Unit 2 Student Guided Notes
Introduction
Carbon
________________ is the basic element for life. It is a non-metal that must bond with other
non-metals to become stable. When two non-metals bond together they form covalent bonds.
Covalent bonds are formed when a pair of atoms share electrons (_____________________
__________________________________). Atoms will share electrons in order to complete
the complement of electrons in their outermost electron shell. Carbon can share electrons with
as many as 4 other atoms to form chains or rings.
Drawing each bond in a molecule as two dots gets old very fast. To save time chemists usually
depict a bond as a line drawn from ______________________________ to another. Such
representations are called_____________ structures rather than Lewis electron dot structures.
Rings can also form: _____________________________________________________
________________________________ for the unit
molecules, which make up the life compounds.
Examples: of life compounds are
__________________________________________
______ and Nucleic Acids. On the right is a carbon ring
which is classified as a carbohydrate.
Dehydration Synthesis
Unit molecules join together to form larger molecules called Polymers. _________________
_____________________________________________are all polymers. To join the unit
molecules (or building blocks) together, a molecule of ___________ must be removed. _____
is taken from 1 molecule and ______- from the other molecule. This process is called
___________________________________ and energy is required. To help remember this
chemical reaction, think of what is happening to you as you lose water - you dehydrate. The
word synthesis means to make. So we are making something by taking water away.
Hydrolysis
If instead of making a larger molecule from smaller
units we want to break down a polymer, a molecule of
______________ must be ________________. This
process is called ________________________ and
energy is required. Sometimes breaking words down
will help you understand them. Hydro - refers to water
and lysis means to break apart.
The diagram on the right compares dehydration
synthesis to hydrolysis. (note that condensation
synthesis in the diagram refers to dehydration synthesis)
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates: are sugars. We will look at 3 groups of carbohydrates; the monosaccarides
(mono - meaning one), the disaccarides (di-meaning two), and the polysaccarides (poly meaning many).
-The elements in all carbohydrates are: ___________________________________________
______________________.
-The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is always ___________ and the empirical
formula for carbohydrates is _____________
1. Sugars: ________________________________________________________. We will
start by looking at the monosaccardes of which there are two groups. There are 5 carbon
sugars (pentoses) and the 6 carbon sugars (hexose). For the purpose of this unit we are only
concerned with the hexose monosaccarides, but below are some examples of the pentose
sugars. Note the 5 carbon rings.
a) __________________________: 5 or 6 carbon sugars (simple sugars)
i) Pentoses: _____________________________________
Examples: Ribose, Deoxyribose (1 less oxygen than ribose)
DEOXYRIBOSE RIBOSE
ii) Hexoses: ___________________________ (note
the six carbon rings to the right)
3 example that you need to know for this course
are: glucose, fructose, and galactose.
All have the formula ____________________, however if you examine their
structural formulas, you will find the difference in the organization of __________
____________. Looking at the 3 diagrams to the right you will see that all 3
monosaccarides have the exact same number of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen
atoms. The difference between the 3
monosaccarides is the way these atoms
are arranged. They are called
___________________.
There Are Three Ways To
Represent the Structure of Glucose
b) Disaccharides: are ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________
They have the common formula C11H22O11
3 Common Disaccharides along with their building blocks that you will need
to know for this course are:
i) Maltose: _______________________________________
ii) Sucrose: ______________________________________
iii) Lactose: ______________________________________
c) Polysaccharides: The 3 common polysaccarides that you need to know for this
course are: ________________________________________________________ (be
sure that you can recognize a diagram of their structure and know the function of each of
these)
- the polysaccarides are long chains of glucose molecules bonded together
(simple sugars)
- the basic formula for these polymers is (C6H10O5)n
n = dozens to thousands of glucose units
i) Starch: -Is the _________________________________________________
-starch is made up of many
glucose molecules bonded
together in long chains with a
________________________.
ii) Glycogen: Is the "_________________________" (in other words excess
glucose in animals is stored as glycogen) in liver and muscle tissue.
- like starch Glycogen is also made up of long chains of glucose molecules,
however it has ________________________________ instead of just a few
-Between meals - as [glucose] in blood decrease, the ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
________________ to
raise blood [sugar] to
0.1%.
-After meals - [glucose]
in the blood increase as
food is digested. The
excess glucose is
converted into glycogen
and stored in the liver and muscle tissues for later use.
iii) Cellulose: Is _____________________________________________________
__________________________________________.
-Cellulose is formed in the cell walls of plants and gives pants their structure
-Cellulose is made of long chains of glucose molecules with ______________
______________________
-There is a different type of linkage between the sugars found in cellulose as
compared to starch or glycogen.
Our digestive system is ___________________ to digest this linkage. Cellulose passes
through our system as _________________________________________. It may be
important for good health and prevention of colon cancer.
Functions of Carbohydrates
a) _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________. (all carbohydrates)
-Energy is released as the carbohydrates are broken down by hydrolysis
b) ______________________________________________. (cellulose)
c) ____________________________________________________.
(starch/glycogen)
Review
1: Name three monosaccarides.
2: Name three disaccarides
3: Identify the monomers of each of the disaccarides
4: State the functions of the three polysaccarides
Lipids
Introduction
2. Lipids: ________________________________________________________________
We eat lipids as part of our food group. Our bodies are capable of producing them as well as
metabolizing them. Next to glucose, _____________________________________________
___________________________ for us. Unforunately, we store them in adipose (________)
cells. They function as a _________________________
_____________________________________________.
(the three lipids you need to know for this course are the
fats, phospholipids and steroids)

Elements: Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but the
H:O ratio is greater than 2:1.
____________________________ are one of the two
building blocks of neutral fats and are non-polar chains of
carbon and hydrogen with a carboxylic acid end. A tremendous number of variations exist
between fatty acids.(be sure that you can recognize a diagram of both saturated and
nonsaturated fatty acids)
Saturated fatty acids those compounds _____________________________________between
the carbon atoms. In other words these molecules are holding all the hydrogen atoms that they
can. Other fatty acids are unsaturated (compound with ______________________________
________________________________________).
Neutral Fats
Basic Structure of a Neutral Fat: _______________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________.



Monoglyceride - one fatty acid attached to a glycerol.
Diglyceride - two fatty acids attached to a glycerol.
Triglycerisde - three fatty acids attached to a glycerol.
A) Fats (saturated fats): Uually of animal origin and are _________________________
______________________.
Examples: Adipose tissue, Lard, Butter
Oils, Waxes, and Steroids
B) Oils (unsaturated fats): Usually of plant origin and are _______________________
_______________________________________________________.
: Polysunsaturated fats have many double bonds therefore few hydrogen bonds.
Examples: Vegetable oils
C) Waxes: Relatives of fats, they have fatty acids joined to a long __________________
____________________________________.
D) Sterols: Compounds such as sex
hormones, cholesterol, and some of the
ingredients of bile. Instead of a straight
chain of carbon, sterioids are non-polar ring
structures. They are insoluble in water
therefore considered a lipid.
Example: ______________________important part of cell membrane and
the protective cover around nerve fibres.
Note: Cholesterol is important, but too much results in _______________________________
__________________. This narrows the pathway for blood so the heart has to pump harder to
push the blood through the body. Ie. Increase ___________________________. Cholesterol
is the imporant part of the cell membrane and the protective cover around nerve fibres.
___________________ such as _____________________________ are able to pass through
cell membranes and combine with receptors in the cell. The steroid receptor complex activates
certain genes leading to ____________________________. Increase protein synthesis is
better for the athlete for muscle development.
Phospholipids
E) Phospholipids
Phospholipids are a
variation of a triglyceride where
one of the 3 fatty acids is
replaced with a ____________
_________________________
__________________ group.
(Note the glycerol backbone and 2 fatty acids along with the phosphate group) This
creates a polar region and consequently phospholipids can mix with both polar (likes
water) and non-polar (dislikes water) materials.
Phospholipids are very important in cells as
they form much of the cell membrane.
The Heads of phospholipids are polar and are
said to be water loving. (________________)
The Tails of the phospholipids are non polar
and are said to be water hating.
(______________________) Because they
have water soluble heads and water insoluble
tails they tend to form a thin film on water with
their tails in the air like above.
Review
1: Name three lipids you need to know for this course.
2: Name the unit molecules (building blocks of neutral fats).
3: Identify the monomers (building blocks of phospholipids)
4: Describe the structure of a steroid
Proteins
Introduction
3. Proteins



Made of the elements: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Sulfur is often present
and phosphorus and iron are sometimes included.
The Basic structure of all proteins are: long ________________________________
______________________(or what is called a polypeptide)
Amino acids - there are __________________________________________________
with the general structure like the one below
Be sure that you can identify the different parts of an amino acid.
Note the amine group, the carboxylic acid, the central carbon
bonded to a hydrogen and finally the radical group.
R = A variety of
other atoms that
distinguish one
amino acid from another. There are 20 different
amino acids so there 20 different R groups.
Dehydration Synthesis
______________________________________ of amino acids will result in the bonding of
amino acids together and the release of ____________________________________. If we
consider the amino acids glycine and alanine, they will bond together and produce the
dipeptide "glyala".
A.A are joined by a ______________________________. A dipeptide has one peptide bond
where a Tripeptide has two peptide bonds holding three amino acids together and so on. The
order and combination of these A.A determines the type of __________________ that is
produced. The term ___________________________ means numerous peptide bonds that
join many amino acids together.
Levels of Protein Structure - Primary Proteins
This refers to the way in which a
protein molecule is assembled and
the factors that cause its specific
three dimensional shape. There
are four levels to protein structure
of which you need to know the first
3 including the bonds that hold
them in these shapes. Remember
that chains of amino acids (the
subunits or building blocks) which make up a protein are called
_________________________.
The first, or primary structure as it is called, is simply a straight _______________________
______________________. Note the ______________________________ that bind these
amino acids together. Because there are twenty different amino acids, it is easy to realize that
there are literally millions of different variations of amino acid sequences - each with many
(some with hundreds of) amino acids. Consequently, there are millions of proteins.
Secondary Structures
As the chains of amino acids get longer
they begin to ____________________
______________________________
_______________________________.
This is a result of the stress on the
bond angle.
_________________________ form
between the Hydrogen of one amino
acid and an Oxygen further down the
chain. An alpha helix contains 3.6
amino acids per spiral. There are other
secondary structures, but the alpha
helix is the most common and the one
you will need to know for this course.
Protein Structure - Tertiary and Quaternary Structures
The third level is described as _________________________________________________
__________________________As the helix gets longer there are some
amino acids that cannot fit the configuration and therefore cause
___________. New bonds can form to hold it into a three-dimensional
shape. The types of bonds are _________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
It occurs in some protein systems,
_______________________________, where different three-dimensional configurations are
associated with and function with each other. _______________________ is a well-known
protein that is actually made up of the asociation of four 3 dimentional shapes around a central
heme (iron containing) component.
Denature
The weaker hydrogen and ionic bonds of the tertiary structure _________________________.
They are very sensitive to thing like ______________________________________________
___________________________________________________. If a protein's normal shape is
destroyed because of such environmental conditions, it is said to be _________________. (It
will not work). Without the enzymes normal shape, the enzyme is unable to combine efficiently
with its substrate and therefore no chemical reaction will occur.
Examples we can see:



This is what happens when milk
spoils. The protein in milk, Caesin,
denatures and becomes insoluble,
forming floating lumps.
Egg white is protein. Excess heat
denature the protein. (fried or
poached)
Cooking Liver.
Be sure you understand these 4 important points:
1. The enzyme loses its normal three dimensional shape, changing the shape of it's active
site
2. Due to the change in the shape of the enzyme's active site the enzyme can no longer
bind to it's substraight
3. Because the protein (or enzyme) can no longer bind to it's substrate the enzyme cannot
perform it's normal function
4. Therefore, _______________________________________________.
When enzymes in the human body denature, the biochemical pathway they work in no
longer functions and the result is desease or possibly even death.
Functions of Proteins
1. FUNCTIONAL

Enzymes (__________________________________________) Reactions that will take
7 hours will take only a fraction of a second.
1. Maltase - Converts maltose to glucose and glucose
2. Carbonic Anhydrase: In blood, maintains blood pH


________________________________ - Hemoglobin - Transports O2, CO2, and H+
Infection fighting - ______________________________________________
2. STRUCTURAL
-____________________________________
____________________________________
Keratin - ____________________________
Collagen - ___________________________
Actin/myosin - muscle fiber for movement
Review
1: Name the unit molecule(s) of proteins.
2: Name the 3 levels of protein structure.
3: Identify the 3 type of structures each level of protein forms.
4: Identify the type of bonds that hold the proteins in their 3 levels of structure.
Nucleic Acids
Introduction
4. Nucleic Acids - are made up of ___________
____________________________. A nucleotide has 3
components to it, a sugar, a phosphate goup, and a
nitrogenous base. Be sure that you can label it and unit.
recognize its structure.

There are three types of nucleic acids.
_________________________ form genetic material
and are involved in the functioning of chromosomes and
protein synthesis. We will study these in more detail in a later
DNA and RNA
There are three types of nucleic acids. _____________________ are the genetic material and
are involved in the functioning of chromosomes and protein synthesis. We will study these in
more detail in a later unit.
ATP
_______________________________________; (ATP)


One particularly important nucleic acid is the modified
nucledtide kown as ATP.
ATP is quite simply an RNA nucleotide with an adenine
base ____________________________________
_________________________________________
_______________________________________. Note
the ~ line in between the phosphate goups used to indicate high energy bonds.
Phosphate bonds are unique in that they are very rich in
energy. Cells store energy as Chemical energy in this way.
In order to release the energy, an enzymes, ATPase,
breaks one of the bonds, thus producing ADP(adenosine
diphosphate) and energy. ADP can be recycled. We can
add a phosphate group back to the ADP with a small input
of energy and we get an ATP molecule back.

In this way, ATP is often called the energy currency of a cell (because cells make and
"spend" ATP)
______________________________________________________________
Savings Bond -- Bank Account -- Piggy Bank -- Pocket Cash
ATP <---> ADP + P + Energy (7 Kcal per mole)

ATP molecules can be moved all over the body. When energy is needed, the 3rd
phosphate group is broken off. This results in Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and the
release of heat energy. _______________________________________________.
Review
1: Name the monomers (building blocks) of nucleic acids.
2: Name three structures that name up a nucleotide.