VI. AREA OF OPERATION: AIRPORT AND SEAPLANE BASE
OPERATIONS
NOTE: The examiner must select at least one TASK.
Table of Contents
PTS Standards ................................................................................................................................................................3
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND ATC LIGHT SIGNALS (ASEL and ASES) ........................................................................5
TRAFFIC PATTERNS (ASEL and ASES) .............................................................................................................................9
AIRPORT/SEAPLANE BASE, RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY SIGNS, MARKINGS, AND LIGHTING (ASEL and ASES) ................15
*Only the ASEL sections are applicable to the CFI ASEL rating.
Pg. 6-1
Pg. 6-2
PTS Standards
VI. AREA OF OPERATION: AIRPORT AND SEAPLANE BASE OPERATIONS
NOTE: The examiner must select at least one TASK.
A. TASK: RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND ATC LIGHT SIGNALS (ASEL and ASES)
REFERENCES: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25; FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14; AIM.
Objective. To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of radio communications and ATC light signals by
describing—
a. selection and use of appropriate radio frequencies.
b. recommended procedure and phraseology for radio communications.
c. Receipt of, acknowledgement of, and compliance with ATC clearances and instructions.
d. interpretation of, and compliance with, ATC light signals.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to radio communications and ATC light signals
by describing—
a. use of improper frequencies.
b. improper procedure and phraseology when using radio communications.
c. failure to acknowledge, or properly comply with, ATC clearances and instructions.
d. failure to understand, or to properly comply with, ATC light signals.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains radio communication procedures from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to radio communications and ATC light signals.
B. TASK: TRAFFIC PATTERNS (ASEL and ASES)
REFERENCES: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 90-42, AC 90-66; FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14; AIM.
Objective. To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of traffic patterns by describing—
a. operations at airports and seaplane bases with and without operating control towers.
b. adherence to traffic pattern procedures, instructions, and rules.
c. how to maintain proper spacing from other traffic.
d. how to maintain the desired ground track.
e. wind shear and wake turbulence avoidance procedures.
f. orientation with the runway or landing area in use.
g. how to establish a final approach at an appropriate distance from the runway or landing area.
h. use of checklist.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to traffic patterns by describing—
a. failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules.
b. improper correction for wind drift.
c. inadequate spacing from other traffic.
d. poor altitude or airspeed control.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains traffic patterns from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to traffic patterns.
Pg. 6-3
C. TASK: AIRPORT/SEAPLANE BASE, RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY SIGNS, MARKINGS, AND LIGHTING (ASEL and ASES)
REFERENCES: FAA-H-8083-23, FAA-H-8083-25; FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14; AIM; AC 150/5340-1, AC 150/534018.
Objective. To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of airport/seaplane base runway and taxiway signs,
markings, and lighting by describing—
a. identification and proper interpretation of airport/seaplane base, runway and taxiway signs and
markings with emphasis on runway incursion avoidance.
b. identification and proper interpretation of airport/seaplane base, runway and taxiway lighting
with emphasis on runway incursion avoidance.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to airport/seaplane base, runway and taxiway
signs, markings, and lighting by describing—
a. failure to comply with airport/seaplane base, runway and taxiway signs and markings.
b. failure to comply with airport/seaplane base, runway and taxiway lighting.
c. failure to use proper runway incursion avoidance procedures.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains airport/seaplane base, runway and taxiway signs, markings,
and lighting from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to airport/seaplane base, runway and taxiway
signs, markings, and lighting.
Pg. 6-4
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND ATC LIGHT SIGNALS (ASEL and
ASES)
Objective:
To familiarize the student with radio communications procedures. To familiarize the student with ATC light-gun
signals and their meanings.
Note: Before this lesson the student should read the AIM’s Pilot/Controller Glossary and AIM Chapter 4.
Review communications requirements for different airspace areas
Content:
 Radio License
 Radio equipment
o VHF 720: 118.0 – 135.975 KHz
o VHF 760: 118.0 – 136.975 KHz
o Line-of-sight
 Discuss Phonetic alphabet AIM C. 4-2-7
 Discuss communication examples AIM C. 4
 Discuss hand signals AIM C. 4-2-25
 Discuss Light-gun signals
 Discuss lost communication procedures appropriate to student level
Things to Avoid (Common Errors):
 Use of improper frequencies
 Improper procedure and phraseology for radio communications
 Failure to acknowledge or properly comply with, ATC clearances and instructions
 Failure to understand or properly comply with ATC light signals
References:
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge – Chapter 12
Completion Standards:
The lesson is complete when the instructor determines that the student has adequate knowledge of radio
communications and ATC light-gun signals by giving an oral or written exam.
Instructor Notes:
 Selection and Use of Appropriate Frequencies
o Preflight Planning
 Always plan ahead as to frequencies needed
 Look up the frequencies of all the facilities you might use and/or need during the flight
 This information can be found in the AFD, Sectional Charts, etc.
 Ground is always 121 point something
 Put all this information in your Nav Log, preferably in the order you will use it to make
things easy
Pg. 6-5
o

During Flight frequencies may need to be found - keep organized and find them before they’re
needed
 Know who you are calling
o The AFD contains all pertinent frequencies within/around the airport(s) you are operating in
 Weather, Tower/CTAF, Clearance Del, Ground, Unicom, Navaids, FSS,
Approach/Departure
o Charts provide frequencies as you navigate
 Communications Boxes (FSS)
 Airport data lists tower/CTAF, Unicom, weather frequencies
 VOR frequencies are shown in blue outlined boxes
 HIWAS, TWEB, ASOS/AWOS available on some VORs
 Class B, C, TRSA, and some radar approach frequencies are provided below Tower
frequencies/info
o After in contact with controllers, frequencies will be provided to reach further controllers
o CE - Use of improper frequencies
 Caused by inadequate planning, misreading frequencies, or mistuning the radio
 Double check and read out loud frequencies also repeat frequencies when advised to
change
 Monitor the frequency before transmitting
Procedure and Phraseology for Radio Communications
o Understanding is the single most important thought in pilot-controller communications
 It is essential that pilots acknowledge each radio call with ATC with the appropriate
aircraft call sign
 Brevity is important, but if necessary use whatever words will get your message across
 Good phraseology enhances safety and is the mark of a professional pilot
 Pilot/Controller Glossary is very helpful in learning what certain words/phrases
mean (AIM)
o Radio Technique
 LISTEN before you transmit
 THINK before transmitting - Know what you want to say before you say it (write it down
if needed)
 After transmitting, wait a few seconds before calling again (The controller may be busy)
 Be alert to the sound/lack of sounds in the receiver
 Check your volume, frequency, and make sure the microphone isn’t stuck on
transmit
 Be sure you are within the performance range of your equipment and the ground
station equipment
 Remember higher altitudes increase the range of VHF “line of sight”
communications
o Radio calls can be broken down into:
 Whom you are calling
 Who you are
 Where you are
 What you want to do
o CE - Improper procedure and phraseology for radio communications
 Think before you transmit and understand the controller may be busy
 Tailor your calls to match the controller’s workload
Pg. 6-6


ATC Clearances and Instructions
o Acknowledge all ATC clearances by repeating key points followed by your call sign
 You must read back all hold short instructions
 Always repeat altitudes and headings
 When advised to change frequencies acknowledge the instruction and change ASAP
o If a clearance is blocked or not understood, do not guess/ignore, ask the controller to “Say Again”
o Once you, the PIC, obtain an ATC clearance you cannot deviate from it unless in an emergency
(91.123)
 If you cannot accept a clearance from ATC advise them of the reason and obtain a new
clearance
o The PIC is directly responsible for, and the final authority to the operation of the airplane
 Obtain proper clarification on any clearance not understood or that would create a bad
situation
o CE – Failure to acknowledge or properly comply with, ATC clearances and instructions
 Ask the controller to repeat if you did not understand the message
 Learn to divide attention in order to properly hear and comply with all messages
ATC Light Signals
o Arriving Aircraft
 Transmitter Failure - Receive no response to calls, and receive calls but none directed to
you
 Determine the direction and flow of aircraft, enter the pattern and look for
light signals
 Acknowledge light signals by rocking wings during the day and flashing lights at
night
 After landing, call the tower to advise them of the situation
 Receiver Failure - Receiving no calls on tower/ATIS frequencies
 Transmit to the tower your position, situation, intention to land
 Use the same procedures as above
o Departing Aircraft
 Attempt to fix any radio failure before leaving, if it can’t be fixed call tower by phone
and request to depart without two way communications
 If authorized, you will get departure info and requested to monitor tower/watch for
light signals
 During daylight, acknowledge transmissions/ signals by promptly executing the action
requested
 Rock wings/blink lights as well
 If the radio fails after departing the ramp, watch for light signals/monitor ground and
return
o CE - Failure to understand or properly comply with ATC light signals
 Know the light signals and their meanings
 Practice light signals if possible
Pg. 6-7
Pg. 6-8
TRAFFIC PATTERNS (ASEL and ASES)
Objective:
To familiarize the student with operation in an airport traffic pattern. To familiarize the student with standard and
right traffic patterns.
Content:
 Altitude
 Entry
 Traffic pattern indicators
 Turn to crosswind within 300′ of pattern altitude
 Pattern legs
Things to Avoid (Common Errors):
 Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules
 Improper correction for wind drift
 Inadequate spacing from other traffic
 Poor altitude or airspeed control
Diagrams:
Pg. 6-9
Pg. 6-10
References:
Airplane Flying Handbook - Chapter 7
Completion Standards:
The lesson is complete when the instructor determines that the student has adequate knowledge of and is able to
fly proper traffic patterns by giving an oral or written exam and observing the student during each flight.
Instructor Notes:
 The Pattern
o Controlled - The pilot receives a clearance to approach/depart and pertinent pattern info
o Uncontrolled - It’s up to the pilot to determine traffic direction, and comply with the appropriate
rules
o If familiar with the basic rectangular pattern, it approaches/departures will be easy at most
airports
o Standard Traffic Pattern
 Usually 1,000’ AGL (Common Alt is the key factor in minimizing collisions at uncontrolled
airports)
 CE - Poor altitude or airspeed control
 Know the AS required at certain points in the pattern (max is 200 knots in Class
D)
 Constantly checking the instruments to ensure AS and Alt and make fine,
controlled adjustments
 All turns are made to the left unless otherwise noted (AFD, Controller, Markings, etc)
 Turns should not be banked more than 30o (Do Not use rudder to help the turn
along)
 Downwind - Parallel to the runway of intended landing (opposite landing direction)
 Approximately ½ to 1 mile from the runway
 At pattern altitude until abeam the approach end of the runway
 Continues to a point 45o from the intended landing point
 Base - Perpendicular to the runway and transitions between downwind and final
 The ground track of the airplane should be perpendicular to the extended
centerline
 Final - The descending approach to the runway
 Upwind - Flown parallel to the landing runway, but in the same direction to the landing
direction
 Continues past a point abeam the departure end of the runway
 Transitional part of the pattern when a go-around is initiated
 Crosswind - horizontally perp. to the runway centerline and transitions from up to
downwind
 Departure - The straight course aligned with, and leading from, the T/O runway
 Continue climbing straight out and if remaining in the pattern, turn to the
crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway within 300’ of pattern
altitude
 If departing, continue straight out or exit with a 45o turn to the left (or right in
a right pattern)
Pg. 6-11
o


Maintaining the Desired Ground Track
 The airplane will have to be crabbed into the wind in order to maintain a straight ground
track
 The airplane can be kept at a specific position in relation to the runway with visual
references
 Place the runway centerline on a point on the leading edge of the wing/
 Use landmarks to establish proper legs of the pattern
 CE - Improper correction for wind drift
 Keep the pattern a rectangle, always crabbing into the wind as necessary
Controlled Field
o The pilot receives, by radio, a clearance to approach/depart as well as pertinent info about the
pattern
o ATC will specify pattern entry and departure procedures (Where/how to enter and leave)
o During the pattern the controller may adjust your pattern (Speed, Legs, 360o turn, S turn)
o CE - Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules
 Know the rules and ensure you understand radio communications and instructions
 Learn to divide attention in the pattern between flying, collision avoidance, checklists,
and comms
Uncontrolled Field
o Communication
 There are 2 ways to communicate intentions and obtain airport/traffic info at an
uncontrolled field
 Communicating with an FSS providing advisories
o The FSS provides wind info, runway in use, altimeter setting, known
traffic, NOTAMs, etc.
o Inbound aircraft should initiate contact approx 10 miles out with Alt,
AC Type, and Location
o Departing should contact as practicable with Tail #, Type flight,
destination, services desired
o Or by making a self-announced broadcast on the CTAF (found in the
AFD and on sectionals)
o Arriving
 Observe other aircraft already in the pattern and conform to the traffic pattern in use
 If other aircraft are not in the pattern, use traffic indicators and wind to
determine runway info
o L shaped indicators displayed with a segmented circle (short part of L
shows turn direction)
o Check these indicators well above pattern altitude
o Pattern direction can also be determined in the AFD and on sectional
charts
 Once pattern direction is determined, proceed to a point well clear of the pattern
before descending
 Enter in level flight, at altitude, at a 45o angle to the downwind, abeam the runway
midpoint
 Entry while descending creates collision hazards and should be avoided
 Maintain pattern altitude until abeam the approach end of the landing runway or
downwind leg
o Departing - As discussed above
Pg. 6-12
o





CE - Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules
 Know the rules and ensure you understand radio communications and instructions
 Learn to divide attention in the pattern between flying, collision avoidance, checklists,
and comms
Orientation to the Runway
o Know which runway is in use and remain oriented with the active runway
 Plan to enter properly visualizing your position in relation to the runway on the HI
 Confirm the runway number with the HI during all pattern legs
 Downwind - Reciprocal; Base - 90o off (in the direction of the pattern); Final Runway Number
Checklists
o Prior to entering/upon entering the pattern complete the Before-Landing Checklist
o Run through the checklist again on final to ensure everything is complete
Establishing Final Approach
o The base leg will be adjusted depending on wind conditions
 The stronger the wind, the closer the base leg because the decreased GS will shorten
the approach
o The turn to final should be no closer than ¼ mile at an altitude appropriate for the glide slope
selected
o 3o glide slope, means we should be 300’ AGL for every mile from the runway
Maintaining Proper Spacing
o In the pattern, you must observe other traffic and maintain separation (Know where other
aircraft are)
o When turning base and another plane is on final, turn once abeam/past the other aircraft
o At a controlled field, the controller may request/advise certain maneuvers to provide spacing
o YOU are responsible for seeing and avoiding whether at a controlled or uncontrolled field
o CE - Inadequate spacing from other traffic
 Don’t fly faster than an airplane in-front of you or turn too early following another plane
Wind Shear and Wake Turbulence
o Wind Shear
 Best method in dealing with wind shear is to avoid it (Don’t fly in or near
thunderstorms)
 If there is a possibility of WS, during the approach, use more power, a higher AS, stay as
high as feasible until necessary to land, and go-around at the first sign of an unexpected
AS/pitch change
o Wake Turbulence
 Landing: Land prior to a jet’s T/O point or stay above and land beyond another jet’s
landing point
 T/O: T/O prior to and stay above another jet’s T/O point and T/O after another jet’s
landing point
Pg. 6-13
Pg. 6-14
AIRPORT/SEAPLANE BASE, RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY SIGNS,
MARKINGS, AND LIGHTING (ASEL and ASES)
Objective:
To familiarize the student with the various markings and lights on an airport.
Content:










Runway numbering conventions
o VFR vs. IFR runways
o Displaced threshold
o Blast pad/stopway
Taxiway Markings
o Vehicle roadway markings
o Solid white lines are boundaries
o Dashed white lines separate lanes within roadway
o VOR receiver checkpoint markings
o Painted circle w/ arrow in the middle pointing in direction of checkpoint azimuth
o Non-movement area boundary markings
o Two yellow lines, one solid, one dashed
Airport Signs – 6 Types (see PHAN Figures 12-3 & 12-4)
o Mandatory Instruction Signs
o White letters, red background
o Entrance to runway, critical area, or prohibited area
Location signs
o Yellow letters, black background, yellow border
o Taxiway/runway location, boundary of runway, or ILS critical area
Direction Signs
o Black letters, yellow background
Destination Signs
Information Signs
Runway Distance Remaining Signs
Airport Lighting
o Airport Beacon
o Approach Light Systems
 Visual Glideslope Indicators
 VASI
 PAPI
o Runway Lighting
 REILs
 Runway edge lights
 In-Runway lighting
o Taxiway Lights
o Obstruction Lights
o Control of Airport Lighting
Wind direction Indicators
Pg. 6-15
Things to Avoid (Common Errors):
 Failure to comply with airport, runway, taxiway sings and markings
 Failure to comply with airport, runway and taxiway lighting
 Failure to use proper runway incursion avoidance procedures
References:
AOPA Safety Advisor No. 2 “Operations at Towered Airports” in Appendix
AIM
Completion Standards:
The lesson is complete when the instructor determines that the student has adequate knowledge of airport and
runway markings and lights by giving an oral or written exam.
Instructor Notes:
 Runway Incursion Avoidance
o Be aware of the airplane’s position and be aware of other aircraft and vehicle operations on the
airport
o Read back all runway crossing and/or hold short instructions
o Review the Taxi Diagrams as part of preflight planning, before landing, and while taxiing as
needed
o Know airport signage
o Review NOTAMs for information regarding runway/taxiway closures and construction areas
o Request progressive taxi instructions from ATC when unsure of the taxi route
o Check for traffic before crossing any runway hold line and before entering a taxiway
o Turn on aircraft lights and the rotating beacon or strobe lights when taxiing
o When landing, clear the runway as soon as possible, and wait for taxi instructions before moving
o Study and use proper phraseology in order to understand and respond to ground control
instructions
o Write down complex taxi instructions at unfamiliar airports
o Failure to use proper runway incursion avoidance procedures
 Do not cross hold short lines until you have been cleared for T/O or to taxi onto/across a
runway
 Without a control tower, look both ways and announce your intentions before
proceeding
 Never taxi onto the runway when there is a plane on final approach
Pg. 6-16

Runway Markings
o General
 There are three types of markings for runways:
 Visual; Nonprecision Instrument; Precision Instrument
o
o
o
o
Runway Designators
 Purpose - To identify/differentiate runways from the approach end
o The whole number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the
runway (To Magnetic N)
o Letters differentiate between left (L), right (R), and center (C) runways
 Markings - Large white numbers
Runway Centerline Marking
 Purpose - Identifies the center of the runway providing alignment guidance during T/O
and LDG
 Markings - A line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps
Runway Aiming Point Markings
 Purpose - Serves as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft
 Markings - Broad white stripe on each side of the centerline, approx 1,000’ from the
threshold
Runway Touchdown Zone Markers
 Purpose - Identifies the touchdown zone for LDG ops and provide distance info in 500’
increments
 Markings - Groups of 1, 2, and 3 rectangular bars in pairs about the runway centerline
Pg. 6-17
o
o
o
Runway Side Stripe Markings
 Purpose - Delineate the edges of the runway providing a contrast between the runway
and shoulder
 Markings - Continuous white stripes located on each side of the runway
Runway Shoulder Markings
 Purpose – May be used with side stripes to identify pavement areas not intended for
aircraft use
 Markings - Yellow stripes
Runway Threshold Markings
 Purpose – Identifies the beginning of the runway available for landing
 Markings - 8 longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions placed about the centerline (A)
 The number of stripes is related to runway width (B):

Threshold can be Displaced or Relocated
 Displaced Threshold (DT)
o Explanation
 A threshold at a point on the runway other than the
designated beginning of the runway
 Reduces the amount of runway available for landings
 The portion behind it is for T/Os either direction and LDGs
from the opposite direction
 Can be used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing rollout
o Markings
 A 10’ wide white threshold bar is located across the runway
at the displaced threshold
 White arrow heads are located across the runway just prior
to the threshold bar
 White arrows are down the centerline between the runway
and displaced threshold
 Demarcation Line
 Purpose - Delineates the DT from a blast
pad/stopway/ taxiway prior to the runway
 Markings - 3 feet wide and yellow
 Chevrons
 Purpose - Show areas aligned with the runway that
are unusable for taxi, T/O, LDG
 Markings - Yellow arrows
 Relocated Threshold
o Explanation
 Sometimes construction or other activities require the
threshold to be relocated
 A NOTAM should be issued identifying the portion of the
runway is closed
Pg. 6-18
o
 EX. 10/28 W 900 CLSD
Markings – Identification can vary, as the duration of the relocation
varies
 Common practice is to use a 10’ wide white threshold bar
across the runway
 Runway lights between the old threshold and new threshold
will not be illuminated
 Runway markings in this area may or may not be showing
o

Blast pad/Stopway Area
 The blast pad area is an area where a propeller or jet blast can dissipate without
creating a hazard
 Stopway is paved in to provide space to decelerate/stop in the event of an aborted T/O
(Chevrons)
Taxiway Markings
o General
 Taxiways should have centerline/runway holding position markings whenever
intersecting a runway
 Edge markings separate the taxiway from areas not for aircraft use or define taxiway
edges
 May have shoulder/hold position markings for ILS critical areas and taxiway/taxiway
intersections
o Taxiway Centerline Markings
 Normal Centerline
 Purpose - Provides a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path
(aircraft kept over line)
o Markings - A single continuous yellow line that is 6” – 12” wide
 Enhanced Centerline
 Purpose - Same as above but at larger commercial airports to warn that a
runway hold position marking is being approached and unless cleared to cross
the aircraft should prepare to stop
 Markings - A parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the normal taxiway
centerline
o Centerlines are enhanced for a max of 150’ prior to a runway holding
position marking
o Taxiway Edge Markings
 Purpose - Defines the edge of the taxiway (usually when edge doesn’t match up with
pavement)
 2 types of markings, depending on whether the aircraft is supposed to cross the taxiway
edge
 Continuous Markings
o Purpose - Define the taxiway edge from the shoulder/paved surface
not for use by aircraft
o Markings - Continuous double yellow line with each line at least 6’
wide and 6’ apart
 Dashed Markings
o Purpose - Define the taxiway edge when adjoining pavement is
intended for aircraft (Apron)
o Markings - Broken double yellow line ( 6” wide/spaced 6” apart, 15’
long and 25’ apart)
Pg. 6-19
o

Taxi Shoulder Markings
 Purpose - Paved shoulders prevent erosion but they may not support aircraft
 Markings - Taxiway edge markings will usually define this area
 If confusion exists to the side of use, yellow shoulder markings are used
o Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs
 Purpose - When it isn’t possible to offer direction signs at intersections, or to
supplement such signs
 Markings – Surface painted location signs with a yellow background and black
inscription
 Adjacent to the centerline with signs indicating left turns on the left side of the
centerline and vice versa
o Surface Painted Location Signs
 Purpose - Supplement location signs alongside the taxiway assisting in confirming the
designation of the taxiway on
 Markings - Black background with a yellow inscription, R of center
o Geographic Position Markings
 Purpose - Identifies aircraft location during low visibility operations
 Markings - Left of the taxiway centerline in the direction of taxiing
 A circle with an outer black ring, inner white ring and a pink circle
o When on dark pavements the white/black ring are reversed
 Designated with either a number or a number and a letter
o Number corresponds with consecutive position on the route
Holding Position Markings
Pg. 6-20
o

General
 Show where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway (Hold on the
solid side)
 4 yellow lines (2 Solid/2 Dashed) spaced 6” or 12” apart across the width of the
taxiway/runway
 3 locations where runway hold lines are encountered: 1Taxiways; 2Runways;
3Approach Areas
o Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiways
 Purpose - Identify where to stop without a clearance onto the runway
 Always stop so that no part extends beyond the hold markers
 Don’t cross w/o clearance/ample separation at uncontrolled airports
o Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways
 Purpose - Only installed if normally used for LAHSO or taxiing operations
o Must stop before markings/exit prior to reaching the position
 Markings - Sign (white inscription/red background) next to hold markings
 Markings are placed on the runway prior to the intersection
o Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area
 Purpose - Hold aircraft on taxiway so it does not interfere with ops
 Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS)
 Purpose – Hold aircraft when the ILS critical area is being protected
 Markings - 2 yellow solid lines 2’ apart joined by pairs of solid lines 10’ apart
across the taxiway
 Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
 Purpose - Installed on taxiways where ATC normally holds aircraft short of a
taxiway intersection
 Markings - Single dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway
o If requested to HS of a taxiway w/o marking, provide adequate
clearance from the taxiway
 Surface Painted Holding Position Signs
 Purpose - Used to supplement the signs located at the holding position
o Normally used when the width of the holding position on the taxiway
is greater than 200’
 Markings - Red background/white inscription, L of center, on the holding side,
prior to hold lines
Other Markings
o Vehicle Roadway Markings
 Purpose - Used to define a path for vehicle ops on or crossing areas also intended for
aircraft
 Markings - White solid line delineates each edge and a dashed line separates lanes
 In lieu of the solid lines, zipper markings may be used to delineate edges
o VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings
 Purpose - Allow the pilot to check aircraft instruments with navigational aid signals
 Markings - A painted circle with an arrow in the middle (Arrow is aligned toward the
facility)
 Located, with a sign, on the apron/taxiway
 Sign shows the VOR station ID letter, course for the check, and DME data (if
necessary)
 Black letters/numerals on a yellow background
o Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings
Pg. 6-21


o
o
Purpose - Delineates the movement area (The area under air traffic control)
Markings - 2 yellow lines (one solid and one dashed) 6” in width
 Solid line is the nonmovement area side, the dashed line is the movement area
side
Marking and Lighting of Permanently Closed Runways
 Purpose - For runways and taxiways which are permanently closed
 Markings - The lighting circuits will be disconnected
 The runway threshold, designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated
 Yellow crosses are placed at each end of the runway and at 1,000’ intervals
Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways
 Purpose - To provide a visual indication to pilots that a runway is temporarily closed
 Markings - Yellow crosses are placed on the runway at each end
 A raised lighted yellow cross may be placed on each end of the runway instead
 A visual indication may not be present depending on the reason for closure,
duration of the closure, configuration and the existence and hours of operation
of an airport control tower
o Check NOTAMs and the ATIS for information
 Closed taxiways are treated as hazardous areas and blockaded; no part of the
aircraft may enter
o As an alternative, a yellow cross may be installed at each entrance to
the taxiway
Pg. 6-22

Airport Signs
o General
 Six types of signs installed on airfields
 Mandatory Instruction; Location; Direction; Destination; Info; Runway Distance
Remaining
o Mandatory Instruction Signs
 Purpose - Denote entrance to runway or critical area/area where aircraft are prohibited
 Markings - Red background with a white inscription
 Typical Mandatory Signs and Applications
 Runway Holding Position Sign
o Located at the hold position on taxiways intersecting
runways/runways intersecting runways
o The sign states the designation of the intersecting runway
 Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign
o Used when necessary to hold aircraft on a taxiway in a runway
approach/departure area so it doesn’t interfere with runway ops
 ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign
o ILS system is being used, and it’s necessary to hold at a location other
than the Hold Markers
o The sign will have the inscription “ILS” and will be located adjacent to
the holding position marking on the taxiway
 No Entry Sign
o Prohibits an aircraft from entering an area
o Typically on a taxiway intended to be used only in 1 direction or
vehicle intersections of that may be mistaken as a taxiway/movement
surface
o Location Signs
 Purpose - Identify either a taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located
 Other location signs provide a visual cue to assist in determining when an area
has been exited
 Taxiway Location Sign
 Purpose - Along taxiways to indicate location
 Markings - Black background with yellow inscription and border
 Runway Location Sign
 Purpose - Complement compass info; typically installed where the proximity of
runways to one another could cause confusion as to which runway the pilot is
on
 Markings - Black background with a yellow inscription (Runway #)/ border
 Runway Boundary Sign
 Purpose - Provides a visual cue to use as a guide in deciding when “clear of the
runway”
o Adjacent to the hold markings on the pavement
o Visible when exiting the runway
 Markings - Yellow background/black inscription depicting the hold markings
 ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign
 Purpose - Provides a visual cue to use as a guide in deciding when clear of the
ILS critical area
o Adjacent to ILS hold markings and can be seen leaving the critical area
 Markings - Yellow background/black inscription depicting ILS hold markings
Pg. 6-23
o
o
Direction Signs
 Purpose - Identify the designations of intersecting taxiways leading out of an
intersection
o Designations and their arrows are arranged clockwise from the 1st
taxiway on the pilot’s left
 Markings - Yellow background/black inscription with an arrow indicating the turn
direction
Destination Signs
 Purpose - Indicates a destination on the airport
 Destinations commonly shown are
o Runways
o Aprons
o Terminals
o Military Areas
o Civil Aviation Areas
o Cargo Areas
o International Areas
o FBOs


Markings - Yellow background/black inscription indicating a destination on the airport
 Always have an arrow showing the direction of the taxiing route to that
destination sign
o Information Signs
 Purpose - Used to provide a pilot with information on such things as:
 Areas the tower can’t see, radio frequencies, and noise abatement procedures
 Markings - Yellow Background with a black inscription
o Runway Distance Remaining Signs
 Purpose - Used to inform the pilot the amount of distance remaining on the runway
 The number on the sign indicates the thousands of feet of landing runway
remaining
 Markings - Black background/white numeral inscription one 1/both sides of the runway
o CE - Failure to comply with airport, runway, taxiway sings and markings
 Make sure you know the meaning and purpose of all the signs and markings
 If unsure, stop and ask ATC for clarification
Airport Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids
o Approach Light Systems (ALS)
 Purpose - The basic means to transition from IFR to VFR for landing
 Explanation - A configuration of signal lights staring at the landing threshold and
extending into the approach area
o Visual Glideslope Indicators
 Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)
 Purpose - Provide visual decent guidance information during approach
 Explanation - The lights are visible from 3-5 miles during day and up to 20 or
more at night
o Safe obstruction clearance within +/- 10o of the centerline and 4 NM
from the threshold
Pg. 6-24




Configurations
o 2,4,6,12, or 16 light units arranged in bars
 Arranged as near, middle, and far bars (Mid provide another
glide path for high cockpits)
 VASIs of 2,4, or 6 light units are located on one side of the
runway (usually the left)
 VASIs consisting of 12 or 16 light units are located on both
sides of the runway
o Most installations consist of 2 bars and may consist of 2,4, or 12 light
units
Two Bar VASIs
o Provide one visual glide path, normally set at 3o
Three Bar VASIs
o Provide two visual glide paths
 The lower glide path is provided by the near and middle bars
and is normally set to 3o
 Some locations may have up to 4.5o glide paths for
proper obstacle clearance
 The upper glide path is provided by the middle and far bars
and is normally set ¼o higher
How it Works
o Each unit projects light with an upper white segment and a lower red
segment
o The light units are arranged so that the pilot will see the combinations
of lights below:
o 2-bar VASI
o
3-bar VASI
Pg. 6-25
o
o
o
For other VASI configurations
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
 General
 Lights arranged to provide visual decent guidance information during the
approach to a runway
 Uses light units similar to the VASI but in a single row of either 2 or 4 light units
 Configuration
 Tri-Color Systems
o Normally a single unit projecting a 3-color visual approach path into
the final approach area
o Glide Path Indications
 Below - Red
 Above- Amber
 On - Green
o Useful Range
 Day – ½ to 1 mile
 Night – Up to 5 miles (depending on the visibility)
 Pulsating Systems
o Normally a single unit projecting a 2-color visual approach path into
the final approach area
o Glide Path Indications
 Slightly Below - Steady red
 Below - Pulsating red
 On - Steady white
 Slightly Above - Pulsating white
 Above - Faster pulsating white
 Pulsating increases as the aircraft gets further
above/below the glide slope
 Useful Range
 During the Day, 4 miles and at Night, up to 10 miles
Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)
 General - Installed to provide rapid/positive identification of the approach end of a
runway
 Configuration - A pair of synchronized flashing lights located on each side of the runway
threshold
 Effective for:
 Identification of a runway surrounded by a preponderance of other lighting
 Identification of a runway which lacks contrast with the surrounding terrain
 Identification of a runway during reduced visibility
Pg. 6-26
o
o
Runway Edge Light Systems (HIRL, MIRL, LIRL)
 General - Outline the edges of runways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility
conditions
 Classified according to the intensity or brightness they are capable of producing
o High Intensity (HIRL); Medium Intensity (MIRL); Low Intensity (LIRL) a
HIRL and MIRL have variable intensity controls
 Configuration
 Runway edge lights – White
o Instrument runways – Turn yellow the last 2,000,’ or half the runway,
whichever is shorter
 Lights marking the end of the runway – Red/Green
o Red is emitted toward the runway to indicate the end of the runway to
a departing aircraft
o Green is emitted outward from the runway end to indicate the
threshold to landing aircraft
In-runway Lighting
 Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS)
 General - Installed on some precision runways to facilitate landing under
adverse conditions
 Configuration
o Located along the runway centerline and are spaced at 50’ intervals
o From the landing threshold, the lights are white until the last 3,000’ of
the runway a White lights begin to alternate with red for 2,000’, and
the last 1,000’ all lights are red
 Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL)
 General - On some precision runways, indicating the TD zone with adverse
visibility conditions
 Configuration
o Two rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically about the
runway centerline
o Steady burning white lights starting 100’ beyond the landing threshold
and extending to 3,000’ beyond the landing threshold or to the
midpoint of the runway, whichever is less
 Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights
 General
o Provide visual guidance to persons exiting the runway
o Color coded to warn: In runway environment/ILS critical area,
whichever is more restrictive
 Configuration
o Alternate green/yellow lights are installed, beginning with green, from
the runway centerline to 1 light position beyond the runway hold
position/ILS critical area hold position
 Taxiway Centerline Lead-on Lights
 General
o Provide visual guidance to persons entering the runway
o Warn: In the runway environment/ILS critical area, whichever is more
conservative
Pg. 6-27

o
o
Configuration
o Color coded with the same pattern as lead-off lights
o Bidirectional (i.e., 1 side emits light for the lead-on function the other
for the lead-off)
 Land and Hold Short Lights
 General
o Used to indicate the hold short point on certain runways which are
approved for LAHSO
 Where installed, the lights will be on anytime LAHSO is in
effect and off when not
 Configuration - A row of pulsing white lights installed across the runway at the
hold short point
Control of Lighting Systems
 Operation of approach light systems and runway lighting is controlled by the control
tower/FSS
 Pilots may request the lights be turned on or off
Pilot Control of Airport Lighting
 Radio control of lighting is available at some airports by keying the aircraft’s microphone
 Often available w/o specified hours for lighting and with no tower/FSS or when
they’re closed
 All lighting systems which are radio controlled at an airport operate on the same
frequency
 The CTAF is used to activate the lights at most airports, but other frequencies
may also be used
o The frequency is in the AFD/the standard instrument approach
procedures publications
o It is not identified on the sectional charts
Pg. 6-28
o
o
Airport Beacons
 Vertical light distribution to make them more effective from 1o to 10o above the
horizon
 They can be seen well above and below this peak spread
 Light Projection
 Omnidirectional capacitor discharge device
 Rotate at a constant speed
 Flashes
 24-30 per min for airports/landmarks/points on federal airways; 30-45 per min
for heliports
 Colors and Combinations of Beacons
 White and Green – Lighted land airport
 *Green alone – Lighted land airport
 White and Yellow – Lighted water airport
 *Yellow alone – Lighted water airport
 Green, Yellow, and White – Lighted heliport
 Green/Yellow alone is used w/a white & green/white &
yellow beacon display, respectively
 Military Beacons
 Two quick white followed by a green flash
 Operation during the day
 In Class B, C, D and E surface areas, operation of the airport beacon during the
hours of daylight often indicates that the ground visibility is less than 3 miles
and/or the ceiling is less than 1,000’
o Don’t rely solely on the airport beacon to indicate if weather
conditions are IFR or VFR
 There is no regulatory requirement for daylight operation
Taxiway Lights
 Taxiway Edge Lights
 Purpose - Outline the edges of taxiways during periods of darkness or restricted
visibility
 Configuration - Emit blue light
 Taxiway Centerline Lights
 Purpose - Used to facilitate ground traffic under low visibility conditions
 Configuration - Steady burning green lights along the centerline
Pg. 6-29

o
Clearance Bar Lights
 Purpose - Installed to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in low
visibility conditions
o May also be installed to indicate the location of an intersecting
taxiway during darkness
 Configuration - Three in pavement steady burning yellow lights
 Runway Guard Lights
 Purpose - Enhance the conspicuity of taxiway/runway intersections
 Configuration - Either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights on either side of
the taxiway, or a row of in pavement yellow lights across the entire taxiway, at
the runway hold marking
 Stop Bar Lights
 Purpose - Confirm ATC clearances to enter/cross the active runway in low
visibility conditions
 Configuration - Row of red, unidirectional, steady burning in pavement lights
installed across the entire taxiway at the runway hold position, and elevated
steady-burning red lights on each side
o Following ATC clearance, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on
lights are turned on
 Cautions
o Never cross a red illuminated stop bar even if they have received ATC
clearance
o If after crossing, the lead-on lights extinguish, hold position and
contact ATC for instruction
CE - Failure to comply with airport, runway and taxiway lighting
 Due to reduced visibility, it can be hard to find your way on the ground at night at a new
airport
 Make sure you know the meaning of all the lights before proceeding
Pg. 6-30