CHAPTER2
REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE
Catford
C 965)
stated translation as :
... an operation performed on languages : a process of substituting a text
.m one 1.ru:cguage .::or a text
In addition, Nida
another language. (p.l)
Taber (1969, p.i2) explained that tl:.e message in the target
language (TL) needs to be reproduced naturally and equivalently with the focus b
meanir.g over the styie.
main purpose of translation is to deEver the meaning so that the receiver
using TL is able to unde:stand what the sender using SL is intended to (Larson,
1998, pJ7). He added that a goal of each translator is to translate a language ir:to
a.'lother
!'.aturally and
equivale:1tly. Nida
and
Taber (1969, p.200) defined
equivj)jlelillce as a very close simila:-ity in meaning md natlnal as :
...
characterized by
the
use
of
grammatical
constructions
and
combination of words which do r:ot violate the ordinary patterns
a
language (p.203)
To transl.ate a text naturally and equivalently, Nida & Taber (1969, pp. 5-6)
mentioned that a translator has the authority to change the form of a language to
:nake the translation n.atural and equivalent, as well as to maintain the meaning of a
text. Moreove;:-, Machali (2GOO, p.6) added that a translator must create a bridge to
linl<
mea::-Jng betvveen
and
through a comr:nL.'!icative way.
7
a good translation work,
To
are liJ:ree steps m translating
rr:.entior..ed by Machali (2000, p.34-38): analysis, transfer, and editing.
SL (text)
TL (translation)
4-
A'1alysis
RestrUCtl.Lcing
..
Transfer -----+
I& F:gure 2.1.1 : Mocel of Translation Process by Nida and Taber (1969, p. 32)
A translator's first step is to analyze the original version ot:he passage before
convert it into the
text. According to Machali (2000, p.34), one should take
notice on what the SL writer intends in writing the passage to facilitate correct use
of dictio::t and writing style. It is also vital to find the target audience for the
translation work because Robinson {1997, p.l98) mentioned that different target
readers er:cour.: ges a translator tc find correct words, phrase, or senter:ces, for
instance translation for chil.drer: and postgraduate readers use different expressions.
The second stage is transfer. A translatodoes the first text transferring as the
prelimina::y process. The:1,
transfer correction
s/h.e re-analyzes the first transfer and does some
there is anything inappro;:lriate. This transfer correction will
be analyzed once more to assure whether it is cO!Tect or not. Another transfer
correction
be needed if the translation is not natural and equivalent enough. A
translator will stop
cycling process if s/he assumes that the passage is already
fulfilied the qualification of good translation.
After the two ;xevious stages are well accomplished, next is editing. Another
expert, Hatim (2001, p.24) called it as restruc ctrring process. This stage is needed
to make sure that the text transfen·ed is already suitable in terms of fom: for Ti"
readers and it conveys
t.'J.e message the writer intends to deliver. (p.206).
8
Actin
FEssive Voice Constmction
Baker defined voice as :
...grammatical category which defines the relationship between a
verb md
subject. (1992, p.l 02)
Nida (1964) believed that voice is about the correlation between the pa:tiicipants
and L1.e evenc stated by tbe verb (p.200). There are two kinds: active and passive.
The different characteristic of both voices firstly can be recognized .from the
subject. TI1e subject in an active sentence is fue agent perfom ing the action. In
passive sentence, it is the affected entity or the patient of the verb that becomes the
subject of the sentence (Baker, 1992, p. 102). Agent in passive voice is optional. It
means that it can be either rr:entioned or not.
The behavior of using
passive vo;ce 1s different in different countries.
According to Baker (1992,
pp.l06-1 07), passive vmce enables the form of
agentless sentence. It is also used freqCJently in scientific and :echnical English text
in order to show objectivity and give distance between Lh.e writer and the
statements s/he writes. However, Chinese, Japanese, Viet: amese, and Thai use this
form to utter adversity and unfortunate events.
Larson (1993, p.40) added that passive construction is used to ir:dicate focus.
It is the entity that becomes LIJ.e focus in a passive voice. For Hebrew, since the
word
"God" is not
allowed to
co:1structio:Js to avoid the word. Whereas
blatm1tly, they
ill
use
more
passive
Aragilalm, Peru, passive voice is used
in the contruction for indicating introduction and cor:clusion of a text (Larsor:,
1998, p.225).
9
Indonesian, passive voice has some functions. It is to avoid addressing
people using second person pronoun tor politeness and to draw attentio:-1 to the
object, instead of the speaker him/herself (R. Fanany, personal cmmnunication,
July 15, 2008). It also may fu:1ction as a command, buin a very slight sense. It is
so slight that the listener feels ic as a request to do something (Dardjowidjojo,
2003, p.I37). Here is the example. "Apa ikannya sudah dikasih makan?" The
speaker actually focuses on the state of event regardless who do the action.
However, the listener assumes it as an lmpl!Cic reqt:est to feed the fish. There is no
expiicit command and t.e obligation to obey between the two participants.
Verhaa:- (1983, p.6, as cited in Purwo, 1991,
196) claimed that Indonesian
peo:;;le tend to use active fonns in fonnal Indonesian language, such as prepa ed
speech, lectures, and official reports. On the other hand, they use passive form
while perfonning informal Indonesian language, like
iJ.J:promptu speech and
jokes. Instead, Dadjowidjojo (2003, p.l40) believe.d passive voice preference in
Indonesian lar:guage relates to the mindset of Indonesian speaker, particularly fi·om
subconscious mind.
Passive Construction
2.2.1.1. Canonical nassive I di-verb passive
Tl::ere are two tenns from two linguists referring to this type, that is an
Indonesian passive sentence using verb with di- prefix. Chung (1976, p.60)
called it canonical passive. However,
Plh'"WO
(!988, p.202-203) called it di-
verb construction. The di-vcrb substitutes t.lJ.e meng- prefix trar:sitive verb in
the active voice. TI1e characteristics are (a) the affected entity as the patient
10
(c) the agent that is performing the action mentioned by the verb is placed in
L'le prepositional phrase after the verb;
Example : Rumah itu
dibeli
(a)
Pu:rwo
(1991,
p407-410)
olehku.
(c)
gave
more
specific divisions m
di-
constructions based on the presence of the agent. They are agentless di-, diwith uoun phrase agent, and di-sten: word-nya.
Agentless di- is a passive fonn that its verb is added wiL!-J di- prefix
it has no agent stated in the sentence. The smaller classifications of
class are based on the how the agent is in:plied to certain personal
They ere agen:tess di- \Vith the agent as the first person,
agentiess di-
the agent as the second persor:,
agen:!ess di- with
the agent as the third person (Purwo, 1991. pp.408-409).
(i)
Agent!ess di- with the agernt ms the first person. The agent is not
stated clearly in the sentence, but the agent can be inferred as the
person because it is the S;Jea.l,:er that performs the actions
mentioned by the verb. Example :
: Tapi keinginanku* untuk bertemu dengan ayah tidak dapat
ditah{m-tahan lagi.
. But I could no longer re!itrain my desire to
* The
·with father.
agent can be interpreted as the first person because it refers
on the word --ku in keinginanku.
11
(ii)
the agent as the second person. The agent is
Agentless di-
nostated clearly in the sentence, but the agent can be inferred as
the seconc person because it is the addressee that performs t'le
actions mentioned by the verb. Example :
SL: Jangan dimakan!!!
:Don't eat!!!
* Agent can
(iii)
be interpreted as the second persor:.
Agentless
stated clearly
with the agent as the third person, The agent is not
the sentence, but the agent can be in:l'erred as the
third person because it refers to the oL':ler peop!e or entity beside the
speaker a::1d the addressee that performs the actions mentioned by
the verb. Example :
SL : Mereka boleh dikat(J!kan hanya mempunyai bambu-bambu
runcing sebagai serifata.
TL : One* might say that they all have as weapons is bamboo
spears.
" One is a dtEr:my subject to replace the Wlidentified agent on the
SLtext
b. Di- with Nmm Phrase (NP} Agent.
If a passive form contabs a di- prefix verb and the agent is clearly
mentioned, it belongs to this class. The agent can be in t.'Ie form of nou11
OI nOJL'l
phrase. T;1ere are hvo Specifications in determining t.he agent,
which are generic agent and non-generic agent (Purwo, 1988, p.203),
12
(i) Generic Agent. A generic agent refers to a general agent, not
specific person or peop e, for il'stance :
SL
: Bagi ahli-ahli kesusastraan didirikan orang rumahrumah tinggi
TL
:For literary experts, people raise tall schools.
(ii) Non-generic
On the other hand, nor:-generic agent refers
to a particular person or people, for instance :
SL : Hanya kelima jarinya tidak ada lag!, sudah dipotong
serdadu sekutu.
TL : It's only that the five fingers are missing, cut off by allied
soldiers.
c. di+nya
This class includes any passive form in whicl: its ve:-b is in the form
of [prefix di]-[stem word-[suffix nyaJ. It has smaller divisions based on
how the sentecce's voice translation ir: English, it is either i:J the active
constructior: or in the passive one (Purwo, 1988, pp.203-204).
{i)
Translatable into English active construction
Example : SL : Gelas
diisinya penuh-penuh...
TL : He filled the glass ...
(ii)
Translatable into English passive construction
Exanple:
SL : Dan setelah pamili
ini adak berada sedikit, kamar itu
dipakainya sebagai kandang anjing yang baru dibelinya.
: After the family gained a certain amount of wealth, the room
was used as kennel for the dog the had just bought.
2.2.L2. Obiect-preposing passive i 0-verbs passive
Object-preposing passive is how Chung named th:s type (J. 976,
p.60). However, Purwo (1991, p.407) called it 0-verbs or verbs without
any prefix. This passive voice type is characterized the verb having no
prefix or in the fonn of its stem word (Chung, 1976, p.60). Moreover,
the object is put in front of the other two elements.
Purwo (Dardjmvicjojo (20G3, p.l33) explained Ll-te characteristics
of this type : (a) the affected entity as the patient of the verb started the
sentence; (b) the original subjecti t!1e agent is before the verb; and (c)
the verb is prefixless or in its stem fonn.
(a)
(b)
(c)
2.2.1.3. Other Passive Categories
divisions mentioned before, there are otc'-ler categories on
passive constn.:ction.
a. ter- construction
The function of this construction is to state urrintentional action
(Dardjowidjojo, 2003, p.!3l), like stated in example (i). The agent
does not appear most of the time. In addition, ter- construction can
contain the meaning of God's will or the nature of something (AI-..vi,
14
Dardjmvidjojo, Lapoliwa,
Moeliono, 2003,, p. 348), like stated in
exarnpie (ii).
Example : (i) Rumah itu
iPr. aJ.rmr
(the house is on fire)
(ii) Gunung Merapi terletak di Pulau Jawa (Merapi
Mountain is located at Java Island)
b. ke-1-an construction
Alwi,
et al (2003) stated that ke-1-an construction contains
adversity meaning or w:pleasant sense (p.348). Dardjowidjojo (2003)
believed the characteristic of
type, pa:"'ticular;y wi6 the adversity
meaz1ing, both nouns before and after verb are Le entity affected, not
the agent (p.!31), like stated in exan1ple (i). He also added that there
is ke-1-an construction that contains [can be+V3] mea:"ling, like stated
the example (ii).
Example : (i) Rumah itu kejatu!um pohon.
(A tree fell an the house)
(ii) Rumah itu k.elihatcm dari sini.
(The house can be seen from here).
Activ<e Construdiorn in English
Active voice in English is signified with the ;:Jresence of the agent
initiati1"the sentence. This agent played the role to perform the action
mentioned by verb. The verb itself is irr the form of active transitive verb.
sentence contains a direct object conveying the position of the
15
affected entity or patient of the
subject
verb. This direct object will become the
the sentence is transfonned into passive (Biber, Johansson, Leech,
1999, pp.126 & 147).
Conrad,
use
of active construction is to give emphasis on the agent
perfomting the verb. Stm.nk stated that the use of aetve is more direct and
than passive voice (1918, p.l4).
brief
English, the use of active
voice is more sr:.ggested because passive voice is regarded as a weak sentence
(Ranlskl,ti-H<tsi!Jualn, 1.991, ;L125). :--.1oreove:-, active voice is more common
to use
English based on the histoccal background that Angio-Saxon
culture makes people to be responsible of knowing what they do,
think, and feel (R. Fanany, personal communication,
2.2
speak,
15, 2008).
Translation Shift
As mentioned before, the mam goal of translatior: work is to rep;-od;rce
neaiilng naturally a.'ld equivalently from the SL text into the TL text. In o:der to
gair. that,
a translator often do
translation
translation shift. Newmark (1988) defined
as grammat.cal chan.ge occurring in translation process (p.85).
Morover, Catford called it as :
departures from fonnal correspondence in the process of going
the SL to the TL" (1965, p.73).
TJ::.ere are two kids of shit proposed by Catford (1965, p.73) :
2.3.1
J;,evei Shin
Level
into
occurs when one linguistic level item
the SL is translated
level in the TL. Levels are identified into phonological level,
16
graphological level, grammatical level, and lexical leveL For instance, level
shift
a phonological word-play in SL to be translated into TL in the
level oflexicon. (Catford, 1965, as cited by Hati:n, 2001, p.l5),
Category Shift
Category shift, Catford (1965, p, 76-79) continued, appears when the
shift
deals wili:J one
of
four linguistic fur1damental categories. These
categories are class, s::ructure, sys:em, and
a.
class
occurs when different grammatical class {noun, verb,
adjective,
adverb) is the basis of the translation shift, for example
Fn:nch tra.rtslation for the adjective b "mrdi.Yll student" wili be an
ll<l1!er:'l1HI
ph:ase "student in medicine".
b. A stn:cture shift deals with a transposition in grammar, for example
use of active and passive voice.
c. A unit shift deals vvith the change in rank correspondence from
mc1rphezne, words, phrzse, cla se, and sentence, for example Russian
translates English defiPile article with changing the word order.
d. A system shift occurs when one system in the SL is translated
The
ex<IDJ.ple for system shift is an SL word containing singular meaning
IS u<trl<>Jncc;u
in the TL containing plural meaning.
One strategy to overcome L'le gap in syntactic and sema>>tic translation
between two languages is by shiftng language voice, for exa.'Ilple
passive or vice versa (Baker, 1992, p.l67).
active to
She added this change involving focus
17
fu"1d content is re.::_;:uired es)Jecially whe1the use of active construction is more
natural and equivalent in TL rather than insisting the use of passive. (1992, p.l 06).
Basically, translation outcome has to bring the same extent of usual;1ess from
the SL into the TL. Indonesians use more passive const:uction rather than English
speakers, whereas passive is net common in English. As a result, to maintain the
voice, tra;'1slation s:hift from passive to active is unavoidable (Rebecca Fanany,
personal communication, July 15, 2008).
Changing passive voice into active can be done in several ways. They were :
2.3.1 Snhject and Object Switch
In passive voice, the subject of the sentence is the affected entity, whereas the
subject of active sentence is the agent performing t'le verb. If the agent is stated in
the passive voice, the voice change simply replaces the object in t'Je passive form
into the subject in the active sentence. In addition, the subject in the passive form
becomes the object in th active sentence. Chaer (I993, p.l27) proposed a scheme
of voice changing in Indonesian, in which can only be applied for passive using di-
t:ransitive verb or fer-transitive verb.
Active sentence
s
0
Preposition oleh
s
Passive sentence
di-verb
A Figure 2.3.!.2 : How to switch a passive form into an active one
(Chaer, 1993, p.127)
18
However, voice shift can create a problem.
the agent is not stated, it is
impossible to change it into active because an active form demands the subject,
that is derived from the agent (Baker, 1992, p.l68). To gain the agent, which is 1:ot
mentioned, one should consider the context in whieh implicitly describes about the
agent (Nida, 1964, p.20 I). The agent Larson added, can be found by looking out
in the context, seeing in another section
the passage, or knowing from the real
life situation about who completed the action mentioned by the verb (1998, p.225).
To make the agent derivation easier, one should know who performs the
action mentioned by the verb. It can be in the fonn
personal prono=s or proper
llOIL."JS.
Particularly for agent using personal pronoun, one can use personal pronoun
categorization to help l:im/her in deriving the agent. Here are the divisions (Biber,
Johansson, Leech, Conrad, a.'ld Fir:egan, 1999, p,3 28)
First person
Singular
l
Plural
We
Second person s:ngular
Third person
You
Plural
You
Singular
He, She, it
Plural
They
person sir:gular pror:oun is signified
the word I
that refers to
a speaker (in a speech act) or a writer (b a 'WT!tten text). First person plillal
pronoun is signified with the word we. This word refers to either (I+ you) or (I+
somebody else), so the use of we will depend on how the addressee understands
the context (Bibe:- et
1999, p.329). Second person prone= is used to address
19
the addressee
19
to whom the speaker talks or the writer aims, either it is singularly to me person or
to certain groups of people. Tlirc person pronoun is used for addressing particular
people or thi11gs outside the speaker and the addressee.
Proper nouns
Cffil
also be t:sed to address the addressee
function as the
agent (Kridalaksana, Montolalu, Utorodewo, Elias, Sutami, Siswamo, et al, 1985,
p. 30). It can be in the forrn of p:·oper names (Ali, Budi, or Tini), kinship term
(Mother, Father, or Grdlldpa), academic or professional title (Professor, Doctor, or
Colonel), or term of addressing stranger (Madam, Sir, Gentlemen, or Ladies).
2.3.2 Object-;::reposing Switch
For object-preposing passive, the ap;:;roach will be a little different. Objeetpreposing passive is a form of passive that its affected entity was put before the
agent and verb of event. It exhibited
pattern. of:
!the affected entity] +!agent] + [verb of event]
Example:
Buku i(l!
The affected entity + Agent + Verb
Active voice has :ypica: design that the ager.t initiates the sentence. Verb of
event and the affected entity follow afterward. In that case, translation shift from
passive to
voice invclvbg
object-preposing passive can be done by
cl:anging the position of the affected entity to the following pattern:
[agent] +[verb of event]+ [the affected entity)
+ verb + the affected entity
20
2.3.3 The Use of Cleft Sentence
One o::' the passive form functions is to give emphasis in tite sentence,
particularly in the element of direct object or the affected entity. If the sentence is
translated into active,
focus of the sentence changed to the agent because the
agent initiates the sentence. Another way for giving emphasis that can be used is
form of cleft sentence. Cleft sentence is a clause that has been clefted or
divided into two independent clauses that have their own verb (Biber et al, 1999,
155). Biber et a1 added that deft sentence can be in the fonn of it-cleft or whc1eft (1999, p.959). It-cleft, as shown in the example (1), is initiated with pronoun
it and it is followed with verb be. The po!nt of
focillJ is in the first clause. Wh-
inctlheeft,eXa&
s 'sTh!polew(:2), is initiated with wh-word and it is followed. by
verb be. TI1e point of the focus is in the second c!at.:se. Example:
(l) It was his voice that held me.
Original sentence
:His voice held me (active)
I was held by his voice (passive)
First clause
: It was his voice
Second clause
: His voice held me
(2) What I really need is a credit card.
Original senter:ce
· I rea:Iy need a c:edit card
First clause
: I really need it
Second clause
: It is a credit card.
21
Despite all mentioned above, translating the verb needed a specia' attention
passive to active, the intra"tsitive verb is shifted into a
to. When shifting
transitive one. TI1e fonn of
verb itse!f:ol:ows the context, tenses, and meaning.
In some cases, the use of to-infinitive and imperative are needed.
a.
To-i1If/.nitive
5 syntactical types that mostly attached to ilie
post-predicate position (Greenbaum, 1996, p.694). They are:
Verb + to-clause. The main verb usually try, hope, or need.
1.
Example: l'mjust !D !!.l'II'g' .! away early
ii. Verb + NP + to-dau.se.
nab verb usually want, tell, believe,
enable, or expect.
Exa"!lp!e :
lt enables the farmer to maintain uniform and near
constant condition in the house.
NP + to-clam;e.
iii. Verb
main verb usually ask, love, arrange,
or wait.
Example: Hire a Daily Mirror van and wait fOr ivfr;:,.f..a.rzes to arrive.
+
lV.
verb usually dare. help, or
let.
Example : It could have help clarifY a number of issues.
v. Ve:rb + NP + bare illfillitive clause. The main verb usually have,
feel, or help.
22
b. Imperative
According to Greenbaum (1996, p.49), imperative mostly appears
m a subjectless sentence, but it is implied the second person as the
subject. Function of this form is to tell the addressee to do what is
mentioned by the verb, r:ght af:er the moment of speaking. It is why the
verb usually is in its stem word (Biber et al, 1999, p.219). This fonn is
used along with the presence of the addressee. So, even though the
st:bject is eliminated, the sentence still has clear reference. It is b1portant
to know this fact, especially when translating agentless passive voice in
an imperative expression. The
agent car:. specifically refer
to
addressee or the second personal pronoun.
Example : Get off the table!
Don't fOrget about the deposit!
2.3.5 The use of Existential There
The fu.nctiorr of existential there
IS
to introduce to the listerrer or the
addressee aboat a new information about to mention (Greenbau.rn, 1996, p. 177).
pattern is there as the s;1bject ar:.d it is followed by verb phrase (usually be as
the main verb), like exhibited in the followbg pattern (Biber et ai, 1999, p.943):
There+ be+ indefinite NP (+place or time position adverbial)
This verb phrase contains origiaal subject that was rearranged
order to achieve
the main goal of existential there usage, for instance:
Existential there : Th(Jre was a bear sitting ln the corner
Original form withou:: existential there : A !;gar wa;;]iitting in the corner
23
2.3.6 The use oHdiomatic Expression
Idiomatic expression can be translated using idiomatic trarts!ation. Larson
(:998) as cite:i in Choliludin (2005, p.23) stated that in order to make a translation
outcome as natural and equivalent as the
of the
that are grammatical structure and correct diction.
stated (1989, as cited
Cholih.:din, 2005, pp.43-44) that untranslatable
idiomatic expression can !:Je translated
a.
text, one should use the natural fonns
several methods that are :
By keeping the origircal expression along with the use of inverted co:m'Tias.
b. By giving additional information in bracket after !he original expression.
c. By using a non-idiomatic transla ion.