BIO 2306 notes - Faulkner University
advertisement
Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2306) Science Department Class Notes Chapter 1: What is Plant Biology? Botany and plant science Scientific names Polarized Global warming, greenhouse effect Biomass Closed biological system Plant dependency Science Observation Recording (data) Organization Classification Scientific method Hypotheses, theories and principles Tools: microscope People: Van Leeuwenhoek Mapighi Grew Van Helmont Linnaeus Diversification of Plant studies: Subdisciplines Anatomy Paleobotany Taxonomy Pteridology Geography Morphology Biomes Dendrochronology Physiology Cladistics Bryology Ecology Genetics Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class notes Chapter 2: The Nature of Life Composition and Structure Growth Reproduction Response to stimuli Callose Callus Metabolism Respiration Photosynthesis Digestion Assimilation Movement: cytoplasmic streaming Organization (levels) Adaptation Chemistry, inorganic Elements, atom Nucleus: protons, neutrons Electrons, orbital, valence and covalent bonds Ions, salts and minerals Isotopes Compound, molecule Acids/bases, pH scale Energy: 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics Chemistry, organic Polymers, Monomers Carbohydrates, Sucrose Lipids, Fats, Oils Proteins, Polypeptides, Amino acids, Storage proteins, Enzymes Nucleic acids, Nucleotides, Genes Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Chapter 3: Cells Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic Cytoplasm - Cytoplasmic streaming Cell walls Pectin Middle lamella Lingnin Plasmodesmata Organelles Nucleus, Nucleoli (singular nucleolus), Chromatin Chromosomes Plastids Chloroplasts Stroma Grana (singular granum), Thylakoids - Chlorophyll Chromoplasts Leucoplasts Proplastids Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Dictyosomes Mitochondria Vacuoles - Vacuolar membranes (tonoplasts) Cytoskeleton, Microtubules Microfilaments Plasma membrane Cell sap Anthocyanins Cell cycle incl. Cytokinesis Centromeres Kinetochore Spindle Cell plate Meristems Vascular cambium (cambium) Cork cambium Science Department Class Notes Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class Notes Chapter 4: Tissues Organs: Roots, Stems, Leaves, Flowers Meristematic 3 kinds Apical - primary – protoderm – ground meristem – procambium lateral - secondary - vascular cambium - cork cambium Intercalary – nodes of monocots Tissues produced Simple Parenchyma (incl.chlorenchyma, aerenchyma) Collenchyma Sclerenchyma – lignin, sclerids, fibers Complex Vascular Xylem - vessel elements - tracheids (border pits) - rays Phloem - sieve tube members (plates) - companion cells - callose and callus Epidemis - velamen roots - cutin and cuticle - root hairs - stomata/guard cells Periderm (bark) suberin lenticels Secretary cells Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Chapter Five: Roots Radicle Embryo Root cap Region of cell division Protoderm Ground meristem Procambium Region of elongation Secondary tissues Region of differentiation (root-hair zone) Root hairs Cortex Endodermis Casparian strips Passage cells Vascular cylinder Pericycle Adventitious buds Biological controls Haustoria (haustorium) Mycorrhizae Colloid Phytoremediation Phytochelatins Hygroscopic water Gravitational water Capillary water Science Department Class Notes Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class Notes Chapter 6: Stems Stem, twig, node, internode Bud, terminal, axial, scales Scars: bud scale, stipule, bundles, leaf Deciduous, evergreen Development Primordium: leaf, bud Procambium protoderm ground meristem primary tissues: epidermis, xylem, phloem, pith and cortex secondary tissues: of the xylem: tracheids, vessel elements, fibers of the phloem: sieve tube members, companion cells of the cork cambium (phellogen): cork cells (suberin) , periderm, lenticels tissue patterns stele concept vascular bundles: mono versus dicots woody stems: annual rings, spring versus summer wood/heart versus sapwood, rays Specialized stems Runners, stolons, rhizomes and adventitious roots Bulbs and corms Tubers Cladophylls, pads Tendrils Wood: cellulose and lignin Density and durability Knots Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Chapter 7: Leaves Anatomy Petiole, blade stipules Simple versus compound, rachis Pinnate versus palmate, bipinnate Odd versus even Arrangement on stem: opposite, alternate, whorled Veins: pinnate and palmate Internal Epidermis: cuticle, cutin, stomates Mesophyll: palisade and spongy vascular bundles glands Specialized leaves Shade Drought resistant Tendrils Spine Storage Window Reproductive Floral Insect trapping Fall: deciduous, colors and abscission Science Department Class Notes Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class Notes Chapter 8: Flowers, Fruits and Seeds Flowers Annuals, biennials, perennials Dicots and monocots Structure Peduncle, receptacle Parianth: petals (corolla), sepals (calyx) Pistil: stigma, style, ovary (inferior and superior, carpels Stamen: anther, filament Inflorescences (spike, raceme, panicle, catkin, head) Fruits Structure: seed, pericarp (endo, meso and exocarp) Kinds Fleshy, simple Drupe Berry: true, pepo, hesperidium, Pome Fleshy, aggregate Fleshy, multiple Dry Splitting: follicle, legume, silique, capsule Non-splitting: achene, nut,grain (caryopsis), samara, schizocarp Dispersal Wind: airborne and tumbling Animals: hooks, spikes, glue, special Seeds and germination Cotyledons, plumule, radicle Hypo, epicotyl Coleoptyle, coleorhiza Primary and secondary roots Viability, dormancy, longevity, vivipary Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class notes Chapter 9: Water in Plants Water Polar Solvent Brownian movement Diffusion Osmosis Membrane permeability Tonicity Turgor pressure Plasmolysis Imbibition – starch as solute Transport Active Ion (proton) pump Mannitol and proline Water movement Xylem Cohesion – tension theory Capillary action Evapotransiration Pull Regulation – stomata and guard cells Guttation – hydathodes Phloem Transport of foods Glucose made and actively transported into phloem tissue Pressure flow (mass flow) - osmosis involved Sources and sinks concept Minerals Essential elements Macronutrients: .5 to 3 % of dry weight: CHOPKNS Micronutrients: < .5% DW: Ca Fe Mg Na Cl Cu Ma Co Zn Mo B Deficiencies and symptoms Toxicities? Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class notes Chapter 10: Plant Metabolism Metabolism Photosynthesis Aerobic respiration Enzymes: catbolic and anabolic pathways Oxidation and reduction reactions Photosynthesis CO2 + H2O >>> CHO ATP >>> ADP + P Light dependent reactions Absorption spectrum of chlorophylls O2 released – photolysis ATP produced Photosystems I and II 2 Reaction centers P 700 PS I P 680 PS II Peak absorptions of the chlorophyll a Antenna concept – 1000’s of molecules involved Photons and excited electrons Photophosphorylation Photooxidation - bleaching Light independent reactions Carbon fixation C3 normal plants higher photosynthesis rate in cooler and dimmer conditions C4 special structures – bundlesheath cells higher photosynthesis when hot and bright and lower CO2 Calvin cycle ATP and NADPH2 drive Glucose product (made from 2 GA3P) Rubisco – a key enzyme Photorespiration Undesirable reverse process – uses O2 to release energy from sugar Occurs when plants are water stressed CAM Cacti CO2 fixation, O2 release and transpiration at time of highest humidity Slow growth Respiration Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class notes Chapter 11: Growth Growth Irreversible Division, differentiation, development Nourishment: nutrients, vitamins and minerals Hormones Auxins Gibberellins Cytokinins Abscissic acid Ethylene Interactions Apical dominance Senescence Movements Internal: nutation, nodding twining, contractions, nastic External stimuli: tropisms Phases: perception, transduction, asymmetric growth Kinds Phototropism Gravitropism Thigmotropism Other postulated tropisms: hydro, chemo, thermo, traumo, electro, skoto, aero, and geomagnetotropisms Turgor movements: sudden, triggerd, contact, ions Sleep movements – circadian rhythms Solar tracking – not a tropism Water conservation movements – rolling Taxes – whole plant movements Micro-level: flagella, cilia of gametes and repro structures Responses to stimuli Photoperiodism: and flowering short, long and intermediate day plants day-neutral plants phytochrome interconversions florigen Thermoperiodism Dormancy/quiescence Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class notes Chapter 12: Meiosis and Alternation of Generations Mitosis review Meiosis Sexual reproduction Gametogenesis Eggs, sperms and zygotes Homologous chromosomes Phases: reduction and equatorial division Meiosis I (reduction division) Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Meiosis II (equatorial division) Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II Alternation of generations Haploid vs. Diploid generations Gametophyte vs. sporophyte Life cycle diagramming Fertilization (syngamy) Crossing over – recombination Chiasmata Genetic implications Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class notes Chapter 13: Genetics DNA Bases and base pairing (GCTA) Genome Replication – semi-conservative PCR Genetic expression RNA transcription Translation – ribosomes, amino acids and polypeptides Codons and anticodons Mutation Cytogenetics – inversions, translocations, ploidy Mendelian Laws Segregation (units of characters) and Dominance Homo and heterozygotes Genotype Independent assortment Chromosome considerations Linkage concepts Studies Self pollinating peas Crossing, Pure bred, hybrid and backcrosses Parental, F1 and F2 generations Phenotypes and phenotypic ratios Punnett squares Mono, di, tri, etc. hybrid crosses Test crosses Modern genetic understandings Incomplete dominance Codominance Gene interactions Polygenetic traits - quantitative Pleiotropy Extranuclear genes Mapping genes Transposable elements Population genetics – Hardy-Weinberg Law Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class notes Chapter 14: Plant Breeding and Propagation Plant domestication 6 out of 200,000 flowering plants – 80% food less than 10,000 years ago – crops regions of domestication Centers of origin Modern Plant breeding pollination self vs. cross pollination inbreeding vs. out breeding depression vs. heterosis selection pure line mass heirloom varieties Germplasm gene banks seed storage New techniques for manipulation of germplasm Protoplast fusion Gene splicing Transgenic Recombinant DNA Plasmids, enzymes and particle guns Propagation techniques Seeds Viability Protectants Inoculants Scarification Asexual propagation Division of vegetatively produced propagules Crown division Bulb divisions Dedifferentiation Cuttings Layering Grafting – root stock and scion Micropropagation – totipotency concept tissue culture bud formation induction Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class notes Chapter 15: Gene pool concepts Creation Original site of Eden? Sites of origin? Adaptations Evolutionary theory Natural selection Mutation Migration Genetic drift Isolation of gene pools Geographic Ecological Mechanical Chemical Hybrids Apomixix polyploids Divergence Convergence Chapter 16: Plant Names and Classification Common names Plant classification schemes Fruit Flower structure Habit: 400 BC: Theophrastus’ trees, shrubs and herbs Scientific names Binomial system Linnaeus (1707-1778) – Species Plantarum Latin Full name includes first describer Since 1867 – International Code of Botanical Nomenclature Kingdom concept Six now currently recognized KPCOFGS Divisions Keys, dichotomous – two branching Cladistics: numerical taxonomy Cladograms generated Parsimony used to create taxa Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class notes Chapter 17: Kingdom Bacteria, Archaea and Viruses Photosynthetic bacteria Classification of bacteria Prokaryotes – no organelles Very small Size of organelles in eukaryotes Less than 100 micrometers long billions in a gram of soil reproduction binary fission nonsexual, except plasmid concept conjugation - pilus involved transformation – DNA fragment acquisition transduction – viruses involved shapes cocci bacilli spirilla Photo autotrophic bacteria Eubacteria – Phylum Bacteriophyta Produce no oxygen Purple sulfur and non sulfur – have a chlorophyll a like pigment Green sulfur – have a different pigment Produce oxygen Cyanobacteria – chlorophyll a and phycobylin pigments An assortment of forms Some can fix nitrogen Symbiotic with fungi – lichens Prochlorobacteria – endosymbiont theory Blooms Mats Toxins Parasitic Faulkner University Botany (BIO 2406) Science Department Class notes Chapter 18: Kingdom Protista Protists: plantllike, animal-like and fungus-like types Algae – photoautotrophic protests – plant-like protists Chlorophyta –7500 spp - phytoplankton Chlamydomonas Ulothrix Spirogyra Oedogonium Chromophyta – 7600 spp Yellow-green Fucoxanthin - pigment Freshwater Golden-brown diatoms Brown – 1500 spp kelp holdfast bladder stipe blades algin Rhodophyta – red algae – 5000 spp Euglenophyta – 750 spp Unicellular Eyespot Pellicle Dynophyta – 3000 spp - dinoflagellates Cryptophyta – rare Prymnesiophyta (Haptophyta) – 500 spp Charophyta – 350 spp - stoneworts
