Integrated Language and Learning Support
EDF6236
Language, society and cultural difference
Evaluation of Teaching and Learning Resource Delivery
Modes
Support for this activity has been provided by The Carrick Institute for Learning and
Teaching in Higher Education Ltd, an initiative of the Australian Government Department of
Education, Science and Training. The views expressed in this (report/publication/activity)
do not necessarily reflect the views of The Carrick Institute for Learning and Teaching in
Higher Education.
Integrated Language and Learning Support
EDF6236 – Language, Society and Cultural Difference
Unit Coordinator:
Dr LeHa Phan
Campus:
Clayton, Education (Building 6), Room 345
Phone:
9905 2841
Email:
Ha.Phan@education.monash.edu.au
In this booklet, a variety of language and learning support resources are provided. The majority of
the resources are drawn from the Faculty of Education’s website:
www.education.monash.edu.au/students/current/resources/englishlanguagesup.html
and the main Monash University Language and Learning online facility:
www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/
We would like to acknowledge the wonderful work undertaken by the Faculty of Education’s
language and study skills staff, Rosemary Viete, Anne Prince and Steve Price, in developing such
a comprehensive range of effective resources for students in the Faculty of Education.
Other materials have been provided by the Academic Arts Language Learning Unit in the Faculty
of Arts. Please note the resources presented here are not intended to be comprehensive. They
offer a good, basic introduction to developing students’ competencies in the core study skill areas:
lectures and tutorials, research, reading, writing and oral presentations. If you are encountering
difficulties in any area of your study, please discuss the issue with your tutor, contact your Faculty
study skills advisor and/or make an appointment with the Matheson Library’s Learning Skills unit.
The Library website now has a specific learning skills index page at:
www.lib.monash.edu/learning-skills/
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CONTENTS
Academic language and study skills .................................................................... 3
Glossary of terms ................................................................................................ 4
Reading for academic purposes .......................................................................... 6
Pre-lecture reading – Week 8 .............................................................................. 9
Pre-lecture reading – Week 10 .......................................................................... 14
Essay writing ..................................................................................................... 16
Writing about the ideas of others ....................................................................... 16
Proposal writing ................................................................................................. 23
Thesis writing .................................................................................................... 30
Components of a thesis ..................................................................................... 33
Referencing ....................................................................................................... 36
Supplementary language and learning resources .............................................. 37
Reading guide ................................................................................................... 38
Efficient reading strategies ................................................................................ 40
Listening to lectures .......................................................................................... 42
Participating in tutorials ..................................................................................... 45
Writing essays ................................................................................................... 46
Editing and proofreading your work ................................................................... 47
A guide to groupwork ........................................................................................ 48
A guide to oral presentations ............................................................................. 51
Useful references .............................................................................................. 53
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Academic Language and Study Skills
http://www.education.monash.edu.au/students/current/resources/englishlanguagesup.html
Support regarding study matters is provided to any interested student of the Faculty of Education
at Clayton, whether local or international, of English speaking or other language background. It
takes three forms: workshops, focused study groups and individual consultations. More
information:
Workshops
http://www.education.monash.edu.au/students/current/resources/workshops.html
Focused study groups
http://www.education.monash.edu.au/students/current/resources/studygroups.html
Clayton campus
Rosemary Viete
Location:
Room 130, Education building, Clayton campus
Telephone:
9905 5396 (*** if the phone is unattended, you can leave a message)
Email:
Rosemary.Viete@education.monash.edu.au
Available:
9.00am – 12.00 noon, and 1.00pm – 5.00pm
Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday afternoon & Thursday
Not available Wednesday morning or Friday
Rosemary Viete
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Glossary of Terms
Acculturation: the process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group.
Culture: concerned with the production and the exchange of meanings – the giving and taking of
meaning – between the members of a society or group. It is also about feelings, attachments and
emotions, as well as concepts and ideas.
Critical pedagogy: A teaching approach which attempts to help students question and challenge
domination, and the beliefs and practices that dominate. It is also habits of thought, reading,
writing, and speaking which go beneath surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths,
official pronouncements, traditional cliches, received wisdom, and mere opinions, to understand
the deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any
action, event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media,
or discourse.
Discourse(s): ways of referring to or constructing knowledge about a particular topic of practice:
a cluster (or formation) of ideas, images and practices, which provide ways of talking about, forms
of knowledge and conduct associated with, a particular topic, social activity or institutional site in
society.
Discourse community: members of a social group who use language to meet their social needs.
Discursive approach: the approach that examines how the knowledge which a particular
discourse produces connects with power, regulates conduct, makes up or constructs identities
and subjectivities, and defines the way certain things are represented, thought about, practised,
and studied.
Enculturation: the process whereby individuals learn their group's culture, through experience,
observation, and instruction.
Essentialism: the view that, for any specific kind of entity, there are a set of fixed and unchanged
characteristics all of which any entity of that kind must have.
Globalisation: a set of processes by which the world is rapidly being integrated into one
economic space via increased international trade, the internationalisation of production and
financial markets, the internationalisation of a commodity culture promoted by an increasingly
networked global telecommunication systems.
Hegemony: the domination of one group over another with the partial consent of the dominated
group.
Identity: the positions which people take up and identify with.
Imagined community: a concept coined by Benedict Anderson which states that a nation is a
community socially constructed and ultimately imagined by the people who perceive themselves
as part of that group.
Meaning: the content carried by the words or signs exchanged by people when communicating
through language.
Non-essentialism: a way of looking at identities as fluid, having different elements which can be
reconstructed in new cultural conditions, and that they are not fixed essences locked into
differences which are permanent for all time.
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Orientalism: the generation of knowledge about the East through imagined constructs that
imagined "Eastern" societies as being all fundamentally similar, all sharing crucial characteristics
that are not possessed by "Western" societies.
Representation: the expression or designation by some term, character, symbol, or the like. OR
the signifying practices and symbolic systems through which meanings are produced and which
position people/ideas/things/concepts as subjects.
Semiotic approach: the approach that is concerned with how language produces meaning.
Speech community: people who use the same linguistic code.
Subjectivity: the conscious and unconscious thoughts and emotions which constitute the sense
of ‘who we are’ and the feelings which are brought to different positions within culture.
Additional terms:
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Reading for academic purposes
http://www.education.monash.edu.au/students/current/resources/readingacademic.html
When you are reading for the purposes of assignment or thesis writing you may be interested in
developing strategies for reading efficiently and critically.
Efficient reading skills
Critical reading
Efficient reading skills
(Area currently under development.)
Critical reading
a.
Is it important to read critically?
1. First, what does it mean to read critically?
o To read critically means that you identify strengths and weaknesses of a text – on
a great number of levels (see section B “Levels on which we can read critically”).
Think of a critic writing in a newspaper. Their task is to give the reader a good
sense of a book, play, concert or whatever s/he is writing about, and the critic does
this by showing the strengths and weaknesses of the book/play etc.
2. Why read critically?
o Do you read critically only because it is expected of you? Or is it necessary to
understand a text well?
o How does critical reading/thinking improve your understanding of what you read
and study? (eg think how comparing different texts on the same issues advances
your understanding; think how analysing the reasoning the text uses to establish its
conclusions helps you understand more clearly how they reach those conclusions,
but also helps you evaluate how successful they are in justifying their conclusions).
o How can critical reflection be necessary to carry out the tasks you are set? (eg
consider what is involved in establishing your research topic; consider how you
need to evaluate ideas you read about as you develop a position of your own and
reach your conclusions on a topic in any of your assignments.)
3. What is your authority to think and read critically?
o It is important to recognise that you think critically anyway! (eg think about how you
support or resist claims people make. Do you support or resist opinions because of
the authority of the person speaking [eg do you always accept what your leading
politicians say?], or do you form opinions of your own? If so, on what basis? What
is the basis of the evaluation you make of what is said? What reasons would you
give for supporting or opposing what is said?)
o On what grounds can you critique an expert or authoritative text? (Refer to point 2
above.) What is the difference between you and an expert authority? While the
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o
expert has wider experience in the subject and greater familiarity and therefore a
deeper understanding of the issues in the field, the development of his/her
understanding follows the same path as yours. While s/he may possess more
knowledge, the process of understanding – questioning unclear texts, comparing
texts, judging texts on the basis of values, importance, sound reasoning etc – is the
same for him/her as for you. Much critical thinking is carried out as part of the
process of understanding. Critical evaluation of a text does not only involve
drawing on expert knowledge in the field to critique the methodology or the
knowledge the writer claims to establish.
It is very important however that you can justify critical comments you make! For
example, you must show where you think the argument is unclear, or certain
values are assumed that you do not agree with.
4. How do you go about reading critically?
o Does everything you read need to be subjected to critical scrutiny? When are you
more likely to place greater emphasis on critical evaluation?
o How does your assignment task shape your critical focus? What aspects of your
reading do you need to subject to greater critical scrutiny, and what parts of your
writing will need to include more critical thinking? Why?
5. What kind of critical discussion do you think is likely to be called for [if any] in different
sections of your thesis or research projects?
o Introduction
o Literature review
o Methodology chapter
o Findings
o Discussion
o Conclusion
b.
Levels on which we can read critically.
1. We can critically evaluate aspects intrinsic to the text itself.
o Is the data/information drawn on comprehensive enough for the case the author
wants to make?
o Is the data adequately and systematically analysed and otherwise dealt with?
o Are the arguments well developed?
o Are the arguments consistent? Can you spot inconsistencies?
o Is the methodology used appropriate? Could the study be approached in other
ways?
o Are claims that are made sufficiently supported by the evidence?
o Are the ideas presented relevant to the issue under discussion?
o Are the ideas presented clearly?
o Are there practical uses for the ideas, or are they too theoretical?
o Is the complexity of the issues under discussion adequately dealt with, or has the
writer over-simplified them?
o Are the conclusions drawn clearly and based on the findings/discussion?
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2. The wider context that gives rise to the text.
o What is the writer’s purpose? (Does it prejudice his/her collection and interpretation
of data in obvious ways? Should we be extra cautious of his/her use of evidence,
conclusions drawn and so on?)
o How do the issues raised fit into wider debates in the discipline? Why has the
author focused on these issues? Does the author have a political agenda of some
sort?
o Is the methodology the author adopts a universally accepted one in studies dealing
with these issues? Could an alternative approach be used? Why? What difference
might a different methodology make? Why is this important to note?
o How do his/her conclusions compare with other related texts/studies? What
grounds can you use for evaluating them?
o What values underlie the approach or motivate the objectives of the study? Are
there moral, socio-cultural or political reasons for questioning those values?
o What social, political, moral, educational or other purposes are these
findings/arguments likely to support?
3. Your own perspective that you bring from your wider world of experience (cultural values
and beliefs, political and ideological outlook, and so on)
o Are the ideas in the text relevant to your task/concerns?
o Do the claims made contradict your own experience, understanding or sense of
values? If so, can you justify challenging this study, or do you need to change your
views?
o Do the ideas and arguments in the study justify or implicitly support certain social
relationships? Are they desirable? (Do they justify certain forms of teacher/student,
gender, racial, social relationships [eg egalitarian/hierarchical; inferior/superior and
so on.])
o Are the issues dealt with important in your view?
o To what social, cultural or political purposes could the findings and conclusions of
this study be put? Would you support these findings being used for such purposes?
Why/why not?
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Pre-lecture reading – Week Eight
Pre-reading tasks

To what extent is sounding native-like important in language learning?

What is your attitude towards speaking a language with no grammatical mistakes?

How is English language used in your country? What are peoples’ attitudes towards its usage?

The term “Standard English” has been used relatively often in a context of English language
learning. What do you think Standard English is?

What is globalisation? What role do you think the English language plays in globalisation?

What impact might globalisation have had on you or your own country? What action(s) do you
or people in your country take in response to globalisation?
Annotated Extracts from:
Kramer-Dahl, A. (2003). Reading the “Singlish Debate”: Construction of a Crisis of Language
Standards and Language Teaching in Singapore, Journal of Language, Identity and Education,
2(3), 159-190.
The grammar lesson needs to be understood as a form
of moral training above all, linked to the disciplined and
practised formation of embodied subjects. It is never a
question of grammar per se, or even of the best method
that is at the heart of the debate; rather, as is so often
the case in education, it is more particularly a matter of
power and ideology as realised in and through English
teaching, as a distinctive form of social practice and
cultural politics (Green & Hidgens, 1996, p.225)
In Singapore, the nation’s English grammar and the
grammar teaching at school seemed to become a social
problem or phenomenon that is foregrounded in public
discourse and discussed in an obsessive, moralistic and
alarmist manner, as if it is betokened some imminent
catastrophe (discourse of crisis). People from many
walks of life were authorised by the media to speak
about their agitations over declining English-language
standards and the dangerous proliferation of Singlish
and the local English vernacular. There was a witchhunt by English language specialists of newspapers for
“glaring grammar errors” (Koh & Lim, 1999) in school
examinations and textbooks. The various print and
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What is power? What is
ideology? How are these
reflected in and through the
way teachers teach English
grammar at school?
How is the teaching of
grammar discussed in your
country? Does it have a similar
situation in Singapore? What
implications do you think
these may have on peoples’
cultural identities?
9
broadcast media invited the public to enter cash
contests to spot grammar errors in their texts and
offered quick language correction and remediation
services to Singlish-speaking Singaporeans. The
Education Ministry designed a 60-hour grammar course
to “prepare teachers” for the revised English-language
syllabus with its “more substantial” emphasis on
grammar and to “help them lead the way to better
English standards in the country” (Nirmala, 1999a).
Generally, sociolinguistics have cavalierly dismissed or
downright belittled the popular discourse about
language standards and values, instead continuing to
stress, as Lippi_green (1997) so aptly put it, “the
linguistic facts of life” (i.e., that all languages and
dialects are intrinsically valuable and complex, and
hence equal, and that they should be left alone). Others
have argued that the notion of correctness should be
replaced with that of appropriateness, which could
circumvent undesirable value judgements and issues of
normativity, failing to realise that all it does is provide
prescriptivism “with an acceptable face” (Fairclough,
1991, p.39).
One needs to bear in mind that learning in grammar
classes in their classic form (i.e. where one learns “the
rules of how language ought to be used) involves more
than acquiring body of facts (Hasan, 1996). On the
surface level pupils will learn the norms of language use,
or in the case of teachers-as-pupils, the rules of how to
teach the norms of language use; at a deeper level both
sorts of pupils will also learn the value of conformity,
docility, and discipline in Foucalt’s sense. After all, “the
so-called rules of normative grammar are rules that
have to be accepted by fiat”, usually nonnegotiable,
allowing for “very limited ways of answering a ‘why’
question” (p.389).
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The term ‘correctness’
needs to be replaced with
‘appropriateness’ in English
language teaching. Do you
think there is a problem with
the replaced term? What does
it mean by appropriateness?
What factors are used to
determine if a language is
appropriate? Do you agree
with the author that when
students learn grammar, they
also learn the value of
conformity and docility? Why
does learning grammar, to a
certain extent, constrain people
from asking a ‘why’ question?
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Referential Displacement
In referential displacement the standard variety of
language is set apart from vernaculars by its clarity and
precision, and the richness of the referential information
and distinctions that it is able to convey. Conversely,
speakers of dialects other than the standard have to
communicate in a system that is impoverished lexically,
grammatically, and phonologically, and that, because of
the lack of so many distinctions and of consistency,
causes confusion.
In the local discourse of falling standards, Singlish was
not merely constructed as the deficient, disabled term of
the standard-nonstandard binary – as lacking in
referential meaning and intelligibility. It was at the same
time allotted a strong sense of agency and turned into a
destructive force that could damage the standard.
Hence, the need to “fight” the forces of linguistic
deterioration in “the battle for good English” (Nirmala,
1999c), and grammar teaching is construed as
“counterentropic” (Green & Hodgens, 1996), a major
weapon against the corruption.
Speakers of Singlish
tend to be portrayed as lacking
intelligibility
and
having
‘destructive force’ because it is
lexically, grammatically, and
phonologically different from
the
so-called
‘Standard
English’. Therefore, the battle
for good English is called for
and grammar lesson is taught
to speakers of Singlish to
preserve or protect Standard
English from being damaged.
To what extent do you agree
with this? What implication(s)
might this have on speakers of
Singlish?
Naturalisation
It is a process of historical amnesia in which “historically
specific social states and cultural configurations are
forgotten as history”, with the result that “they come to
be taken-for-granted and perceived as natural” (Collins,
1999, p.214).
In the case of language ideologies, the inherent
complex hybrid and heteroglossic nature of language,
marked by the blending of standard and non-standard,
by the shuttling back and forth between them depending
on one’s social purpose and one’s social positioning, is
concealed behind the guise of a simple relation
established between the denotational norm of standard
(how language ought to be used) and the dialectal
deviations from this norm. With the standard form of the
language used as the yardstick for assessing these
deviations, a fixed perspective on social hierarchy
follows suit, which assumes a seemingly natural
connection between deviant language and social
position. In other words, it essentialises the relation
between social position and non-standard and between
standard and non-standard.
Language reflects the
social position or status of its
users. And it is ‘natural’ for
speakers of non-Standard
English as belonging to
working class and speakers of
Standard English as belonging
to the upper class or the elite
group. To what extent is this
always the case? Is the use of
English language the marker
of one’s social status in your
country?
Commodification
It objectifies language, usually thought of in terms of a
shared inheritance and a means of communication and
establishing identity and relations, and attaches a
market value to it. The standard form of language
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comes to be viewed as the commodity with the highest
“exchange
value”,
essential
for
economic
competitiveness, whereas other varieties carry much
less value.
If you have a system of educational qualifications
(supported by a whole network of institutional practices
such as curriculum design, examinations and
assessment
procedures),
which
reinforce
the
standardised values of normative language and its
registers and genres, and if you have a labour market in
which administrative positions depend on precisely
these educational qualifications, so the school becomes
a means of access to the labour market, the legitimacy
of these structures comes to rest on a foundation of
shared belief, so that people who speak other dialects,
languages, or whose cultural capital consists of different
genres, different discourses, are induced to actively
“collaborate in the destruction of their instruments of
expression” (Bourdieu, 1990b cited in, Threadgold,
1992, p.27).
Do you think that by
not speaking the so-called
‘Standard
English’,
the
nation’s economy will be in the
face of adversity?
A conservative conception of standards does not just
impose a scale of values on forms of knowledge [or
ways of speaking] within the curriculum. It also
discriminates among people. It ascribes value and
legitimacy to certain class-based competencies and
habits of thought. More than that, it passes them off as
natural attributes, as instances of individual excellence
(Donald and Grealy, 1983, p.89).
Mandal, S. (2000), Reconsidering Cultural Globalisation: The English language in Malaysia, Third
World Quarterly, 21(6), 1001-1012.
This article argues that contesting processes are at
work in the expansion of English and departs from
the view that the language’s rise has only
threatened the country’s cultural identity. On the
one hand, the positivist, technocratic and
economistic discourse of globalisation sponsored
by the state marginalises long-standing elements
of local culture. In this regard the English language
as an agent of globalisation has affected cultural
identity adversely. On the other hand, English has
been the source of much creative cultural
production in Malaysia’s ethnically and linguistically
fragmented society. This is especially true since
the national language has been ethnicised in
keeping with the politics of the ruling elite, and
correspondingly bureaucratised because of its
strong identification with officialdom (Mandal, 1998).
With a relatively lengthy educational, institutional
and literary tradition in the country, the English
language has been an important site for
negotiating the colonial past and configuring a
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political community without respect to ethnic and
cultural difference. Compelling artwork and ideas
are advanced in this language that articulate a
common local identity in creative ways and serve
as a means by which Malaysians negotiate and
resist the hegemony of cultural globalisation.
This article rejects Stuart Hall’s view that
globalisation is merely a powerful set of
uncontradictory processes leading to the
homogenisation of the world in culture, politics, and
the economy. It argues that the disruptions created
by the ascendancy of English in Malaysia may
serve as sites of contestation that empower those
in the peripheries of cultural globalisation.
On one hand, The Minister of Education in
Malaysia
emphasises
the
importance for
Malaysians to have a good command of English in
order to be an important global player and to
improve economic growth and efficiency. On the
other hand, the spread of the language for purely
pragmatic purposes brings with it serious hazards.
Therefore, instead of rejecting English language,
learning its literature to appreciate its civilisational
breadth is important as it can help develop a critical
self-awareness in the language and counteract the
intellectual hazards rooted in technological
processes perfected in the West and being simple
recipients of Western notions of development. At
the same time, Malaysians’ academics, arts
practitioners and other social actors have
foregrounded a lively hybrid cultural identity in
which English has been localised or “appropriated”
and effectively made a lingua franca alongside
Bahasa Malaysia (Malay). As a result, not only
does English thus solidify local political community,
it also serves as one way for Malaysia’s cultural
expressions to find a space in the world.
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English language has
been as the key to economic
growth in Malaysia. However,
the spread of English due to
globalisation is detrimental to
peoples’ identities. In resisting
the hegemony of cultural
globalisation
and
preserving/asserting
their
cultural identities, local actors
or academics localise or
appropriate
the
English
language by incorporating
Malay words or spell an
English word like the way they
pronounce it.
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Pre-lecture reading – Week Ten
Annotated Extracts from:
Warschauer, M. (2000), Language, Identity and the Internet. In Race in cyberspace, Routledge,
pp.151-170.
Language and identity in the Age of Information
Identity in the postmodern era has been found to
be multiple, dynamic, and conflictual, based not on
a permanent sense of self but rather the choices
that individuals make in different circumstances
over time (Henriquez et al, 1984; Schecter,
Sharken-Taboada, and Bayley, in press; Weedon
1987). Language, though deeply rooted in
personal and social history, allows a greater
flexibility than race and ethnicity, with a person
able to consciously or unconsciously express dual
identities by the linguistic choices they make –
even in a single sentence. Through choices of
language and dialect, people constantly make and
remake who they are.
Language in cyberspace
The author argues that
identity becomes multiple
and
dynamic
in
the
postmodern era as people are
exposed
to
different
circumstances and possibly to
different languages.
However, does this mean that
a person does not have one
‘identity’ that they can hang
onto? To what extent is this
proposition relevant to your
identity?
The internet is on the one hand a highly restrictive
medium, based on the cost of access to
computers and connections as well as its historical
domination by a white, well-to-do, English
speaking North American community. On the other
hand, the internet is potentially the most
democratic media yet developed, in that it places
powers for broadcasting, research, and interaction
into the hands of greater numbers of people than
ever before. Because of this basic contradiction,
the Internet can both magnify existing inequalities.
Internet has been thoroughly dominated by
English. Demographic factors are starting to
weaken this domination, while language rights
activists throughout the globe are finding ways to
use the net to defend and promote minority
languages.
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The internet and language revitalisation
Languages are threatened by “destruction of lands
and livelihoods; the spread of consumerism,
individualism, and other Western values;
pressures for assimilation into dominant cultures;
and conscious policies of repression” (Crawford,
1994, 5). As for many people around the world,
defense of language means defense of community,
autonomy, and power. It is a way of asserting that
“we exist” in a postmodern world where the most
important question is no longer “What do you do?”
but rather “Who are you” (Castells, 199&).
The survival of languages depends not so much
on numbers of speakers but rather on will and
transmission. Languages will survive if the
speakers of the language have the desire to
maintain the language and the means to transmit it
to the next generation (Fishman, 1991).
Transmission has traditionally occurred through
tight-knit communities passing the language on to
their children. In places such as Hawaii, where
globalization and economic change have
dispersed native speakers, communities are
experimenting with new media (such as electronic
bulletin boards which can bring together widely
dispersed groups of speakers) to assist in
language transmission.
Noted by Nancy Hornberger (1997), “language
revitalization is not about bringing a language back,
it’s about bringing it forward.” People will struggle
to maintain their language when they see it as not
only an important part of their grandparents’ past,
but also of their own future.
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Due to the high percentage
of Internet’s users were North
Americans, Internet has been
thoroughly dominated by English
and done on the basis of the
American Standard Code for
Information Interchange.
Despite this, the author argues
that Internet tends to be the one of
the most recent media for people
to come together and preserve,
revitalise, and reassert their
languages,
cultures,
and
identities.
In addition to perceiving it as a
way to prevent themselves from
globalisation
and
Englishlanguage hegemony, Internet is
also used to create a ‘space’ for
themselves in the world and to
allow future generation to
recognise their ‘roots’ and carry
them on.
The author uses the situation in
Hawaii as an example to show
how internet has been used to
preserve and transmit their
language, culture, and identity.
However, to what extent do you
think this is feasible in your
society? Are there any constraints
that may make this not feasible?
If it has been done, can you give
an example or examples of the
kind of activities they do? How
successful has it been?
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Essay writing
http://www.education.monash.edu.au/students/current/resources/writingassignments.html
Writing and your audience
Perceptions of writers and readers
The most difficult thing for a developing writer to do is to see writers as decision makers and
thinkers rather than as knowers and to see readers as companions in a journey rather than as
mind readers.
The writing of an essay, assignment or thesis is like planning your own trip. Some writers plan
every detail down to the last bus trip and museum visit, though they may often have to change
plans. Others do little more than buy an airline ticket to the first country they wish to visit and take
it from there. However, every day and location demands that the journeyer takes a decision about
where to go next, what to focus on and how much time to spend.
If the writer has a companion who cannot take part in the planning of the trip, there is an
additional responsibility to consider the companion’s needs and act as guide. The writer needs to
map things out for the companion, particularly if they want the companion to use time more
efficiently than they did.
Text as a map of the territory
If a piece of writing is seen as a guide to a fellow traveller, then it is important that the directions
be made clear for this person. There are significant cultural assumptions behind any direction
giving.
Australian readers will expect explicit statements about the focus and orientation of the argument
early in a piece of writing (usually in the introduction). They will then expect reminders about this
orientation throughout, and will be gratified if they have an idea of what their destination is like
before they get there. Thus they need signposts (subheadings, key words) to tell them where they
are (what a section is discussing) and where these lie in relation to the destination (the place of
individual issues in the argument).
Once you have decided on your position, you need to make it clear to your reader. This may
mean that you will write your introduction last (though it will appear at the beginning of your work).
Components of an essay/assignment
Academic writing may take many different forms (essay, report, thesis, policy document,
guidelines, etc.).
From form to form the components may vary.
The following table presents a range of components, some of which may be appropriate for your
writing task.
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Component
Function
Characteristics
Cover page
*identifies topic, course,
faculty, lecturer, writer
*title, course name and number,
lecturer’s name, faculty and
institution’s name, writer’s name
and student identification
number
Table of Contents
*lists all major divisions and
subdivisions (and possibly
the pages they appear on)
*headings and subheadings
should follow a consistent style,
which you may determine with
the help of a style guide
Abstract
*orients the reader / presents *no more than 100 words
the focal points of the written
product
*summarises argument, focus
of literature reviewed, and, for
reports, research conducted,
methods used for research and
analysis, findings, and
discussion
Introduction (may be given a
more descriptive name)
*serves as a frame within
which the reader reads the
rest of the work
*presents a general description
of the context of the topic, and
indicates why the topic or focus
is significant
*presents the main argument of
the topic or gives an indication
of the writer’s position
*gives an indication of the main
points of focus in the rest of the
writing
Body. This consists of various
sections with major headings
(background, discussion of
theory and research in the field
and related controversy, writer’s
research methods, findings,
discussion, recommendations)
*shows the reader/examiner
that you are familiar with
issues and debates in the
field (you need to explain
these)
*discusses theory which is
directly relevant to the issues
*provides evidence for main
points
*leads the reader through a
*uses subheadings descriptive
critical discussion of the field of the contents of each section
into areas you feel are
important
*builds on the main argument
by layering, repeating key
words, adding a new element to
a repeated phrase
*use of tense is an issue (see
handbook)
**describes what was done in
your research
**presents major findings and
limitations of writer’s research
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Conclusion
*draws all arguments (and
findings) together
*summarises main argument /
findings
*leaves the reader with a
strong sense of your
(persuasive) argument
*suggests directions for further
study
*ends on a strong note
Appendices
*provides a place for
*appendices may be named,
important information, which lettered or numbered
might distract the reader from
the flow of the argument if it
is placed in the main text
References
*shows the reader which
materials/texts you have
consulted
*follows conventions (must be
used consistently)
*may be annotated
*should not include works you
found of no use
Glossary
*helps reader understand
acronyms or words which
may be unfamiliar
*a list of key terms, names or
acronyms
Note: you are very unlikely to compose these components in the order in which they
appear in the final version. The introduction may be written late, and the abstract should
be written last for most tasks.
Understanding the writing task
When you are choosing your essay/assignment topic, you need to understand the various aspects
of the task you are being asked to complete. Two important things to do are to notice the verbs of
instruction and to identify key terms and areas of focus.
Below are a number of essay topics. Try to work out the nature of the task by focusing on verbs of
instruction and key terms/ideas.
1. The term ‘facilitator’ adequately describes the teaching work that is undertaken by an adult
educator.
1. Discuss the relevance of this statement by considering:
 The adult education literature, describing at least two perspectives on the
issue of facilitation;
 How appropriate the term ‘facilitation’ is for the teaching you do, the values
and beliefs about education that you hold and the responsibilities you have
at your workplace;
and;
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2. arrive at a set of conclusions about the most effective way to characterise and
talk of the work of the adult educator
2. Describe an ESL/EFL class with which you are familiar (age and number of students;
language/ethnic backgrounds; level of English proficiency; purpose in learning English).
Record three lessons and situate these in relation to the long term program for the class.
Choose three activities that promoted successful communication in English by learners.
These may be quite short, and the communication may be spoken or written. Identify the
ingredients of success!
3. Bryman (1992, ch2), like Weber before him, emphasises the importance of followers’
attributions of charisma, rather than charisma being an innate capacity possessed by a
leader. If this is the case, doesn’t that leave followers vulnerable or susceptible to
calculating seduction by leaders, so that charisma is something to be concerned about?
Discuss.
4. One size does not fit all – Discuss the national VET system in terms of its ability to cater
for difference and special needs at the level of policy and practice. Embed this within a
case study of educational provision for a particular community/ies, analysing the
consistencies and inconsistencies between policy and practice.
Some instructional verbs are:
Account for
Explain
Analyse
Illustrate
Argue
List
Comment
Outline
Contrast
Prove
Define
Relate
Describe
State
Discuss
Summarise
Evaluate
Trace
Letting your own voice be heard
(‘hedging’ and the like) How do you ‘speak up’ in your writing without having to say, ‘I think’ or “It
is my opinion that’ (rather inelegant expressions)?
Read the following excerpt from Hyland’s (1996, p.477) article on ‘hedging’, a category of
language use that helps to insert your very own voice.
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NURTURING HEDGES IN THE ESP CURRICULUM
KEN HYLAND
English Department, City University of Hong Kong, Tatchee Avenue, Hong Kong
There is a popular belief that scientific writing is purely objective, impersonal and informational,
designed to disguise the author and deal directly with facts. But while ESP courses often provide
the linguistic means to accomplish this invisibility, they often ignore the fact that effective
academic writing always carries the individual’s point of view. Writers also need to present their
claims cautiously, accurately and modestly to meet discourse community expectations and to gain
acceptance for their statements. Such pragmatic aspects of communication however are
vulnerable to cross-cultural differences and L2 students are rarely able to hedge their statements
appropriately. This paper argues that hedging devices are a major pragmatic feature of effective
scientific writing and that students should be taught to use them in their own work. It examines the
frequency, functions of hedges and discussed a range of strategies for students with their
appropriate use. Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd.
INTRODUCTION
The term hedging was introduced to linguistics by Lakoff (1972) to describe “words whose job it is
to makes things more or less fuzzy”. It has subsequently been used by sociologists to describe a
means to avoid face-threatening behaviour and by applied linguistics to discuss devices such as I
think, perhaps, might and maybe which qualify the speaker’s confidence in the truth of a
proposition. In scientific writing these effective and propositional functions work in rhetorical
partnership to persuade readers to accept knowledge claims (eg. Myers, 1985). Hedges express
tentativeness and possibility in communication and their appropriate use is a critical, although
largely neglected, area of scientific discourse.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss how ESP teachers can help develop L2 learners’
understanding of the principles and mechanics of the appropriate use of this critical pragmatic
feature. First however, I will give a brief overview of hedging in academic writing, sketching its
importance and principal means.
Source: Hyland, K. (1996). Nurturing hedges in the ESP curriculum. System. 24 (4) p.477
Supporting your reader
Imagining your audience
Try to find out the particular requirements of your audience in respect of preferred conventions. It
is always useful to imagine your audience as an intelligent person who is not an expert in this
particular area of your field. This is not to say that you can get away with presenting inaccurate
statements, but rather that you need to explain ideas or concepts and arguments clearly to your
reader. You cannot assume that your reader always knows everything, and you should not feel
that it is insulting to explain ideas or concepts. Your reader wants to see how well you understand
the issues you have chosen to discuss. Nevertheless, the reader does not want to wait for you to
get along with your argument while you are showing him/her how well you know something else in
the field (unrelated to your argument or main issue).
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Signposting
It is a great help to your reader if you make a clearly signposted ‘map’ of your writing. You can do
this by:
Using subheadings which indicate what you will focus on in that part of your writing. Brown
(1993) recommends using verbs in headings and rewriting headings after sections are
written. At all events, don’t overlook the usefulness of headings in guiding your reader;
Stating explicitly the points you will focus on in the introduction of an essay or (for a longer
piece) at the beginning of a major section; and
Repeating key words or further developing propositions from an earlier sentence in order
to make clear the connection between the ideas discussed earlier and those discussed
later.
Mapping
The use of mapping is very important in a long piece of work. In such pieces of writing you may
insert maps at strategic points (eg beginnings of chapters/sections) so that readers reorient
themselves and know where they’re headed.
Useful discourse markers
The ways in which parts of your writing are related to other parts are made clearer by discourse
markers, which can be grouped according to their function in the discourse. Here are some
groups of markers that might help you when you need a little variety.
Ordering points or sequencing
Firstly, .; secondly, .; finally,.
Adding something
Moreover, .; Furthermore,.; Further,.; In addition,.; additionally
NOTE: “Besides” is mainly used in speaking
Comparing (similarity)
Similarly,.; . likewise; equally
Comparing (difference – establishing contrast)
However,.; in fact,.; On the other hand,.; ., rather,.; In contrast, .; On the contrary.
Nervertheless,.; Nonetheless,.; ., yet . (MORE FORMAL)
Introducing a cause
As a result of .; Because of .; because .; owing to .; Due to .
Introducing a result
Consequently.; therefore.; hence,.; as a result,.; thus,.; so .; then.;
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Exemplifying
For example,.; For instance,.; Notably,.
Re-stating
In other words,.; that is,.; namely,.
Generalising
In general, .; generally,.; on the whole,.
Summarising
In summary,.; In conclusion,.;
(Adapted from Parrott, Martin. (2000). Grammar for English Language Teachers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. Pp. 301-307)
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Writing about the ideas of others
http://www.education.monash.edu.au/students/current/resources/referencingconventions.html
The following sections look at issues of referencing that affect the ways in which your attitudes to
the ideas you are writing about become apparent to your readers. Believe it or not, your ‘tone of
voice’ in what you write is shaped by such apparently small matters as your choice of reporting
verb (verbs of attribution), decision to refer directly to an author’s name as part of your sentence
rather than just including it in brackets later, or even your choice to use the past or present tense.
The section includes:
Referring to others
Verbs of attribution: words for the brain-weary
Attribution and critical analysis
Verb tense, attribution and authorial stance
(Information prominent and author-prominent references)
Swales (1990, pp.149& 153) shows how you can decide whether to focus on the source of an
idea or on the idea itself in your writing. He provides two categories of referencing: author
prominent, where the author’s name appears in your sentence, or information prominent, where
the author’s name appears only in brackets. An adaptation of his examples follows.
Category
Brie (1988) showed
The moon’s cheesy
that the moon is made composition was
of cheese
established by Brie
(1988)
Previous research has It has been shown
Information established that the
that the moon is
prominent
moon is made of
made of cheese
cheese (Brie, 1988)
(Brie, 1988)
Author
prominent
According to Brie Brie’s theory
(1988), the moon is (1988) contends
made of cheese. that the moon is
made of cheese
It is currently
The moon may be
argued that the
made of cheese
moon is made of (Brie, 1988, but cf.
cheese (Brie, 1988) Rock, 1989)
Source: Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. pp 149 and 153
Verbs of attribution: words for the brain-weary
Below are some verbs and their synonyms for you to draw on when you want to talk about
someone else’s ideas or words – a thesaurus of verbs of attribution just for you.
Show:
Persuade:
Argue:
Support:
Examine:
demonstrate, establish
assure, convince, satisfy
reason, discuss, debate, consider
uphold, underpin, advocate
discuss, explore, investigate, scrutinise
An argument can be:
founded on
based on
grounded in a theory/view/set of data
embedded in
underpinned by
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Propose:
advance, propound, proffer, suggest (the view that.)
Advise:
suggest, recommend, advocate, exhort, encourage, urge,
Believe:
hold, profess (the view that.)
Emphasise: accentuate, stress, underscore
State:
express, comment, remark, declare, articulate, describe, instruct, inform, report
Evaluate:
appraise, assess
Hypothesise: speculate, postulate
Disagree:
dispute, refute, contradict, differ, object, dissent
Reject:
refute, repudiate, remonstrate (against), disclaim, dismiss
Claim:
allege, assert, affirm, contend, maintain
Note that the above words are value-laden. Your choice of word will reveal to your reader your
stance toward the author you are reporting on. It will show whether or not you consider her claims
to be substantiated.
Another look at verbs used in critical analysis
Arnaudet & Barrett (1984, P.153-5) provide a useful resource on verbs of attribution reproduced in
the box below
Neutral verbs of restatement
Add
clarify
describe
inform (of, about)
present
remark
remind (of, about)
report (on)
speak / write of
Verbs of restatement with a + or – connotation
apprise (someone of)
argue (about)
explain
express
indicate
observe
Verbs of opinion
This category is used to report the content of another writer’s opinion (or conclusion or
suggestions).
Positive opinions:
affirm
concur (with, in)
agree (with)
praise
applaud
support
Reporting opinion (usually neutrally)
assert
determine
point out
believe (in)
expound (on)
think
claim
maintain
Verbs of uncertainty
This category is used to report the content of another writer’s expression of doubt or uncertainty.
Challenge
disagree (with)
dismiss
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dispute
doubt
mistrust
question
suspect (of)
wonder (at)
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1. McClelland has observed that affiliative managers spend too much time on the
telephone.(present, appraise, argue)
2. McClelland appraises us of the fact the affiliative managers spend too much time on the
telephone.
3. McClelland describes the rationale for the training program which he conducts for
managers. (point out, mistrust, present)
4. McClelland doubts the validity of the conclusions of Chris Argyris. (wonder, remind, claim)
5. McClelland remarks that power has been given a bad image by social scientists. (set forth,
report, assert)
6. McClelland maintains that employees respond better to a well-defined authority system.
(suspect, claim, support)
7. McClelland argues that managers must understand the positive side of power. (point out,
dispute, express)
8. McClelland recommends that managers attend a training course to make them aware of
power. (describe, challenge, urge)
9. McClelland dismisses the work of McGregor, Maslow, Argyris and others. (observe, speak,
disagree)
10. McClelland reminds the reader of the evidence that has shown that high morale results
from a well-defined authority system. (question, determine, speak)
11. McClelland thinks that democratic management is so ineffective that companies which use
it go out of business. (assert, present, doubt)
12. McClelland believes that the institution is more important than the individuals who
compose it. (support, report, wonder)
Source: Arnaudet, M.L. & Barrett, M.E. (1984). Approaches to academic reading and writing. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.pp 153-5
Attribution and critical analysis
The following paragraph is an excerpt from an essay on approaches to intercultural education.
Notice the words that indicate what the writer thinks about the ideas of the other writer’s she
mentions. How does she use particular verbs of attribution to convey a particular attitude to the
work of the writers she refers to? What words or phrases signal her own ideas?
Ballard and Clanchy (1991) propose a continuum of attitudes to knowledge and specify learning
approaches and strategies that correspond to these attitudes. Drawing mainly on anecdotal
evidence, they suggest that their three learning approaches, namely the “reproductive”,
“analytical” and “speculative” approaches, are characteristic of certain stages of schooling (in
Australia) or of certain cultures (Ballard and Clanchy, 1991, p.11). In their consideration of
learning strategies, however, they have presented only a limited understanding of the ways in
which the strategies assist learning. For example, they see strategies as a way of retaining
“unreconstructed” (p.11) knowledge. In contrast, the work of Biggs (1996) demonstrates that
techniques of strategizing serve the purpose of retaining ideas so that they can be considered and
understood.
Verb tense, attribution and authorial stance
Verb tense in academic writing may exercise a greater influence on your reader’s interpretation of
your text than you bargained for. Past tense can give more than a time perspective; it can
distance the reader from the ideas being expressed. Present tense is often used to make general
points/ rules – you need to be sure you wanted readers to feel this was a generalisable point.
Below is a simplified description of the uses and possible effects of tense on the meaning made.
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The tense you select for your verbs in your essay, report or literature review reveals a great deal
more to your reader than the time frame. It tells your reader whose idea is being proffered (yours
or someone else’s, something about your attitude towards the ideas you are reporting if you have
attributed them to a researcher or theorist, and indicates how general or specific the point is. In
brief – and note that this is a simplified description of the use of tense – the three tenses which
appear most frequently are used in the following ways:
The present tense is used for: generalisation (in overviews, statements of main points); a
statement which is generally applicable or which seems relevant; a statement made by
you as writer; or to report the position of a theorist/ researcher to which you feel some
proximity, either in time or allegiance (eg. Piaget (1969) outlines the stages..).
The past tense is used to ‘claim non-generality about past literature’ (Ostler, 1981, cited
in Swales, 1990, p.152); that is, it is used to report or describe the content, findings or
conclusions of past research. The specificity of the study is thus emphasised.
The present perfect is used to indicate that inquiry into the specified area continues, to
generalise about past literature, or to present a view using a non-integral form of
referencing (the name of the author does not appear in the text of the sentence; it appears
only in the subsequent parentheses).
The future tense is often used in the methodology section in a proposal to state intention.
When you are describing what appears in your writing, use the present tense, not the
future (it is not your intention, since you’ve already done it): eg, “The sections below
describe the process of .”, not, “the sections below will describe the process of .”
Consider the excerpt from the previous section. What subtle difference in message might you
receive as a reader if it were written as follows?
Ballard and Clanchy (1991) proposed a continuum of attitudes to knowledge and specified
learning approaches and strategies that corresponded to these attitudes. Drawing mainly on
anecdotal evidence, they suggested that their three learning approaches, namely the
“reproductive”, “analytical” and “speculative” approaches, were characteristic of certain stages of
schooling (in Australia) or of certain cultures (Ballard and Clanchy, 1991, p.11). In their
consideration of learning strategies, however, they presented only a limited understanding of the
ways in which the strategies assist learning. For example, they saw organizers as a way of
retaining “unreconstructed” (p.11) knowledge. In contrast, the work of Biggs (1996) demonstrates
that organizers serve the purpose of retaining ideas so that they can be considered and
understood.
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Proposal writing
http://www.education.monash.edu.au/students/current/resources/proposalwriting.html
Purpose of a proposal
The purpose of the proposal is to help you (as student) to focus and define your research
plans. These plans are not binding, in that they may well change substantially as you progress in
the research. However, they are an indication to your faculty of your direction and discipline as a
researcher. They also help you to prepare your presentation for the Ethics Committee.
The proposal is expected to:
Show that you are engaging in genuine enquiry, finding out about something worthwhile in
a particular context;
Link your proposed work with the work of others, while proving you are acquainted with
major schools of thought relevant to the topic;
Establish a particular theoretical orientation;
Establish your methodological approach, and
Show you have thought about the ethical issues
Structure of a proposal
A proposal is likely to contain most of the elements listed in the table below, although your
supervisor may require the inclusion or omission of parts. Check first with your supervisor.
COMPONENT
Cover page
FUNCTION
*identifies topic, writer,
institution and degree
CHARACTERISTICS
*proposed thesis title (should be
descriptive of focus, concise, eyecatching and preferably use key words
from the international information retrieval
systems)
*writer’s name and qualifications
*department, university and degree
proposal is for
Table of Contents
*lists sections of proposal and
page references
*use a hierarchy for titles and subtitles
*use the numbering system as follows: 1;
1.1, 1.2...; 1.1.1, 1.1.2...; 1.1.1.1,
1.1.1.2...etc. (don’t use more than four
digits)
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Background: (and a
more descriptive
name)
*provides background
information relating to the
social/political/historical/
educational (etc) context of the
study
*may include historical, cultural, political,
social or organisational information about
the context of the research
*may include a theoretical starting point
*may include personal motivation
*may include policy
Need for the study
Usually this is
combined with the
previous section
*follows from background to
persuade the reader that the
study will be useful/interesting
*this may include reference to a ‘gap’ in
the research literature, to the need to
apply certain ideas in a new context, or to
the significance of your particular topic
*the ways in which the study may be
significant for the educational community
may also be discussed
Purpose and aims of
the study
*to state clearly and succinctly *the purpose is expressed in terms of the
the purpose of the study
broader context of the study
*to outline the key research
questions and aims
*the research question(s) (usually What,
How, Why, or What if) should be few, so
that the focus is manageable
*the aims will be related to the purpose
and the questions
Review of the
literature
*to show your supervisor and
department that you are aware
of significant
writers/researchers in the field,
and to indicate which
issues/topics you will focus on
in your review (this may
change later)
*this is not expected to be extensive for
the proposal
*you should have done an initial survey of
the main theorists and a library
information search (CDROMs etc) to
establish your directions and formulate a
tentative list of readings
*to show that you can be
*you should demonstrate critical analysis
judicious in your selection of
issues to focus on and take an *your review should be shaped by your
approach of critical inquiry
argument and should seek to establish
your theoretical orientation
Research design
*describes the research plans
*includes your understandings of the
nature of knowledge and how this affects
your choice of research approach
*includes description of and rationale
(brief) for selection of participants,
methods of data collection and analysis,
and procedures you will use to ensure
ethical practice
*includes a statement about the
delimitations (boundaries) of the study
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Timetable/plan (may
be part of research
design)
*depicts the tasks proposed
and the stages/times for their
completion
*this may take the form of a chart,
timeline or flowchart (or any other)
Proposed thesis
structure
*describes the focus of each
proposed chapter
*each chapter’s proposed contents is
described in a few lines or a small
paragraph, or
*a proposed table of contents is
presented
Significance/Expected *predicts the significance of
Outcomes of the
the study and expected
study
outcomes. These may relate
closely to aims
*this is only a prediction, and may be
excluded if the rationale for the study has
been well developed earlier in the
proposal
Glossary of terms
*lists terms or words and their
meanings (eg, from another
culture, acronyms, key
concepts in a relatively new
field)
*this is placed in a position which is easy
to locate (eg, before or after the main text
parts)
Appendices
*to display documents which
are relevant to main text, but
whose presence in the text
would disturb rather than
enhance the flow of the
argument or writing
*includes documents, pilot study material,
questions for interviews, survey
instruments, explanatory statement to
participants, etc.
References
*list of works that have been
consulted thus far and appear
to be useful
*use conventions recommended by you
supervisor, or use Australian Government
Style Manual, or follow the conventions in
a prestigious journal in the field
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Thesis writing
http://www.education.monash.edu.au/students/current/resources/thesiswriting.html
What is a thesis?
A thesis consists of an argument or a series of arguments combined with the description and
discussion of research you have undertaken. In the case of a PhD and an Ed D, and to a lesser
extent, a Masters (research) thesis, the research is expected to “make a significant contribution to
the chosen field” (Phillips and Pugh, 1994: 23). This does not mean to revolutionise the field
(though some PhDs may). You are expected to review critically the available publications in the
field and attempt to add an element of original research to it. This may simply mean that you
adapt someone else’s research plan for the situation you want to investigate; in this way you
extend the knowledge about an area. Your supervisor will advise you about suitable research.
Minor theses (eg, for coursework Masters programs or Honours theses) may also contribute to
the knowledge in the field, though the main requirement is that they provide evidence of an
understanding of the field. Reporting on minor research studies may take a wider variety of
shapes than the minor thesis. Accompanied by appropriate commentaries and adequate
discussion of the related issues in the field, videotapes, books, and works of art and literature
have all satisfied the requirements for Master of Education coursework programs’ research report.
Preparing to write/research
The following recommendations may help you to work efficiently, and, eventually, confidently
while carrying out and presenting your research.
1. Know your role as a researcher
The general responsibilities of a PhD and EdD student and their supervisors are set out in
the Research Degrees in Education Handbook and the University handbook for research
students. Many of these responsibilities are also applicable to M Ed students and writers
of theses and their supervisors. An important feature of these stated responsibilities is the
expectation that a researcher will be fairly independent, and that he/she will ask for help
when it is needed rather than expect the supervisor to infer this need. On the other hand, it
is the responsibility of the supervisor to teach the beginning researcher how to develop a
focus, conduct research and write about this (possibly simultaneously). Remember,
though, that in the Australian academic tradition, teach does not mean tell; rather, it means
guide.
It is not easy to ask for help, especially when you are feeling surrounded by unachievable
tasks and incomprehensible texts. Just remember that independence is related to
expertise. No-one can reasonably expect a beginning researcher to know all there is to
know about research or about the field they are working on. Nor can a supervisor guess
when you feel like you’re drowning in a sea of unknowns. You have to tell them that you
need to know what the next step should be (and negotiate this with them), or ask them to
help you identify the important areas in a field, or to tell you how to go about finding out
which central theorist to begin reading. Your sense of independence will grow, and your
questions will change as you progress.
Research students may find that an intensive schedule of consultations with the supervisor
is necessary in the initial stages. Supervisors may take a more dominant role at this point
(usually because they feel they have to help you get things started). If you feel that you are
losing a sense of this being your work, think carefully about the direction you would like it
to take and discuss this as soon as possible with your supervisor.
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You should meet your supervisor on average at least once a fortnight. Plan small,
achievable tasks to do between meetings, rather than huge assignments. Research
students often feel disappointed with the amount of work they achieve in a given time,
because their aims are overambitious, or because they do not realise how complicated a
task is (Phillips and Pugh, 1994). If you want to discuss something you have written with
your supervisor, provide a copy of it at least three or four days prior to the meeting if it is a
short piece, more for a longer piece.
2. Get to know the software available to help you
For all students, it will be very important to know how to use a computer for accessing
information and writing the thesis. Courses on the use of software are available in the
University, and support (not courses) is available in the Faculty. Endnote is a very useful
program available to you. Find out how the software can help you to do tasks like fill in
citations, maintain a consistent style, create a Table of Contents, and import work done on
other software.
You must also get to know how to use the systems in the library and the LMR/Faculty
library (on-line on students’ computers) which provide information needed to find
publications. Courses are available for these. Ask the Faculty library (LMR) or the
Education librarian(s) in the main library.
3. Decide on the set of writing conventions you will follow
Conventions are the rules you need to follow in writing regarding citations, bibliographies,
style (eg, language free of gender bias), page setup, punctuation, spelling, figures and
tables, and the presentation of graphics. Note that computer programs such as EndNote
are available on Faculty computers, so you may like to find out which systems of
conventions they employ and choose accordingly. Programs such as Word for Windows
include templates for dissertations (and other kinds of writing); these help you to maintain
a consistent use of conventions throughout your thesis.
You should discuss conventions with your supervisor at the beginning stages. If you need
any help understanding how the conventions work, you may consult Rosemary Viete
(9905 5396) or by email: rosemary.viete@education.monash.edu.au. Manuals are
available in the LMR and the bookshop.
4. Look at other theses in the field
Hundreds of theses are available for your perusal in the LMR. Look at ones in your field to
get ideas about the main features of their:
language use
use of subsections and styles for the headings/subheadings
page numbering and font
It will help you a great deal in the final stages if you have decided early on the conventions,
the font and the use and style of subheadings and headings, and use them consistently.
Many programs, including Word, can help you to create and manage heading styles, and
to use this to later generate your Table of Contents.
5. Remember that writing is a thinking process
When we write, we often change or considerably develop what we think. Writing is not just
translating into words the images of our thoughts; it’s not as simple as that. In writing, we
may transform our thoughts, redefine them or, with great pain and effort, give shape to our
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ideas. Thus, it is important to give ourselves time to write. Many students find it helpful to
begin writing early in the process of doing a research degree. With the time constraints on
a thesis writer, an early start is imperative. Remember, what you write is not necessarily
what you will print in the final draft (though in some parts it may be). It is not necessary, in
fact it is often impossible, to do all the thinking and then ‘write it up’.
It is also important to remember that writing is experienced differently by different people,
and the processes they prefer are also different. Chandler (1994) categorises writers as:
Architects (those who consciously pre-plan and organize and do little revision); water
colour artists (who try to write a final draft on the first attempt – little revision); Bricklayers
(who revise at sentence and paragraph level as they proceed), and oil painters (who preplan little but rework text repeatedly). Into (or in between) which category(ies) do you think
you fall, if any? It is useful to know how you prefer to go about writing academic pieces,
but you may actually find it useful to try out other ways with a thesis, since this is probably
a considerably longer piece of work than any you have undertaken before.
6. Preparing proposals and applications to the Ethics Committee
If you are writing a thesis for a PhD or an EdD, you will have to prepare a proposal in order
to show your department and supervisor that you have developed a suitable focus for your
research. In the case of an M Ed thesis, the same may apply. A separate booklet (blue)
provides an outline of the contents of a proposal. Sample proposals are also available
from Rosemary Viete.
As soon as you have worked out what you wish to do, you should establish whether or not
you need to apply to the University Standing Committee on Ethics in Research on Humans
(SCERH) for approval of your research. If you are going to observe, talk to, consult or
deal with living human beings (or animals) in any way, significant or minor, you
must apply for approval. Applications involve detailed explanation of what you will do, so
it is important to think about your methods at an early stage., and in particular to think
about how any participants you work with will be protected from harm. Applications are
filled out on a proforma available at the following address:
http://www.monash.edu.au/resgrant/.
The Committee may take some time to consider your application; it is well worth making
your application a good one, so it isn’t rejected (if you are well-advanced in writing your
proposal, this will help in filling out the ethics forms). You are not permitted to undertake
any research involving people or animals until you have approval. It is important to
work on this application as early as possible.
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Components of a thesis
Theses come in various sizes. The components of many theses are similar although their
functions and requirements may differ according to the degree they are presented for. The
components and their functions and characteristics are set out below. Note that not all theses
must contain all components. Consult with your supervisor and the regulations governing your
degree to identify which components you need. A notable exception from the following format are
theses that do not have an empirical element, and historical studies. The ways in which data are
related to the literature can vary enormously, so that there may be no clearly defined
differentiation of function amongst your chapters regarding literature and data presentation.
Components of a Thesis: Functions and Characteristics
Cover page
Identifies topic, writer, institution, degree and date (year and, if you like, month).
Title, candidate’s name and qualifications, degree aimed at, faculty, university, month and
year presented.
Declaration
States that the material presented has not been used for any other award, and that all
sources are acknowledged.
States that the approval of SCERH was received and gives the reference number (where
this was necessary).
Acknowledgements
To thank anyone whose support has been important for your work.
The supervisor generally receives the first vote of thanks. Don’t forget your participants
(Though remember confidentiality). This section is the least bound by convention. You
may speak from the heart.
Table of Contents
Lists all major divisions and subdivisions marked by numbers and indicates which page
they are on.
The titles and subtitles of sections should appear in a style and size consistent with their
position in the thesis (see style manuals for help in selecting your system).
Numbering hierarchy: 1, 1.1, 1.1.1, 1.1.1.1
Lists of Tables / Figures / Illustrations / Appendices
Lists all of these and the pages on which they appear.
A separate section is used for each of these categories (It is often handy to number such
items using the chapter number first: eg, Fig 1.1, Fig. 2.1, Fig.2.2, etc.).
Abstract
Orients the reader / presents the focal points of the thesis.
Summarises the thesis, mentioning aims/purposes, focus of literature review, methods of
research and analysis, the findings, and implications.
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Introduction (may be given a more descriptive name)
Provides background information and rationale for the research, so that the reader is
persuaded that it will be useful/interesting. It usually also serves as frame within which the
reader reads the rest of the thesis.
Provides background information related to the need for the research.
Builds an argument for the research and presents research question(s) and aims.
May present a theoretical starting point.
For a minor thesis, it usually includes methodology.
Gives an outline of subsequent chapters.
Literature Review (this may consist of more than one chapter with descriptive titles)
To show the reader/examiner that you are familiar with issues and debates in the field (you
need to explain these and discuss the main players’ ideas.
To show the reader that there is an area in this field to which you can contribute (thus, the
review must be critically analytical).
This is the section where you cite the most, where your use of verb tense becomes most
important in conveying subtle meanings, where you must beware of unwarranted repetition.
This is where plagiarism becomes an issue.
You must remember to discuss theory which is directly relevant to your research.
In a minor thesis, this may be incorporated into other parts of the piece presented (eg, in
the introduction, throughout a video, in a discussion). Alternatively a literature review may
be the main source of data, and organize the aims of the thesis, in which case it may need
to consist of one or more large chapters.
Methodology
Presents an understanding of the philosophical framework within which you see your
inquiry (ie, discusses epistemology of the research – using literature).
Presents a rationale for the methodological approach (using literature).
Describes and justifies the methods of research and analysis (using literature).
Reveals the boundaries of the research (this may occur instead in the Introduction).
Describes what you did (past tense) for selection of site, participants, data gathering and
analysis.
It may include illustrations (eg, a timeline depicting stages/steps in the research).
In minor theses, this section may appear in the Introduction.
Describes steps taken to ensure ethical research practice (shows you are a serious
researcher who takes account of how research may affect participants).
Results
Presents the data and findings, ordered/analysed in ways justified earlier (methodology).
Past tense is a feature here (usually).
Data in tables should be carefully set out, checked and discussed.
Discussion
Discusses findings, drawing out main achievements and explaining results.
Makes links between aims, and findings (and the literature).
May make recommendations – these could appear in the Conclusion chapter.
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Conclusion
Draws all arguments and findings together.
Leaves the reader with a strong sense that the work you set out to do has been
completed, and that it was worthwhile.
Summarises major findings.
Presents limitations.
Presents implications.
Suggests directions for future research.
Ends on a strong note.
Appendices
Provides a place for important information which, if placed in the main text, would
distract the reader from the flow of the argument.
Includes raw data examples and reorganised data (eg, a table of interview quotes
organised around themes).
Appendices may be named, lettered or numbered (decide early).
References (for minor thesis) / Bibliography (for major thesis)
Shows the reader which texts/materials you have consulted.
Is in alphabetical order.
May be annotated, though usually is not.
Should not include works you found of no use.
Glossary/Index
Helps reader where the context or content of the research may be unfamiliar.
A list of key terms/topics.
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Referencing
http://www.education.monash.edu.au/students/current/resources/referencing.html
In academic writing, it is EXTREMELY important to acknowledge the sources of ideas and words
uttered (or written) by others. Not doing this is called ‘plagiarism’, and is a serious offence. The
following sections provide information for you and links to other websites that will help you to use
appropriate conventions to acknowledge the ideas and words of others in your writing, yet at the
same time build an argument or a focus that is distinctively your own.
Referencing conventions: representing ideas of others
The art of referring to the words and ideas of other writers involves many rules and requires subtle
uses of vocabulary (eg, words of attribution and evaluation) and grammar (eg, verb tense – past
and present). A chapter (13) from Anderson and Poole (2001) is helpful for reasonably detailed
rules about the conventions/mechanics of referencing, and includes information about referencing
electronic sources. The full reference is: Anderson, J. & Poole, M. (2001). Assignment and
thesis writing 4th Edn. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons
The two main referencing systems used in the Faculty of Education are the American
Psychologists Association (APA) conventions and the system known as the Harvard conventions.
Some useful websites to help you to understand the rules of referencing using these
conventions:
In-text referencing – a very easy-to-use site:
http://library.sun.ac.za//help/infolit2002/ref4.html
Citing and referencing: how to acknowledge your sources – Monash University Library
website: http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/tutorials/citing/
EndNote – a wonderful software program to help you manage your referencing (Monash
University Library website): http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/tutorials/endnote/
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Supplementary Language and Learning Resources
On-Line Grammar and Vocabulary Resources
http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CiLL/eap/wordlists.htm [essential]
http://www.rong-chang.com/vocab.htm
[very good!]
http://www.nutsandboltsguide.com/nb-home.html [excellent writing resource]
http://www.google.com/Top/Arts/Education/Language_Arts/English/English_as_a_Second
_Language/Online_Courses/
[excellent directory of www. Resources]
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/
http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/common/
http://www.smic.be/SMIC5022/exercisesgrammar.htm
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/
http://www.schoolhousetech.com/products/freeworksheets/vocabulary.htm
http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/download/quizzes.shtml
www.abc.net.com.au/lateline
(an excellent resource for listening AND reading practice!!!)
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Reading Guide
Use this sheet to record important details of and responses to reading you do for your
course:
Reference
title:
author:
source/bibliographic details:
Topic summary (what is the reading about?)
Thesis summary (what position does the author take or argue for?)
Arguments in support





Counter arguments/rebuttals



Response/evaluation (e.g. how persuasive? Poorly structured argument?)
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Reading- word practice sheet
A.
English
B.
Translate
S’s check
Dictionary.
E.g. German
C.
Copy
English
Practice #1
D.
Check
S’s Language
e.g German
E.
Test
English
Cover a/b/c
and test.
F.
Check
English
Practice #2
G.
Test
S’s Language
Cover a-e. Test
in e.g German
H.
Test
English
Cover a-f and
test.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
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Efficient Reading Strategies
Skimming
Sometimes you need to get the general idea or gist of a text. The way to do this is not by
reading every word. Few text books were written with your specific course in mind. So
you need to adapt the material to your particular purposes, given the course and the task
at hand. Skimming is the sort of reading which would be appropriate if your tutor asked
you to read several books and articles for the next tutorial. She would not expect you to
be able to recite it word for word, but she will want you to be able to discuss the issues
raised.
You might try reading quickly through the table of contents, the preface and the index,
then selecting from the chapter headings. You can then read the first and last paragraphs,
and perhaps the first sentence of each of the other paragraphs. Don't forget to check any
diagrams and figures. You should get about 50% of the meaning from all this and you are
then in a good position to see if you need to employ scanning or detailed reading.
Scanning
You skim read material to get the general picture. To find out precise information you will
need to practise the technique of scanning. You may need to find out specific details of a
topic for an assignment or a task that your lecturer has set. There is little point in
skimming a whole book for this purpose. You should identify a few key expressions which
will alert you to the fact that your subject is being covered. You can then run your eyes
down the page looking for these expressions - in chapter headings or sub-headings, or in
the text itself.
Detailed Reading
Some subjects such as law subjects and literature, for example, require a very detailed
understanding from the student. This kind of reading is always more time consuming, but
can be combined with skimming and scanning for greater efficiency. If it is a photocopy or
your own book, take full advantage by underlining or highlighting and using the margins
for your own comments or questions.
Revision Reading
This involves reading rapidly through material with which you are already familiar, in order
to confirm knowledge and understanding. Maybe summarise main points on to small
system cards (these can be bought at any newsagent's and then be carried around).
Stages in Reading a Text
In order to read more effectively, it is vital to become a more self-conscious reader. You
need to understand what you are doing when you use different reading techniques for
different purposes and texts, and to practise these particular reading skills. You must
always read for a clearly defined purpose and adapt your reading strategies to that
purpose.
It is important to break down the reading process into the following stages: before reading,
during reading and after reading.
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Before reading: you need to survey the text so that you can get an overview of the book,
article or section.
First, get an overview of the text:
 understand the title
 examine the organisation of the information in the table of contents
 read headings and subheadings
 look at graphs, diagrams, tables
 read any questions or summaries at the end of the chapter
 read the introduction and conclusion
 read the first sentence in each paragraph
Now you are ready to read in detail the section/s which are relevant to your purpose.
As you read: you must closely follow the development of the ideas in the text:
 avoid the temptation to ready every word
 read actively - write in the margins, highlight phrases, write summaries, take note
of major and minor points
 read critically - Ask yourself questions; for example, is the argument logical? is it
biased? is there enough evidence to support the author’s conclusions? is the
information dated?
After you read: you must think over what you have read. Make a brief summary of the
main ideas and concepts in the text.
The following references are recommended for further reading and note-taking practice:
Tryeciak, J & Mackay, ES 1994, Study skills for academic writing, Prentice-Hall, Hertfordshire, UK.
Smith, M & G 1990, Study skills handbook, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Fairbairn, G & S 2001, Reading at university, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Goatly, A 2000, Critical reading and writing Routledge, London, UK.
Arnaudet, M & Barrett, ME 1984, Approaches to academic reading and writing, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
LLOnline Reading: http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/reading/
Reading and Notetaking http://www.csu.edu.au/division/studserv/learning/tutorial/Reading_Notetaking.htm
Effective Reading http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/read.html
Effective Notetaking from written texts http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/notemake.html
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/quickrefs/12-efficient-reading.xml
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Listening to Lectures
Language of the Lecture and Lecture Hints
When you are listening to a lecture, it is impossible to write down all the information
presented. You therefore have to make judgments about what information is important
and whether to note it down.
Think about the following points in regard to your note-taking:
1.
Your position in the lecture theatre
Don't be frightened of the lecturer. Sit close to the front, and look interested. You
will hear and see better, and are more likely to find yourself in the company of
committed students.
2.
The lecturer's use of voice/body language
The lecturer's use of repetition, a change of tone, meaningful pausing or an
upraised finger, etc., may indicate important content. Listen and watch for these
signals.
3.
Lecture Language
A lecture is not a dictation exercise. You need to listen and make your own
judgements about what you should write down. The following hints however, may
help you.
Argument structure:
Words such as first, second, also, furthermore, moreover, therefore and finally
indicate stages in the lecturer's argument.
But and however indicate a qualification, because a reason, and on the one hand
and on the other hand indicate a contrast.
"Signalling" words (used to indicate parts of the lecture):
Introducing the lecture:
Introduction of a main point:
"I want to start by ..."
"The next point is crucial ..."
Rephrasing the main point
"The point I am making ..."
Introducing an example:
"Take the case of ..."
Moving on to another main point:
"I'd like to move on and look at .."
A digression:
"That reminds me of ..."
Summing up main points:
"To recapitulate ..."
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Abbreviations in Note-Taking
Arrows

c
with
an increase
w
which
a decrease
eg
for example
causes/leads to/results in
re
concerning
is caused by/is the result of
ca
about
is related to
A.M. morning
Mathematical symbols
P.M. afternoon

therefore
etc.

because
N.B. note well
=
is the same as
18
18th Century
≠
is not the same as
b/f
before
>
is greater than
cf
compared
<
is less than
viz
namely
%
percent
q.v.
a
refer to, see (often used as
and so on
cross reference)
+
and
i.e.
that is
R
right
pa
per annum, each year
L
left
et al. and others
Emphasise / shorten suffixes
Underline
Capitalize
Highlight
to show what is important
n
g
tion/sion
ing
Other useful references
Burdess, N 1998, Handbook of student skills, 2nd edn, Prentice Hall, Sydney, NSW (Chapter 2 Lectures)
Clerehan, R 1994, The study skills handbook for tertiary students, Monash University, Caulfield East, Vic
(Chapter 2 Making the Most of Class Time)
Cooper, G 2003, The intelligent student’s guide to learning at university, Common Ground, Altona, Vic.
(Chapter 3 Learning from Classwork)
Cottrell, S 1999, The study skills handbook, Palgrave, Basingstoke (pp. 126-127).
LLOnline Listening: http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/listening/
Listening and Notetaking in Lectures, Academic Skills Deakin University
http://www.deakin.edu.au/studentlife/academic-skills/undergraduate/handouts/notetaking.php
Listening, Language & Academic Skills, La Trobe University
http://www.latrobe.edu.au/lasu/eslresour/listening.html
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/quickrefs/13-lectures.xml
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Participating in Tutorials
Tutorials are useful for:


Consolidating your understanding of a topic/reading/lecture
Examining a topic critically by
o asking questions
o giving an example
o making links to related topics / ideas.
Attendance
Regular attendance is advisable. However, the decision to attend is often left entirely to the
discretion of the student. Note that for some classes attendance is compulsory whereas for others
there can be a minimum number of tutorials that a student must attend. Check with your tutor or in
your Unit Guide.
Preparation
It is essential to complete the required reading before your tutorial so that you can
participate fully in the discussion.
To contribute:




Think of several questions/examples/comments you would like to make. Form them into
sentences; practice them in your head and out loud.
Look for pauses during the tutorial session to enable you to enter the discussion.
Indicate that you want to speak by making eye contact with the tutor or by taking a more
alert body posture.
You can enter the discussion by:
o agreeing with what someone has said and adding your own thoughts
o disagreeing with what someone has said and providing reasons for your position
o raising new points / questions.
After the tutorial:






Contact the tutor to clarify any important points you didn’t understand
Finish any unfinished work.
Revise. Sit down and consolidate the concepts that you have learned.
Enter questions in your notebook; write answers.
Check terms/ jargon.
Associate concepts with terms.
Other useful references
So what is a tutorial? James Cook University Study Skills online
http://www.jcu.edu.au/studying/services/studyskills/tutorial/
Tutorials Skills JCU Study Skills online
http://www.jcu.edu.au/studying/services/studyskills/tutorial/tutskills.html
Making the most of tutorials. University of Canberra
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/tutorials.html
How to get the most out of tutorials. LLSU University of Melbourne
http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/llsu/pdf/flyers/study/study005.pdf
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/quickrefs/03-tutorials.xml
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Writing Essays
Analysing Essay Topics
Note any words of direction

These might include: discuss, discuss critically, discuss the importance of, assess,
justify, evaluate, analyse.
Understand the essay question
 Make sure you know the precise meaning of every word in the essay question. Use
a) your general dictionary for unfamiliar words such as
e.g. intrinsic, core values
b) and a subject-specific dictionary
e.g. for Psychology - proof, random sample, significance level.
Think about the different parts of the question
 Decide how many parts the question has.
 List the areas you will probably have to research. It may help to write yourself a brief
task description: “First find out what a market niche is, then see what significance this
has for marketing. Next…”
Freethinking
 On some topics you already have some general knowledge. To develop your own
viewpoint, try to step outside your familiar cultural assumptions and values by asking
questions like:
What is the ‘western family’?
Is there a typical ‘western family’ now?
What is the function of a family, anyway?
Is it necessary? For whom?
What kind of family is/was found in non-industrial societies?

If you are having difficulty getting started, brainstorm the topic by thinking about it as
broadly as you can and jot down what comes to mind.

Make a mind-map (or some rough notes) of your ideas. Add to this map as you
research the essay. Try not to be swamped by other writers’ views. (see Quickref 25
for more information on brainstorming and mind-mapping)
Other useful references
Anderson J & Poole M 2001, Assignment and Thesis Writing, John Wiley & Sons Australia, Milton Qld.
LLOnline Writing: http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/index.xml
Arnaudet ML & Barrett ME 1984, Approaches to Academic Reading and Writing, Prentice Hall Regents.
Oshima A & Hogue A 1999, Writing academic English, 3rd edn, Longman, White Plains, NY.
Swales J & Feak C 1994, Academic writing for graduate students: A course for non-native speakers of
English, University of Michigan Michigan.
Deakin website: Academic skills http://www.deakin.edu.au/studentlife/academicskills/undergraduate/index.php
Deakin website: Academic style http://www.deakin.edu.au/studentlife/academicskills/undergraduate/handouts/style.php
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/quickrefs/05-essay-writing.xml
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Editing and Proofreading Your Work
As your studies progress it is important to become more independent with revising and
editing your own work. The following points may be helpful in guiding you through this
process.
Check your work for these elements:
Notes
Structural aspects
 Introduction (clearly states the topic and how it will be dealt with)
 Links between paragraphs / sections (implicit / explicit connectors)
 Conclusion (refers to topic, based on evidence provided)
Coverage of your topic
 Have you answered the question?
 Have you covered the topic in sufficient depth?
Analysis and Argument
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Have you provided adequate analysis?
Do you demonstrate an independent, original approach?
Is your argument thorough, with evidence and supporting information
Coherence
 Are thought relationships clear?
 Are headings clear and concise?
Flow of writing
 Is it in a consistent style, appropriate to your audience?
 Is the flow of ideas logical and smooth?
Formatting
 Check for consistency of heading levels, diagrams and tables, margins and
indentation, bibliography and footnotes (if used)
 Is your table of contents consistent and accurate?
Citations, quotations, paraphrasing
 Are there too many / too few?
 Are they all reliable, representative sources?
 Are the paraphrases really in your own words?
 Do the quotations fit grammatically and add meaning to your writing?
Referencing information
 Are all sources listed in the bibliography / list of references?
 Are all reference details complete?
 Are they presented in the required style?
Sentence-level language
 Grammar, word choice, sentence fragments, punctuation (see over)
Other useful references:
Anderson, J. & Poole, M. (1994) Thesis and Assignment Writing, 2nd ed., J. Wiley & Sons, Queensland.
Clerehan, R. (1994) Study Skills Handbook for Tertiary Students, Monash University.
Style Manual for authors, editors and printers 2001, 6th edition, Canberra Ausinfo.
Fox, L. (1992) Focus on Editing, Longman, New York.
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Sentence-level language - common problems to check for:
Spelling and capitalisation
Have you spelt the same word in the same (correct) way throughout? eg: targeted, operationalise, honour.
Use the spellcheck on your word processor, but be warned: it will not find everything, and it will give you
American spelling unless you set it to UK or Australian spelling.
Have you used capital letters consistently throughout? eg: job titles, terminology, chapter references.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Do subjects and their verbs agree in number, particularly when a long or complex subject precedes the main verb? Pick the error:
The proteolytic activity of extracts of X from these organs were expected to reach a high level.
Pronouns
Do pronouns refer clearly to an antecedent?
In older strata the effect is different and may be found throughout the layers, but not in X. This is not a
boundary, however, between two types of layer.
Is it clear what This refers to?
Redundant Words
Have you included any meaningless phrases?
Studies some years ago by Phipps and Green (1981) showed …, compared with:
The investigation by Phipps and Green (1989) showed ...
Sentence fragments
Sentences lacking a verb or subject eg: For example, the increase in the cost of manufacturing.
Run-on sentences
A sentence which should be divided into two sentences or separated with a semi-colon, eg: We can see
changes but not learning itself, the concept is theoretical and hence not directly observable.
Articles (a/an/the/zero article)
Is the noun countable or uncountable, specific or general? Does it require an article, and if so, which one?
Remember that, for titles, the article is often omitted for the sake of brevity.
Countable/uncountable nouns
Normally, uncountable nouns cannot be pluralised in English: eg information, evidence, advice, knowledge,
research, staff, work (but not literary works), software and hardware.
Note that data can be either:
a) a plural noun (singular: datum) referring to individual items, or
b) a singular collective noun, referring to a mass block or batch, such as in data processing.
Tense selection
Be aware of the difference between references to past events, such as historical events, experiments and
case studies, compared to current or ongoing situations, ideas and theories.
Be consistent with tenses: do not change tense if there is no logical reason to do so.
Parallel structures
Use the same word form. What is the problem with this example? The following actions were taken:
advertising the product, improve quality control and the retail price down.
Logical connectors (eg: however, although, thus, as a result of, by comparison)
Are they over-used / under-used? Do they aid coherence?
Punctuation
Check use of apostrophes. Check for consistency of punctuation in bullet-points (semi-colon, comma or
nothing at the end of each).
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/quickrefs/20-editing-proofreading.xml
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A Guide to Group Work
The Purpose of Group Work
The aim of group work is to produce better (more effective, more detailed, more
comprehensive) presentations and reports. This is achieved through the combined
talents of group members, contributing knowledge and ideas.
One difficulty with group work is that you can’t work as quickly as you can by yourself.
Patience, communication skills and commitment are all required to make the most of the
contributions of all group members. Thus, effective group work requires each member to
focus on the process rather than just the product.
Starting the Process
Much of the success of the project relies on what is decided upon at the outset. This is
where you get to know your group members, pre-empt problems, set goals and objectives
and formulate a working strategy.
1. Building Group Dynamics
The quality of your relationship with the other group members is a major factor in the
overall success of the group, so it is important to spend time getting to know your
colleagues.
 Find out about their backgrounds and interests.
 Find common goals and expectations related to the task.
 Discuss work styles and individual strengths and weaknesses: this will assist in
formulating objectives and in allocating tasks appropriately.
2. Agree on goals
It is important to agree on a common purpose. Share and discuss your understanding of
the aims and scope of the project, and the methods of collaboration.
If you don’t understand something about the task, say it now.
3. Organise the Group
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Clearly define the sections of the task, and determine who will complete them and by
what date.
Create a list of names and contact information for everyone.
Decide how to collaborate throughout the project, how meetings will be organised, and
who will be responsible for taking notes in meetings.
Plan how you will collectively collate and edit your assignment. The best group
assignment is a single, unified project, not a collection of separate elements.
Maintaining Relationships
Relationships are the key to the success of the project, so be prepared to invest
considerable energy in developing all your relationships in the group. Remember, too,
that people have very different modes of interacting in groups, depending on their social
and cultural backgrounds.
Here are a few tips for dealing with conflict in a group:
 Agree to a strategy at the outset for dealing with people who
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(a) are too domineering
(b) don’t do their share of the work.
Talk to your lecturer for advice.
In your negotiations, separate the person from the problem. Don’t let your opinion of
the person cloud your opinion of their ideas, and don’t make a criticism of their ideas
sound like a criticism of their personality!
Try to put yourself in their shoes and see their perspective. This might give you an
insight into how best to deal with the situation.
Be prepared to renegotiate things you established at the outset: roles in the group, the
aims and scope of the task, the methods of collaboration, and so on, to suit the needs
and aims of the group.
Leadership
Effective leaders manage the process: they help the group decide how to work efficiently,
and monitor the group’s progress in relation to the intended plan. They should not merely
lead the group toward their own desired outcome. Thus, a good leader is an excellent
listener and is also prepared to re-evaluate his or her own opinion on a topic.
Where do you go for Help?
 Faculty Staff: let your tutor/lecturer know about any issues which are preventing the
group from working effectively.
 LLS: we can facilitate a group planning session for you.
 Community Services: can assist you with approaches in dealing with problems you
might encounter in your group.
Other useful references
Cottrell, S 1999, The study skills handbook, Palgrave, Basingstoke. (Chapter 5 Working with others)
Gardner, H 1983, Frames of mind, Basic Books, New York.
Laborde, J 1987, Influencing with integrity: management skills for communication and negotiation, Syntony,
Palo Alto, CA.
The Learning Commons website, 2005 Fastfacts: Collaborative group work, University of Guelph, Canada,
http://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/ByFormat/OnlineResources/Fastfacts/LearningFastfacts/FastfactsGroupWork.html
Witzel, M 2000, How to get an MBA, Routledge, New York.
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/quickrefs/24-groupwork.xml
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Guide to Oral Presentations
Many students find that oral presentations are one of the most confronting forms of assessment at
university. However, presentations are also one of the most fruitful sources of personal growth in
your university education. For both your study and future work purposes, it is important to
develop skills and confidence in giving oral presentations.
The following is a guide to improving your presentation:
The message is a simple: PREPARE! PREPARE! PREPARE!
1. Plan
Analyse your audience
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What do they know about the subject? What terminology would they know?
What do they want or need to know? What is their motivation for listening to you?
What aspects of your subject would they be interested in?
How much information can they absorb? If they are new to the topic, their level of
absorption may be lower than for an expert audience.
Determine primary purpose
 What is your main point? (Can you put it into one sentence?)
 What do you want your listeners to do or think? (Are you trying to inform / convince / guide
/ entertain them?)
Select effective supporting information
 What kind of information will best support your presentation?
 What kind of information will appeal to your listeners? Provide interesting examples.
 Listeners may only remember two or three supporting points.
2. Prepare
Prepare an outline
In general, follow a 3 part structure:
1) Introduction - tell them what you’re going to tell them.
2) Body
- tell them!
3) Conclusion
- tell them what you have told them!
Do not try to include too much content in for the time allowed.
Prioritise. It is important to have time to repeat key points in different ways, and to
provide an effective introduction and conclusion.
Select appropriate visual aids
(Overhead transparencies, slides, flip charts, chalkboards, handouts, 3D objects, computer
projections…)
 Visuals must convey your point clearly and simply.
 Do not over-use visuals (a trap when using Powerpoint). The visuals are not the
presentation, their purpose is simply to summarise or illustrate your main points.
Prepare an introduction
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When your introduction is over, your audience should be interested, know what your main
point is, and know how you’re going to explain it. Therefore, does your introduction …
1) arouse interest in the topic?
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2) provide context, ie. background and definitions?
3) clearly state the main point of the talk?
4) describe the structure of the talk?
Prepare a conclusion
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The audience listens for your summary and concluding remarks. Listeners rate a
presentation on the quality of its ending, so prepare clear, succinct closing comments that
catch the listener's attention.
3. Practise
Delivery
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Practise your presentation aloud (it will not help if you just say it in your head).
Don’t read it. Use cue cards with simple dot points on which you elaborate orally.
Let the audience know what’s coming: let them know the structure of your talk, use linking
words between sections and keep them up-to-date on where you are up to.
Audience attention span is short, so break up long sections of information with questions,
feedback, activities, and repeat important points.
Do not rush. Speak more slowly and clearly than you normally would. Provide extra
emphasis through intonation and body language.
Be aware of body language: avoid annoying habits such as talking with your hands in your
pockets, slouching, scratching, fiddling, “um, er…”.
Practise maintaining eye-contact with a group of people.
Expect the unexpected
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How will you deal with audience questions? What if you can’t answer the question?
How will you respond to criticism?
What if the audience misunderstands what you say?
Know your equipment
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Familiarise yourself with the equipment you will use.
Time your presentation using the equipment (it may take longer than just reading aloud).
4. Present
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Nervousness is normal – combat it by knowing your content and practising it! Convert
what nervousness remains into enthusiasm and focus.
Breathe. Pause between points. Emphasise key ideas / information.
Establish contact with the audience – talk with them before your presentation.
Walk purposefully and confidently to the front of the lecture room (fake it!).
Remember, the purpose of oral presentations is to communicate a topic as
interestingly and succinctly as possible, so be expressive and concise.
Other useful references
Beisler, F, Scheeres, H & Pinner, D 1993, Communication skills, 2nd edn, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne.
Comfort, J & Utley, D 1995, Effective presentations, Oxford University Press, Oxford (Book and Video).
Malouf, D 2001, How to create and deliver a dynamic presentation, 2nd edn, Business & Publishing, Warriewood, NSW.
Summers, J & Smith, B 2004,Communication skills handbook, Wiley & Sons, Milton, Qld.
James Cook University Study Skills Online: http://www.jcu.edu.au/studying/services/studyskills/oral/
LLOnline Speaking: http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/speaking/
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/quickrefs/11-oral-presentations.xml
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Useful References
Monash resources
Language and Learning Online
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline
Interactive tutorials, sample essays and reports with lecturer comments and guidance, reference materials
and other resources on academic skills and language.
LLOnline Writing
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing
Interactive exercises, sample essays and reports with lecture comments and guidance.
Faculty of Business and Economics: Q Manual
http://www.buseco.monash.edu.au/publications/qmanual/
Information on all aspects of Bus/Eco writing and referencing using the Harvard system
Virtual Librarian
http://www.lib.monash.edu/tutorials/
Information, tutorials and examples on many aspects of research and referencing. Try the How to… section
Plagiarism
http://www.lib.monash.edu/tutorials/citing/plagiarism.html
What is plagiarism? Links to the Monash University policy on plagiarism and an interactive quiz on
plagiarism
Research and writing
Anderson, J & Poole, M 1994, Thesis and assignment writing, 2nd edn, John Wiley & Sons, Milton,
Queensland.
Jordan, RR 1990, Academic writing course, Collins Study Skills in English, Collins ELT.
Woodward, JA 1997, Writing research papers: investigating resources in cyberspace, NTC
Publishing Group, Chicago.
General communication
Dwyer, J 1993, The business communication handbook, 3rd edn, Prentice Hall, Australia.
Huckin, TN & Olsen, LA 1991, Technical writing and professional communication for non-native
speakers of English, International edition, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill International Editions,
USA.
Putnis, P & Petelin, R 1999, Professional communication: principles and applications, 2nd edn,
Prentice-Hall, Australia.
Dictionaries
Concise Oxford Dictionary
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
Macquarie Dictionary
Roget's Thesaurus
Study skills
Ballard, B & Clanchy, J 1984, Study abroad: A manual for Asian students, Longman, Malaysia.
Excellent section on preparing students for the demands of a "western" system of
education. Also contains a useful list of references.
Marshall, L & Rowland, F 1993, A guide to learning independently, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne.
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Smith, M & Smith, G 1991, A study skills handbook: For students studying in English, OUP,
Melbourne.
On-line learning skills resources, James Cook University
http://www.jcu.edu.au/studying/services/studyskills/online.html
Learning resources on a range of study skills
Unilearning website
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/
Comprehensive information on study skills from several universities
Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
A collection of resources covering many aspects of English language, grammar, writing,
and research. It also has APA and MLA referencing style guides online.
Grammar references
Darling, C 2001, Guide to grammar and writing, Capital Community Technical College,
Connecticut, USA http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/
Murphy, R 1992, English grammar in use, CUP, Cambridge.
Swan, M 1989, Practical English usage, OUP, Oxford.
Style guides
Commonwealth of Australia 2002, Style manual for authors, editors and printers, 6th edn, John
Wiley & Sons, Australia.
English as a second language resources
Capital Community Technical College - Darling's Guide to Grammar and Writing
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/
A guide to grammar and style in writing at sentence, paragraph and the essay level
Virtual Language Centre Hong Kong
http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/
Exercises on common errors in English with links to language support tools to explore the
meanings and use of language
Randall's ESL Cyber Listening Lab
http://www.esl-lab.com/
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/quickrefs/07-useful-refs.xml
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