Reflex, Taxis, and Instinct
Lecture 7
1
Cognitive Functions of the Mind
• Mediate Adaptive Behavior
– Interactions Between Person, World
• Form Internal Representations of the World
– Perception, Memory
• Reflect on this Knowledge
– Reasoning, Problem-Solving
• Use Knowledge to Guide Behavior
– , Decision, Choice, Action
• Communicate Knowledge to Others
– Language
2
Traditional Associationist
View of Learning
after Aristotle, De Memoria (250 BCE)
and Hume, Treatise of Human Nature (1739)
The Mind Forms Associations Between...
• Stimuli
– Events in the Environment
– Their Correlates and Consequences
• Responses
– Organism’s Behaviors
– Their Correlates and Consequences
3
Innate Responses to Stimulation
• Reflexes
– Involve Individual Muscles
• Taxes
– Involve Entire Body
• Instincts (Fixed Action Patterns)
– Very Discriminating
4
Reflexes
after Descartes, De Homine (c. 1633/1662)
• Automatic Response to Adequate Stimulus
– Patellar Reflex
– Eyeblink Reflex
– All “Spinal” Reflexes
www.osceskills.com
• Involve Single Muscles
• Mediated by Spinal, Cranial Nerves
– No Involvement of “Higher” Cortical Centers
5
The Decorticate Pigeon
as Reflex Machine
Flourens (19th c.)
•
•
•
•
•
Preserved
Righting
Stepping
Flying
Swallowing
Irritation
•
•
•
•
Abolished
Flight from Irritation
Avoidance
Voluntary Action
Emotionality
6
Reflexes in the Human Infant
Teitelbaum (1967)
• Reflexes of Approach
– Rooting
– Grasping
– Plantarflexion
• Reflexes of Avoidance
– Eye Closure
– Mouth Closure
– Dorsiflexion
• Babinski Reflex
• Stepping
7
Advantages and Limitations of Reflexes
• Respond to External Stimulation
– No Need for Learning
• Limited Repertoire
• No Control by Goals, Intentions
8
Taxes
• Gross Orientation Responses
– Entire Skeletal Musculature
• Positive vs. Negative
• Phototaxes
• Geotaxes
www.reddit.com/r/biology
Kangaroos.org
www.geog.ucsb.edu
9
Instincts
(Fixed Action Patterns)
Tinbergen (1951)
• Complex, Stereotyped Action Patterns
– Rigidly Organized
• Respond to Releasing Stimulus
• Innate
– Not Modified by Learning
• Species-Specific
– Universal within Species
Ethology
10
Imprinting in Greylag Geese
Lorenz (1935)
• “First” Moving Object
• Indiscriminate
• Critical Period
11
Alarm Reaction in Birds
Tinbergen (1951)
• Distress Call
12
Food-Begging in Herring-Gull Chicks
Tinbergen (1951)
13
Releasing Stimulus
• Imprinting
– Moving Object
• Alarm Reaction
– “Hawklike” Silhouette
• Food-Begging
– Contrasting Spot
– Chick’s Peck
14
The Zig-Zag Dance of the Stickleback
Tinbergen (1951)
• Red-Bellied Male
– Head-Down Threat Posture
• Female with Swollen Abdomen
– Head-Up Receptive Posture
• Zig-Zag Dance
• Female Lays Eggs
– Stimulated in Hindquarters
• Male Tends Nest
15
Evolution of Behavior
• Evolution Shapes Behavior as well as Body
Morphology
• Adaptation to Environmental Niche
• Change in Species Characteristics Over
Evolutionary Time
• How Can Individuals and Species Adjust to
New Circumstances?
16
Positive Phototaxis in Sea Turtles
17
Limitations on
Innate Responses to Stimulation
• Stimulus Must be
Physically Present in
Current Environment
• Cannot Respond to New
Stimulus
• Cannot Acquire New
Responses
• Little Opportunity for
Trial-and-Error Learning
How Can Individuals Modify Their
18
Responses to Environmental Stimulation?
Learning
• Relatively Permanent...
• Change in Behavior...
• Resulting from Experience.
– Not Drugs
– Not Injury
– Not Maturation
19
Pavlov’s Apparatus
Classical Conditioning of “Psychic” Reflexes
20
Classical
Conditioning
Phase 1:
Bell, Food
Phase 2:
Bell ==> Food
Phase 3:
Bell Alone
21
Basic Vocabulary of
Classical Conditioning
•
•
•
•
Unconditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response
US
UR
CS
CR
22
Classical and Instrumental
Conditioning
Lecture 8
1
Basic Procedure for
Classical Conditioning
CS
(Bell)
CR
(Salivation)
US
(Meat Powder)
UR
(Salivation)
2
Major Phenomena of
Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition
– CR to CS Reinforced by US
– Response Gains Strength
• Magnitude of CR
• Probability of CR
3
Acquisition: Trial 1
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
4
Acquisition: Trial 5
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
5
Acquisition: Trial 10
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
6
Acquisition of a Conditioned Response
CS ==> US
Probability of CR
1
0.8
Positive
Acceleration
0.6
Negative
Acceleration
0.4
0.2
The Learning Curve
Forms an Ogive
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Trials
7
Major Phenomena of
Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition
• Extinction
– No Reinforcement
– Response Loses Strength
8
Extinction: Trial 1
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
9
Extinction: Trial 5
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
10
Extinction: Trial 10
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
11
Extinction of a Conditioned Response
CS ==> No US
Probability of CR
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Trials
12
Major Phenomena of
Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition
• Extinction
• Spontaneous Recovery
– Rest After Extinction
– Retest CS alone
13
Spontaneous Recovery After Extinction
CS ==> No US
Probability of CR
1
Acquisition
Extinction
0.8
Spontaneous
Recovery
0.6
0.4
Further
Extinction
0.2
(Rest)
0
Trials
14
Re-Acquisition of Extinguished Response
CS ==> US
Acquisition
Extinction
Re-Acquisition
Probability of CR
1
0.8
Savings in
Relearning
0.6
0.4
Spontaneous
Recovery
0.2
(Rest)
0
Trials
15
Extinction Below Zero
• Extinction Trials Continued After CR
Disappears Entirely
• Reduced Spontaneous Recovery
• Less Savings in Relearning
– Slower Reacquisition
16
Major Phenomena of
Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition
• Extinction
– Extinction Below Zero
• Spontaneous Recovery
• Re-Acquisition
– CS Reinforced by US
– Savings in Relearning
17
Implications of Savings
and Spontaneous Recovery
• Conditioned Response Not “Lost”
• Rather, Inhibited or Suppressed
– In Line with Changing Circumstances
• Conditioned Stimulus No Longer Reinforced
• CR Can be Disinhibited
– In Line with Changing Circumstances
• CS Reinforced Once Again
18
Major Phenomena of
Classical Conditioning
•
•
•
•
•
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Re-Acquisition
Generalization
– CS0 vs. CS1…CSn
– Generalization Gradient
19
Probability of CR
The Generalization Gradient
250cps
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
200cps
300cps
Lower
Higher
150cps
-5
-4
350cps
Original
CS
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
Test Stimulus
20
Major Phenomena of
Classical Conditioning
•
•
•
•
•
•
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Re-Acquisition
Generalization
Discrimination
– CS+ (Reinforced)
– CS- (Unreinforced)
21
Discrimination Learning
CS+ ==> US
CS- ==> No US
Probability of CR
1
250 cps
0.8
0.6
CS+
0.4
CS-
200 cps
0.2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12
Trials
22
Review of Classical Conditioning
• Vocabulary
–
–
–
–
Unconditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response
• Phenomena
– Acquisition
• Reinforcement
–
–
–
–
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Savings in Relearning
Generalization
• Generalization Gradient
– Discrimination
23
Sensory Preconditioning
1
2
3
CS1
Light
CS2
Bell
CS2
Bell
US
Food
CR
Saliva
CS1
Light
CR
Saliva24
Higher-Order Conditioning
1
CS1
Bell
US
Food
CR
Saliva
CS2
Light
CS1
Bell
2
3
CS2
Light
CR
Saliva25
Significance of Classical Conditioning
• Extends Control of Reflexes to Other
Environmental Events
– Associations between Events
• Ubiquitous (Nervous System)
• Pavlov: All Learning is Classical
Conditioning (?)
• Laws of Classical Conditioning are the
Laws of Emotional Life
26
Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
27
Thorndike’s Results
28
Thorndike’s Laws of Learning
Law of Readiness
Law of Effect
Law of Exercise
29
Instrumental Conditioning
(Operant Conditioning)
• Learn Adaptive Behavior
– Through Experience of Success, Failure
• Organism Operates on Environment
– Behavior Changes Environment
• Behavior Instrumental
– Obtains Desired State of Affairs
• Associations between Behaviors and
Outcomes
30
B.F. Skinner’s
Operant Chamber
31
Instrumental Conditioning Procedure
•
•
•
•
Phase 1: Baseline Behavior
Phase 2: Acquisition Phase
Phase 3: Discrimination Learning
Phase 4: Extinction
32
Vocabulary of Instrumental Conditioning
• Conditioned Response (No URs)
• Conditioned Stimulus (No USs)
• Reinforcement
– Positive
– Negative (Not Punishment)
•
•
•
•
Acquisition
Extinction
Generalization
Discrimination
33
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous
• Partial
• Intermittent
– Fixed Ratio (FR)
– Variable Ratio (VR)
– Fixed Interval (FI)
– Variable Interval (VI)
• Differential Reinforcement
– Of Low Rates (DRL)
– Of High Rates (DRH)
34
Intermittent Reinforcement
35
The Matching Law
Herrnstein (1970)
• Concurrent VI Schedules
– Give Organism a Choice
• Key A: VI3
• Key B: VI1
• Response Rate is Proportional to the
Frequency of Reinforcement
– Also Magnitude, Delay of Reinforcement
• Basic Principle of Microeconomics
– Supply and Demand
• Relative Value of Reinforcers
36
Significance of Instrumental Conditioning
• Voluntary Behaviors Come Under
Control of Environmental Events
– Behavior-Outcome Associations
• Ubiquitous (Vertebrates)
• Thorndike, Skinner: All Learning is
Instrumental/Operant Conditioning (?)
• Laws of Instrumental Conditioning Are
the Laws of Adaptive Behavior
– Habits
– Incentives
37
What is Learned?
Lecture 9
1
Classical and Instrumental
Conditioning Compared
Classical
Instrumental
• Reinforcement Not
• Reinforcement
Contingent on Behavior
Contingent on Behavior
• Behavior Elicited by US • Behavior Emitted by
Organism
• Voluntary Responses
• Involuntary Response
(“Spontaneous”)
(Reflex)
• Many Conditionable
• Few Conditionable
Behaviors
Behaviors
2
Avoidance Learning
Solomon & Wynne (1953)
• Dog Placed in One Side of
Apparatus
• Overhead Lights Deliver CS
• Floor Grid Delivers US
– After CS-US Interval
• Vault Barrier
– Escape After US Onset
– Avoidance Before US Onset
3
Two-Factor Theory of Avoidance Learning
Mowrer (1947); critiqued by Seligman & Johnston (1973)
• Light ==> Shock
– Respond During Shock ==> Escape
– Respond Prior to Shock ==> Avoidance
• Classical Conditioning
– Anticipatory Fear Conditioned to Light
• Instrumental Conditioning
– Reinforce Escape/Avoidance
• Cessation of Shock US
• Cessation of Light CS
4
The Stimulus-Response
Theory of Learning
• Association between Stimulus and Response
– Pavlov: CS = Bell; CR = Salivation
– Thorndike: CS = Puzzle Box; CR = Paddle Press
– Skinner: CS = (Illuminated) Key; CR = Keypeck
• Reinforcement
– Pavlov: US = Meat Powder
– Thorndike: Reward = Escape
– Skinner: Reinforcement = Food Pellet
5
Assumptions of S-R Learning Theory
• Association by Contiguity
– Co-Occurrence in Space, Time
• Arbitrariness (Equipotentiality)
– Any Stimulus, Any Response
• Empty Organism
– Organism as “Black Box” Collecting Ss, Rs
• Passive Organism
– Metaphor of “Conditioning”
6
Taste-Aversion Learning
(Bait Shyness)
Garcia & Koelling (1966)
• Compound CS
– “Bright, Noisy, Sweet” Water
• US
– Foot Shock (Immediate Pain)
– X-Rays (Delayed Nausea)
• Avoidance Test of Conditioning
– Choose Water Source
• Bright, Noisy Water
• Sweet Water
7
Taste-Aversion Learning
Garcia & Koelling (1966)
All Subjects
CS1
Light
CS2
CS3
Noise
Taste
Group 1
US1
Shock
UR1
Group 2
US2
UR2
X-Ray
8
Preference Test of Conditioned Fear
(Avoidance of Water Source)
Garcia & Koelling (1966)
CR (Licks per Mnute)
350
300
250
CS
200
Sweet
150
Bright/Noisy
100
50
0
Shock
X-Ray
US
9
Implications for S-R Learning Theory
• Arbitrariness
– Taste-Nausea, Sight/Sound-Shock
• Empty Organism
– Internal Structure Shaped by Evolution
• Association by Contiguity
– CS, CR Distant in Space, Time
• Law of Exercise
– One-Trial Taste-Aversion Learning
10
Species-Specific Defense Reactions
Bolles (1970)
• Escape/Avoidance Learning in Pigeons
– Easy: Flap Wings, Stretch necks
– Impossible: Key Peck
• Escape/Avoidance Learning in Rats
– Easy: Jump Up, Run
– Hard: Lever Press
• Avoidance Learning Capitalizes on
Species-Specific Repertoire of
Defensive Reactions
– Built In by Evolution
11
The Preparedness Principle
(Belongingness)
Seligman (1970); Rozin & Kalat (1971)
By Virtue of Its Evolutionary History,
Each Species is Predisposed
to Learn Certain Associations
• Prepared
• Unprepared
• Contraprepared
12
Constraints on Learning
• Biological
– Evolutionary History
• Cognitive
– Internal Representation of CS  CR
13
“Standard Paradigm”
for Classical Conditioning
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
14
Delay Conditioning
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
15
Trace Conditioning
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
16
Simultaneous Conditioning
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
17
Backwards Conditioning
CS
US
CR
Bell
Food
Drops of
Saliva
Time
18
Conditioned Inhibition
in Backwards Conditioning
• Fear Conditioning
– Tone ==> Shock
– CR = Heart Rate Acceleration
• Physiological Index of Fear
• Standard Paradigm
– HR Acceleration During Tone
• Conditioned Fear Response
• Backward Paradigm
– HR Deceleration During Tone
• Inhibition of Fear Response
19
Contiguity vs. Contingency
in Conditioning
Rescorla (1967, 1988)
• Contiguity
– CS Co-Occurs with US
• Contingency
– CS Predicts US
• Standard Paradigm
– CS, US both Contingent and Contiguous
• Delay, Trace Conditioning
– CS, US Contingent but Not Contiguous
• Simultaneous Conditioning
– CS, US Contiguous but not Contingent
• Backwards Conditioning, Extinction (Below Zero)
– CS Predicts Absence of US
20
Informational Value of the CS
• When the US is Contingent on the CS, then
the CS Provides Information About the US
• Conditioning Occurs Because the CS
Provides Information about US
• Conditioning Does Not Occur When the CS
is Not Informative
What Happens When
the Information in the CS is Redundant?
21
Conditioned Emotional Responses
• Tone CS  Footshock US
• CR: Heart Rate Acceleration
• Paradigmatic Variations
– Standard Paradigm
– Delay, Trace Paradigms
– Simultaneous Paradigm
– Backwards Paradigm
• Safety Signal
22
The Blocking Experiment (1)
Kamin (1969)
Initial Conditioning with Compound CS
CS1
Noise
CS2
Light
US
Shock
Test Conditioning with Light CS Alone
CS2
Light
CR
Fear
Test
23
The Blocking Experiment (2)
Kamin (1969)
Phase 1: Conditioning with Noise CS1 (1)
Phase 2: Add Light CS2 Simultaneous with CS1 (2)
CS1
Noise
US
Shock
CS1
Noise
CS2
Light
US
Shock
1
2
Test
CS2
CR
Light
Fear24
The Blocking Effect
Kamin (1969)
CR Magnitude
Test Response to Light
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Noise Alone
Compound Alone
Noise then
Compound
Sequence of Conditioning Trials
25
“Unblocking” the Blocking Experiment
Phase 1: Conditioning with Simple CS
Phase 2: Add Light CS2 Preceding CS1
CS1
Noise
US
Shock
CS1
Noise
CS2
Light
US
Shock
1
2
Test
CS2
CR
Light
Fear26
Predictability, Surprise,
and Conditioning
Kamin (1969)
• Conditioning Only Occurs When the US
Surprises the Organism
• Organism Searches Environment for
Predictors of US
• Irrelevant, Redundant Stimuli are Ignored
• Classical Conditioning Involves the
Formation of Expectations
– CS predicts US
27
Implications for S-R Learning Theory
• Association by Contiguity
– Association by Contingency
• Empty Organism
– Expectations, Surprise
• Passive Organism
– Actively Engaged in Predicting Events
28
A Cognitive View of Learning
Lecture 10
1
Cognition and Conditioning
• Conditioning Occurs When the US
Surprises the Organism
• Conditioning Accrues to CSs that Provide
Information About the US
• In Classical Conditioning, the Organism
Learns to Predict Environmental Events
• What about Instrumental Conditioning?
2
Two-Factor Theory of Avoidance Learning
Mowrer (1947)
• Tone CS ==> Shock US
– Respond During Shock ==> Escape
– Respond Prior to Shock ==> Avoidance
• Classical Conditioning
– Fear Conditioned to Tone
• Instrumental Conditioning
– Escape Reinforced by Offset of Shock
• Reduction in Pain
– Avoidance Reinforced by Offset of Tone
• Reduction in Fear
3
Learned Helplessness
e.g., Seligman & Maier (1967); Seligman, Maier, & Solomon (1971)
• Prior Fear Conditioning Should
Facilitate Avoidance Learning
– Organism Already Fears CS
– Only Has to Learn Avoidance Response
• Phase 1: Condition Fear to Tone
• Phase 2: Avoidance Learning
• But Prior Fear Conditioning Retards
Acquisition of Avoidance Response
4
Escapable vs. Inescapable Shock
Seligman & Maier (1967)
• Avoidance Learning in Shuttlebox
• Pretreatment: 64 Signalled Shocks
– Escape Shock by Pressing Paddle with Snout
– Yoked Controls
• Receive Same Amount of Shock as Escape Group
• No Experience of Control Over Shock
– Standard Controls
• Receive No Shocks
5
Learned Helplessness
Response Latency (secs)
Seligman & Maier (1967)
60
72.5%
50
Escape Failures
40
30
26.3%
22.5%
Controls
Escape
20
10
0
Yoked
Pretreatment
6
Controllability and
Instrumental Conditioning
• Learned Helplessness
– Shock is Inescapable, Unavoidable
– Negative Expectations of Control
• Generalize to New Learning Environment
• Instrumental Conditioning
– Organism Learning to Control Environment
• Develops Expectations Concerning Control
7
Prediction, Control, and Conditioning
• Classical Conditioning
– Learning to Predict Environmental Events
– Conditional Probability: p(Event | Signal)
• Instrumental Conditioning
– Learning to Control Environmental Events
– Conditional Probability: p(Event | Behavior)
8
Role of Reinforcement in Learning
• Corollary to S-R Learning Theory
– Conditioned Response
– Reinforced in Presence of Conditioned Stimulus
• Classical Conditioning
– CS Reinforced by Experience of US
• Instrumental Conditioning
– CR to CS Reinforced by Reward
• Yields Thorndike’s Law of Effect
• Skinner: Reinforcement is Any Stimulus that
Increases the Probability of the Conditioned
Response to the CS
9
Classical Conditioning
in the Absence of Reinforcement
• Sensory
Preconditioning
– CS1  CS2
– CS1 Predicts US
by Transitivity
• Higher-Order
Conditioning
– CS2  CS1
– CS2 Predicts US
by Transitivity
10
Maze Learning in Rats
Tolman & Honzik (1930); Tolman (1932)
11
Latent Learning
Tolman & Honzik (1930)
2
1
3
Hilgard &
Bower
12
Curiosity in Rhesus Monkeys
Harlow (1953); Harlow et al. (1956)
•
•
•
•
“Puzzle Lock”
Food Reward
Hunger
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
Motivation
13
What is Learned in Learning?
• Not Associations between Stimuli,
Responses
• Expectations
– Outcomes of Events
– Outcomes of Behaviors
• Classical Conditioning
– Predictability of Environmental Events
• Instrumental Conditioning
– Controllability of Environmental Events
14
Cognitive Reinterpretation of Learning
• Relatively Permanent...
• Change in Behavior Knowledge...
– Predictability
– Controllability
• Resulting from Experience.
– Not Drugs
– Not Injury
– Not Maturation
15
Observational Learning
• Direct versus Vicarious Experience
– Conditioned Stimuli
– Unconditioned Stimuli
– Reinforcements
16
Observational Fear Conditioning
Mineka et al. (1984)
• Snake Fear in Rhesus Monkeys
– It’s Adaptive: But Is It Innate?
• Wild-Reared vs. Lab-Reared
– Snake Fear Not Innate
• What Role for Direct Experience?
– Snake Fear Not Acquired Directly
• Adaptive Value of Vicarious Learning
– Vicarious Learning of Human Fears, Phobias
17
Test of Snake Fear
• Wisconsin General Test Apparatus
• Obstacle Between Animal and Food Reward
– Must Reach Past Object to Obtain Food
• Measure of Fear
– Latency to Reach Past Object
18
Pretest of Snake Fear
in Rhesus Monkeys
Latency of Food-Reaching
(secs)
Mineka et al. (1984)
70
Snake
60
50
40
Wild
30
Lab
20
Cord
10
0
Real
Toy
Model
Black
Yellow Neutral
Obstacle
19
Vicarious Conditioning of Snake Fear
Mineka et al. (1984)
• Wild-Reared Adults
– Already Afraid of Snakes
• Lab-Reared Adolescent Offspring
– No Snake Fear
• Posttest After Observing Parent
20
Snake Fear in Rhesus Monkeys
Prior to Vicarious Exposure
Time Spent With Object
(secs)
Mineka et al. (1984)
250
200
Snake
150
Parents
Offspring
100
50
0
Real
Toy
Model
Neutral
Object
21
Snake Fear in Rhesus Monkeys
After Vicarious Exposure
Time Spent With Object
(secs)
Mineka et al. (1984)
250
200
150
Parents
100
Offspring
Snake
50
0
Real
Toy
Model
Neutral
Object
22
Variants on Observational Learning
• Unrelated Adult as Model
• Immunization through Extensive Prior
Exposure to Snakes
• Snake vs. Flower
– Mirrors, Video to Control Exposure
– Model Sees Snake
– Observer Sees Snake or Flower
23
Examples of Observational Learning
by Animals in the Wild
•
•
•
•
Chickadees and Milk Bottles
Red Squirrels and Hickory Nuts
Israeli Roof Rats and Pine Cones
Chimpanzees and Panda Nuts
Scientific American
24
The “Bobo Doll” Experiment
Bandura et al. (1961)
• Nursery-School Children
• Adult Model
– Aggressive
– Non-Aggressive
– Control
• Aggression During Free Play
– Imitative: Physical and Verbal
– Punching, Hitting with Mallet
– Nonimitative Aggresion, Gun-Play
25
Aggression Scores
Model
Aggressive
Non-Aggressive
18
Aggression Score
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Physical
Verbal
Aggression Category
Other
26
Observational Learning
and Language Acquisition
• Native or Secondary Language
• Exposure to Language
– Aural or Gestural
– Critical Period before Puberty
• Detect Sounds of Language
– Separate into Words
• Recognize Words
• Grammatical Rules
• Prosody, Nonverbal Communication
27
Statistical Learning by Infants
Saffran, Aslin, & Newport (1996)
• Stimulus Materials
• Test Items, Exp. 1
– Tupiro Golabu
Dapiku Tilado
• Test Items, Exp. 2
– Tupiro Golabu
Tibida Kupado
Listening Time (secs)
– Tupiro Golabu
Bidaku Padoti
Familiar
Novel
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
Experiment
28
Social Learning Theory
Miller & Dollard (1941)
• Imitation as Acquired (Secondary) Drive
– Necessary Component of Socialization
• Conformity
• Discipline
• Two Forms of Imitation
– Matched-Dependent Behavior
• No Awareness of Cues
– Copying
• Awareness of Cues
29
Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Bandura & Walters (1963); Bandura (1977)
• Expectations, not Behavior
• Learning by Response Consequences
– Direct Experience
• Trial and Error
• Reward and Punishment
• Vicarious (Observational) Learning
– Example
• Modeling, Imitation (Informal)
– Precept
• Sponsored Teaching (Formal)
30
Social Learning and Culture
• Culture: Customary Beliefs, Social Forms, and
Material Traits of a Racial, Ethnic, or Social
group
– Transmitted through Informal Learning and Formal
Training from One Generation to the Next
• Observational Learning is the Cognitive Basis of
Culture and Cultural Transmission
• Thinking is the Cognitive Basis of Cultural
Evolution
31
Micronesia Project