speech; mishap – a noun and to misunderstand – a verb
Suffixes perform a grammatical function besides the
semantic one. During the Old English period the prefixes
[be],[bi] were very productive. Their origin was the weak
form of the proposition and adverb [bi] which gave Modern
English by; sprengan – to sprinkle, be sprengan, settan – to
set – to be set. A similar development is to be found in the
Old English prefix [a]. It was confused with another Old
English prefix an, on. The prefix [with] is no longer
productive but is still felt as a prefix in words like; to
withdraw. Some Old English prefixes still productive in
English are; fore, out, over, under.
Fore-In Old English it was used as a prefix to verbs adding
the connotation of ‘before’. It was very productive in Old and
Middle English especially, it can be said to be productive
today. Over- Old English ofer with the meanings ‘over in
space, superior, away’ In Modern English there are many
words in which [over] is a formative. Here too we find words
formed in the different periods of the development of the
language; to overcome, to overdo.
Under-In Old English the prefix is common with verbs, less
so with nouns and rare with adjectives. Many of the English
compounds are translations of Latin words in ‘sub’. This
prefix in most cases may be used to form new compounds.
Old English ‘undergangan’-‘to undergo’. The only prefix that
had a grammatical function in English was [ge]. It is of
Germanic origin and connected with the Latin [cum]. As a
proposition it means ‘together’. It was used in forming
collective nouns. ‘geridan’-‘ridden’, ‘gedrunken’-‘drunken’.
Suffixes differ from prefixes in that they have a double role
to perform. They add something to the meaning of the word
and at the same time they have a grammatical function. That
is why different grammatical categories have different
suffixes.
Hood-from Old English had – somebody. It had the meaning
of ‘state, nature, condition’. It was productive during the Old
English and in Middle English too but now is quite passive.
In Old English cilhad childhood, magdenhad maidenhood.
Re from the Latin [re] with general sense ‘back’ or ‘again’.
Rebuild, to recast, to recall. Ism comes from French origin. it
forms nouns; baptism, heroism, criticism.
b) Composition
After affixation composition is the most productive means of
forming new words in English. Composition is that means of
forming new words which causes two or more roots to be
merged into one, whose meaning as rule might be the sum
total of the meanings of the components or it might be
idiomatic. The main criterion for differentiating a compound
from a free combination of words is whether or not it is a
morphological unit. If we accept that a compound is a word
then its components cannot have a complete grammatical
form of their own, in other words, they can not be words
themselves. As far as the meaning is concerned it differs
from case to case and may range from the most nonidiomatic. Light blue, waterfall. To the idiomatic belongs;
butterfly, banknote. The difficulty lies in deciding whether a
word combination is a compound or a free combination of
words in English. On the one hand due to the use of
adjectival nouns playing the role of attributes it is difficult to
find out whether this is the case or whether they have
changed into roots. On the other hand due to the numerous
phrases which are sometimes on their way to become
phraseological units it is difficult to judge whether one is
dealing with this unit or a compound. Every compound
should be judged from the point of view of its lexico semantic structure. According to Smirnitzki’s classification
from the point of grammatical structure the following types
of compounds may be distinguished in English;
1. Compounds with a specific morpheme as link;
a) Two roots linked by [o]. Anglo-Saxon, speedometer.
b) Two roots linked by [s]. tradesman, stateswoman,
foolscap.
2. Compounds without any morpheme as link.
a) Compounds formed of two adjectival roots; light-blue,
dark-brown.
b) Compounds formed of a numeral root+a noun root; fiveyear plan, two-hour day.
3. Compounds which are easily dissolved and become
phrases again; stone wall, silk dress.
The relations of the components in a compound are not of a
grammatical character. It stands to reason that if the
componenets of a linguistic unit are roots and affixes they are
not in a syntactical relation.
c) Contraction or Shortening
Contraction is shortening a word by ommiting some of its
elements. This results in a shortened form which might either
preserve the old meaning or acquire a new one. Contraction
should be approached both from the synchronical and
diachronical points of view. There are three types of
contraction; 1) Aphaeresis-when the first sound or syllable is
dropped out at the beginning of a word. 2) Syncope-when a
sound or a syllable ia dropped out in the middle of a word. 3)
Apocope-final sound or syllable is dropped out. Aphaeresisthere are quite a number of words of French origin that were
shortened when borrowed in English;
French avanguard-English vanguard
aventurer- venture
arriere- rear
espace-space
In colloquial speech words are often clipped for the sake of
brevity. In most cases they preserve their original meaning
and thus remain as colloquialisms. Phone comes from
telephone. The former has preserved the original meaning of
the full form. It is still considered to be colloquial although it
is accepted in literary speech. This is because telephone is
still widely used. From this example it becomes clear that
different clippings have different positions in the language.
This depends on the kind of word the clipping is. This latter
depends on the semantic range of the long form. If this is
wide there is always the chance for clipping to take over one
of the meanings. We can not consider these clippings as
separate words. They are only contracted forms. With proper
names this type of shortening is very common; Bella for
Arabella, Nora for Eleanor.
Syncope-French words borrowed in English have undergone
syncopation.
French capitain-English captain
cheminee-chimney
In colloquial speech some abbreviations are made for the
sake of speed; shan’t, won’t, doesn’t.
Apocope is the most frequently used type of contraction. In
different kinds of slang and jargon there are clipped forms.
Some of the contractions have been accepted in standard
speech while others have remained as jargonisms. Exam,
gym for examination, gymnastics respectively are steadily
making their way into standard English have suceeded in
American English. Proper names very frequently undergo
apocope; Al for Alfred, Ed for Edward, Nick for Nickolas.
Quite a long list of clippings may be given which have been
accepted in the standard language; mob from Latin mobile,
cab from cabriolet, fan from fanatic. This may be considered
as already established in standard English while some are not
even felt as clippings. Others like; mike for microphone, cit
for citizen, vamp for vampire are colloquialisms. In written
English there are words that have an abbreviated spelling but
take the full pronunciation. The majority are never spelt full
size. So that in a way they can be considered as
orthographical clippings. Among these are; Dr(doctor),
Mr(mister).
d) Blendings.
Blendings are two words blended into one. In Modern
English there are words which are result of blending but are
not felt to be such; gossip is a result of the blending of
god+sib, goodbye is a blending of god be with you,
blunt=blind+stunt. Acrostic words are the result of a special
type of blending. During the war many acrostic words
cropped up for the names of institutions or military
bodies;Dora(Defence of the Realm Act). Names of
organizations; IUS(International Union of
Students),MP(Member of Parliament).
e) Back-Formation
Back-formation is formation of a seeming root-word from a
word which may be derivative of it. The verb darkle-to show
itself darkly and grovel to lie with the face downward were
formed from the adverbs darkling and groveling. The verb
diagnose is also a back-formation from diagnosis. In the
majority of cases back-formation is possible mainly with
borrowings. It occurs also with words of native origin whose
forms have lost their primary signifinance and have
coincided with other forms. Such is the case with adverbs
ending with ‘ling’ where the ing suggestive of the present
participle of the verb
f) Conversion
The most essential factor in conversion is that the old and the
new words have the same root but different paradigms.
Conversion excludes any affixation taking part in the forming
of the new word. Thus in Old English adverbs were formed
from adjectival roots by adding the suffixes [ly], [lice];
bright-brightly, happy-happily. Words belonging to different
parts of speech can be formed by convertion. Conversion is a
very old means of word formation in English. Conversion has
become such a common and favourite means of word
formation that many words are coined on the spur of the
moment. The widely spread belief that every word in English
can be converted is false. However conversion has its limits.
It is limited by; a) the lexical meaning of the root of a given
word; b) the structural features of the word. The problems of
conversion and especially of the semantic classification of
words thus formed are not sufficiently investigated. Popular
etymology is also a source of new words. It is rather a way of
modifying strange words and making them sound more
English, more familiar. Metonymy and metaphor are
becoming more and more creative source for new words, or
rather a source for enriching the semantic range of already
existing words.