European Middle Ages,
500-1200
Previewing Main Ideas
EMPIRE BUILDING In western Europe, the Roman Empire had broken into
many small kingdoms. During the Middle Ages, Charlemagne and Otto the
Great tried to revive the idea of empire. Both allied with the Church.
Geography Study the maps. What were the six major kingdoms in western
Europe about A.D. 500?
POWER AND AUTHORITY Weak rulers and the decline of central authority
led to a feudal system in which local lords with large estates assumed power.
This led to struggles over power with the Church.
Geography Study the time line and the map. The ruler of what kingdom
was crowned emperor by Pope Leo III?
RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS During the Middle Ages, the Church
was a unifying force. It shaped people’s beliefs and guided their daily lives.
Most Europeans at this time shared a common bond of faith.
Geography Find Rome, the seat of the Roman Catholic Church, on the
map. In what kingdom was it located after the fall of the Roman Empire
in A.D. 476?
INTERNET RESOURCES
• Interactive Maps
• Interactive Visuals
• Interactive Primary Sources
350
Go to classzone.com for:
• Research Links
• Maps
• Internet Activities
• Test Practice
• Primary Sources
• Current Events
• Chapter Quiz
351
What freedoms would you
give up for protection?
You are living in the countryside of western Europe during the 1100s. Like
about 90 percent of the population, you are a peasant working the land. Your
family’s hut is located in a small village on your lord’s estate. The lord provides
all your basic needs, including housing, food, and protection. Especially
important is his protection from invaders who repeatedly strike Europe.
1 For safety, peasants
retreat behind the
castle walls during
attacks.
2 Peasants owe
their lord two or
three days’ labor
every week farming
his land.
3 This peasant feels
that the right to stay
on his lord’s land is
more important than
his freedom to leave.
4 Peasants cannot marry
without their lord’s
consent.
EXAM I N I NG
the
ISSU ES
• What is secure about your world?
• How is your life limited?
As a class, discuss these questions. In your discussion, think about
other people who have limited power over their lives. As you read
about the lot of European peasants in this chapter, see how their living
arrangements determine their role in society and shape their beliefs.
352 Chapter 13
1
Charlemagne Unites
Germanic Kingdoms
MAIN IDEA
EMPIRE BUILDING Many
Germanic kingdoms that
succeeded the Roman Empire
were reunited under
Charlemagne’s empire.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Charlemagne spread Christian
civilization through Northern
Europe, where it had a
permanent impact.
TERMS & NAMES
•
•
•
•
Middle Ages
Franks
monastery
secular
• Carolingian
Dynasty
• Charlemagne
SETTING THE STAGE The gradual decline of the Roman Empire ushered in
an era of European history called the Middle Ages, or the medieval period. It
spanned the years from about 500 to 1500. During these centuries, a new society
slowly emerged. It had roots in: (1) the classical heritage of Rome, (2) the beliefs
of the Roman Catholic Church, and (3) the customs of various Germanic tribes.
Invasions of Western Europe
TAKING NOTES
In the fifth century, Germanic invaders overran the western half of the Roman
Empire (see map on page 351). Repeated invasions and constant warfare caused
a series of changes that altered the economy, government, and culture:
• Disruption of Trade Merchants faced invasions from both land and sea.
Their businesses collapsed. The breakdown of trade destroyed Europe’s
cities as economic centers. Money became scarce.
• Downfall of Cities With the fall of the Roman Empire, cities were
abandoned as centers of administration.
• Population Shifts As Roman centers of trade and government collapsed,
nobles retreated to the rural areas. Roman cities were left without strong
leadership. Other city dwellers also fled to the countryside, where they grew
their own food. The population of western Europe became mostly rural.
Following Chronological
Order Note important
events in the unification of
the Germanic kingdoms.
500
1200
The Decline of Learning The Germanic invaders who stormed Rome could not
read or write. Among Romans themselves, the level of learning sank sharply as
more and more families left for rural areas. Few people except priests and other
church officials were literate. Knowledge of Greek, long important in Roman
culture, was almost lost. Few people could read Greek works of literature, science, and philosophy. The Germanic tribes, though, had a rich oral tradition of
songs and legends. But they had no written language.
Loss of a Common Language As German-speaking peoples mixed with the
Roman population, Latin changed. While it was still an official language, it was no
longer understood. Different dialects developed as new words and phrases became
part of everyday speech. By the 800s, French, Spanish, and other Roman-based languages had evolved from Latin. The development of various languages mirrored the
continued breakup of a once-unified empire.
European Middle Ages 353
Germanic Kingdoms Emerge
In the years of upheaval between 400 and 600, small Germanic kingdoms replaced
Roman provinces. The borders of those kingdoms changed constantly with the
fortunes of war. But the Church as an institution survived the fall of the Roman
Empire. During this time of political chaos, the Church provided order and security.
The Concept of Government Changes Along with shifting boundaries, the entire
concept of government changed. Loyalty to public government and written law had
unified Roman society. Family ties and personal loyalty, rather than citizenship in
a public state, held Germanic society together. Unlike Romans, Germanic peoples
lived in small communities that were governed by unwritten rules and traditions.
Every Germanic chief led a band of warriors who had pledged their loyalty to
him. In peacetime, these followers lived in their lord’s hall. He gave them food,
weapons, and treasure. In battle, warriors fought to the death at their lord’s side.
They considered it a disgrace to outlive him. But Germanic warriors felt no obligation to obey a king they did not even know. Nor would they obey an official sent
to collect taxes or administer justice in the name of an emperor they had never met.
The Germanic stress on personal ties made it impossible to establish orderly government for large territories.
▼ Illuminated
manuscripts,
such as the one
below, were
usually the work
of monks.
Clovis Rules the Franks In the Roman province of Gaul (mainly what is now
France and Switzerland), a Germanic people called the Franks held power. Their
leader was Clovis (KLOH•vihs). He would bring Christianity to the region.
According to legend, his wife, Clothilde, had urged him to convert to her faith,
Christianity. In 496, Clovis led his warriors against another Germanic army.
Fearing defeat, he appealed to the Christian God. “For I have called on my gods,”
he prayed, “but I find they are far from my aid. . . . Now I call on Thee. I long to
believe in Thee. Only, please deliver me from my enemies.” The tide of the battle
shifted and the Franks won. Afterward, Clovis and 3,000 of his warriors asked a
bishop to baptize them.
The Church in Rome welcomed Clovis’s conversion and supported his military
campaigns against other Germanic peoples. By 511, Clovis had united the Franks
into one kingdom. The strategic alliance between Clovis’s
Frankish kingdom and the Church marked the start of a
partnership between two powerful forces.
Germans Adopt Christianity
Politics played a key role in spreading Christianity. By
600, the Church, with the help of Frankish rulers, had converted many Germanic peoples. These new converts had
settled in Rome’s former lands. Missionaries also spread
Christianity. These religious travelers often risked their
lives to bring religious beliefs to other lands. During the
300s and 400s, they worked among the Germanic and
Celtic groups that bordered the Roman Empire. In southern Europe, the fear of coastal attacks by Muslims also
spurred many people to become Christians in the 600s.
Monasteries, Convents, and Manuscripts To adapt to
rural conditions, the Church built religious communities
called monasteries. There, Christian men called monks
gave up their private possessions and devoted their lives to
serving God. Women who followed this way of life were
called nuns and lived in convents.
354 Chapter 13
Benedict
480?–543
Scholastica
480?–543
At 15, Benedict left school
and hiked up to the Sabine
Hills, where he lived in a
cave as a hermit. After
learning about Benedict’s
deep religious conviction, a
group of monks persuaded
him to lead their monastery.
Benedict declared:
Scholastica is thought to be
the twin sister of Benedict. She
was born into a wealthy Italian
family in the late Roman
Empire. Little is known of her
early life, except that she and
Benedict were inseparable.
Like her brother, Scholastica devoted her life to the
Church. She is thought to
have been the abbess of a
convent near the monastery
founded by Benedict and is
considered the first nun of the
Benedictine order. She was a strong influence on her
brother as he developed rules that guide Benedictine
monasteries to this day. They died in the same year and
are buried in one grave.
We must prepare our hearts
and bodies for combat
under holy obedience to the
divine commandments. . . .
We are therefore going to
establish a school in which
one may learn the service of
the Lord.
In his book describing the rules for monastic life,
Benedict emphasized a balance between work and study.
Such guidelines turned monasteries into centers of stability
and learning.
Making Inferences
What role did
monasteries play
during this time of
chaos?
RESEARCH LINKS For more on Benedict and
Scholastica, go to classzone.com
Around 520, an Italian monk named Benedict began writing a book describing
a strict yet practical set of rules for monasteries. Benedict’s sister, Scholastica
(skuh•LAS•tik•uh), headed a convent and adapted the same rules for women.
These guidelines became a model for many other religious communities in western Europe. Monks and nuns devoted their lives to prayer and good works.
Monasteries also became Europe’s best-educated communities. Monks opened
schools, maintained libraries, and copied books. In 731, the Venerable Bede, an
English monk, wrote a history of England. Scholars still consider it the best historical work of the early Middle Ages. In the 600s and 700s, monks made beautiful
copies of religious writings, decorated with ornate letters and brilliant pictures. These
illuminated manuscripts preserved at least part of Rome’s intellectual heritage.
Papal Power Expands Under Gregory I In 590, Gregory I, also called Gregory
the Great, became pope. As head of the Church in Rome, Gregory broadened the
authority of the papacy, or pope’s office, beyond its spiritual role. Under Gregory,
the papacy also became a secular, or worldly, power involved in politics. The
pope’s palace was the center of Roman government. Gregory used church revenues
to raise armies, repair roads, and help the poor. He also negotiated peace treaties
with invaders such as the Lombards.
According to Gregory, the region from Italy to England and from Spain to
Germany fell under his responsibility. Gregory strengthened the vision of
Christendom. It was a spiritual kingdom fanning out from Rome to the most distant
churches. This idea of a churchly kingdom, ruled by a pope, would be a central theme
of the Middle Ages. Meanwhile, secular rulers expanded their political kingdoms.
An Empire Evolves
After the Roman Empire dissolved, small kingdoms sprang up all over Europe. For
example, England splintered into seven tiny kingdoms. Some of them were no
European Middle Ages 355
50°N
0°
North
Sea
16°E
Frankish Kingdom before
Charlemagne, 768
Areas conquered by
Charlemagne, 814
Papal States
Division by Treaty
of Verdun, 843
8°E
Charlemagne‘s Empire,
768–843
0
250 Miles
0
500 Kilometers
Elb
eR
.
ENGLAND
larger than the state of Connecticut. The
Franks controlled the largest and
strongest of Europe’s kingdoms, the
area that was formerly the Roman
province of Gaul. When the Franks’
first Christian king, Clovis, died in 511,
he had extended Frankish rule over
most of what is now France.
Rh i ne
Charles Martel Emerges By 700, an
official known as the major domo, or
EAST
Paris
mayor of the palace, had become the
FRANKISH
KINGDOM
Tours
most powerful person in the Frankish
(Louis
Danube R.
the
German)
kingdom. Officially, he had charge of
WEST
ATLANTIC FRANKISH
the royal household and estates.
OCEAN
KINGDOM
CENTRAL
Unofficially, he led armies and made
(Charles
KINGDOM Pavia
the Bald)
policy. In effect, he ruled the kingdom.
(Lothair )
The mayor of the palace in 719,
42°N
Charles
Martel (Charles the Hammer),
PAPAL
Corsica
STATES
held more power than the king. Charles
SPAIN
Rome
Mediterranean
Martel extended the Franks’ reign to the
Sea
north, south, and east. He also defeated
Muslim raiders from Spain at the Battle
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps
of Tours in 732. This battle was highly
1. Region By 814, what was the extent of Charlemagne’s
significant for Christian Europeans. If
empire (north to south, east to west)?
the Muslims had won, western Europe
2. Region Based on the map, why did the Treaty of Verdun
might have become part of the Muslim
signal the decline of Charlemagne’s empire?
Empire. Charles Martel’s victory at
Tours made him a Christian hero.
At his death, Charles Martel passed on his power to his son, Pepin the Short. Pepin
wanted to be king. He shrewdly cooperated with the pope. On behalf of the Church,
Pepin agreed to fight the Lombards, who had invaded central Italy and threatened
Rome. In exchange, the pope anointed Pepin “king by the grace of God.” Thus began
the Carolingian (KAR•uh•LIHN•juhn) Dynasty, the family that would rule the
Franks from 751 to 987.
Aachen
R.
SLAVIC
STATES
ro
Eb
R.
Charlemagne Becomes Emperor
Pepin the Short died in 768. He left a greatly strengthened Frankish kingdom to his
two sons, Carloman and Charles. After Carloman’s death in 771, Charles, who was
known as Charlemagne (SHAHR•luh•MAYN), or Charles the Great, ruled the
kingdom. An imposing figure, he stood six feet four inches tall. His admiring secretary, a monk named Einhard, described Charlemagne’s achievements:
PRIMARY SOURCE
[Charlemagne] was the most potent prince with the greatest skill and success in
different countries during the forty-seven years of his reign. Great and powerful as was
the realm of Franks, Karl [Charlemagne] received from his father Pippin, he nevertheless
so splendidly enlarged it . . . that he almost doubled it.
EINHARD, Life of Charlemagne
Charlemagne Extends Frankish Rule Charlemagne built an empire greater than
any known since ancient Rome. Each summer he led his armies against enemies
that surrounded his kingdom. He fought Muslims in Spain and tribes from other
356 Chapter 13
Germanic kingdoms. He conquered new lands to both the south and
the east. Through these conquests, Charlemagne spread Christianity.
He reunited western Europe for the first time since the Roman
Empire. By 800, Charlemagne’s empire was larger than the Byzantine
Empire. He had become the most powerful king in western Europe.
In 800, Charlemagne traveled to Rome to crush an unruly mob
that had attacked the pope. In gratitude, Pope Leo III crowned him
emperor. The coronation was historic. A pope had claimed the
political right to confer the title “Roman Emperor” on a European
king. This event signaled the joining of Germanic power, the
Church, and the heritage of the Roman Empire.
Charlemagne Leads a Revival Charlemagne strengthened his
royal power by limiting the authority of the nobles. To govern his
empire, he sent out royal agents. They made sure that the powerful
landholders, called counts, governed their counties justly.
Charlemagne regularly visited every part of his kingdom. He also
kept a close watch on the management of his huge estates—the
source of Carolingian wealth and power. One of his greatest
accomplishments was the encouragement of learning. He surrounded himself with English, German, Italian, and Spanish scholars. For his many sons and daughters and other children at the
court, Charlemagne opened a palace school. He also ordered
monasteries to open schools to train future monks and priests.
Drawing
Conclusions
What were
Charlemagne’s
most notable
achievements?
SECTION
Charlemagne’s Heirs A year before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned his
only surviving son, Louis the Pious, as emperor. Louis was a devoutly religious man
but an ineffective ruler. He left three sons: Lothair (loh•THAIR), Charles the Bald,
and Louis the German. They fought one another for control of the Empire. In 843,
the brothers signed the Treaty of Verdun, dividing the empire into three kingdoms.
As a result, Carolingian kings lost power and central authority broke down. The lack
of strong rulers led to a new system of governing and landholding—feudalism.
1
▲ Emperor
Charlemagne
ASSESSMENT
TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• Middle Ages
• Franks
• monastery
• secular
• Carolingian Dynasty
• Charlemagne
USING YOUR NOTES
MAIN IDEAS
CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING
2. What was the most important
3. What were three roots of
6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS How was the relationship
event in the unification of the
Germanic kingdoms? Why?
medieval culture in western
Europe?
4. What are three ways that
civilization in western Europe
declined after the Roman
Empire fell?
500
1200
5. What was the most important
achievement of Pope Gregory I?
between a Frankish king and the pope beneficial to both?
7. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS Why was Charles Martel’s victory
at the Battle of Tours so important for Christianity?
8. EVALUATING What was Charlemagne’s greatest
achievement? Give reasons for your answer.
9. WRITING ACTIVITY EMPIRE BUILDING How does
Charlemagne’s empire in medieval Europe compare with
the Roman Empire? Support your opinions in a threeparagraph expository essay.
INTERNET ACTIVITY
Use the Internet to locate a medieval monastery that remains today in
western Europe. Write a two-paragraph history of the monastery and
include an illustration.
INTERNET KEYWORD
Medieval monasteries
European Middle Ages 357
2
Feudalism in Europe
MAIN IDEA
POWER AND AUTHORITY
Feudalism, a political and
economic system based on
land-holding and protective
alliances, emerges in Europe.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
The rights and duties of feudal
relationships helped shape
today’s forms of representative
government.
TERMS & NAMES
•
•
•
•
lord
fief
vassal
knight
• serf
• manor
• tithe
SETTING THE STAGE After the Treaty of Verdun, Charlemagne’s three feud-
ing grandsons broke up the kingdom even further. Part of this territory also
became a battleground as new waves of invaders attacked Europe. The political
turmoil and constant warfare led to the rise of European feudalism, which, as you
read in Chapter 2, is a political and economic system based on land ownership
and personal loyalty.
TAKING NOTES
Analyzing Causes and
Recognizing Effects Use
a web diagram to show
the causes and effects
of feudalism.
Cause
Cause
Feudalism
Effect
Effect
358 Chapter 13
Invaders Attack Western Europe
From about 800 to 1000, invasions destroyed the Carolingian Empire. Muslim
invaders from the south seized Sicily and raided Italy. In 846, they sacked Rome.
Magyar invaders struck from the east. Like the earlier Huns and Avars, they
terrorized Germany and Italy. And from the north came the fearsome Vikings.
The Vikings Invade from the North The Vikings set sail from Scandinavia
(SKAN•duh•NAY•vee•uh), a wintry, wooded region in Northern Europe. (The
region is now the countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.) The Vikings, also
called Northmen or Norsemen, were a Germanic people. They worshiped warlike
gods and took pride in nicknames like Eric Bloodaxe and Thorfinn Skullsplitter.
The Vikings carried out their raids with terrifying speed. Clutching swords
and heavy wooden shields, these helmeted seafarers beached their ships, struck
quickly, and then moved out to sea again. They were gone before locals could
mount a defense. Viking warships were awe-inspiring. The largest of these long
ships held 300 warriors, who took turns rowing the ship’s 72 oars. The prow of
each ship swept grandly upward, often ending with the carved head of a sea monster. A ship might weigh 20 tons when fully loaded. Yet, it could sail in a mere
three feet of water. Rowing up shallow creeks, the Vikings looted inland villages
and monasteries.
▼ A sketch of a
Viking longboat
Invasions in Europe, 700–1000
0
To Iceland
58°
N
500 Miles
1,000 Kilometers
24°
W
0
SCANDINAVIA
V o l g a R.
Se
IRELAND
50°
W. D
v
a
North
Sea
N
R.
r R.
iepe
Dn
Ba
ENGLAND
in a
ltic
Tours
42°
N
PA
Genoa
Corsica
TH
Ca
IA
N
M
Pisa
Black
Rome
BYZANTINE EMPIRE
48°E
32°E
24°E
Sicily
16°E
N
8°E
n
Viking invasion routes
Viking areas
Muslim invasion routes
Muslim areas
Magyar invasion routes
Magyar areas
Constantinople
34°
0°
ia
Sea
Sardinia
8°W
sp
a
ES
CAR
Se
NE
R.
.
CALIPHATE
OF CÓRDOVA
RE
a n ube
TS
PY
R.
ne
ALPS
FRANCE
Vol
ga
R.
Kiev
B
Rhône R urgu
nd
.
y
Rh
ine
Rh land
i
Paris
Aachen
e R.
D
ATLAN TIC
O CEAN
16°
ien
S
W
London
R US S IA
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps
1. Location What lands did the Vikings raid?
2. Movement Why were the Viking, Magyar, and Muslim invasions so threatening to Europe?
The Vikings were not only warriors but also traders, farmers, and explorers.
They ventured far beyond western Europe. Vikings journeyed down rivers into the
heart of Russia, to Constantinople, and even across the icy waters of the North
Atlantic. A Viking explorer named Leif (leef) Ericson reached North America
around 1000, almost 500 years before Columbus. About the same time, the Viking
reign of terror in Europe faded away. As Vikings gradually accepted Christianity,
they stopped raiding monasteries. Also, a warming trend in Europe’s climate made
farming easier in Scandinavia. As a result, fewer Scandinavians adopted the seafaring life of Viking warriors.
Magyars and Muslims Attack from the East and South As Viking invasions
declined, Europe became the target of new assaults. The Magyars, a group of
nomadic people, attacked from the east, from what is now Hungary. Superb horsemen, the Magyars swept across the plains of the Danube River and invaded western Europe in the late 800s. They attacked isolated villages and monasteries. They
overran northern Italy and reached as far west as the Rhineland and Burgundy. The
Magyars did not settle conquered land. Instead, they took captives to sell as slaves.
The Muslims struck from the south. They began their encroachments from their
strongholds in North Africa, invading through what are now Italy and Spain. In the
600s and 700s, the Muslim plan was to conquer and settle in Europe. By the 800s
and 900s, their goal was also to plunder. Because the Muslims were expert seafarers, they were able to attack settlements on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts.
They also struck as far inland as Switzerland.
The invasions by Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims caused widespread disorder
and suffering. Most western Europeans lived in constant danger. Kings could not
European Middle Ages 359
effectively defend their lands from invasion. As a result, people no longer looked
to a central ruler for security. Instead, many turned to local rulers who had their
own armies. Any leader who could fight the invaders gained followers and political strength.
A New Social Order: Feudalism
In 911, two former enemies faced each other in a peace ceremony. Rollo was the
head of a Viking army. Rollo and his men had been plundering the rich Seine (sayn)
River valley for years. Charles the Simple was the king of France but held little
power. Charles granted the Viking leader a huge piece of French territory. It
became known as Northmen’s land, or Normandy. In return, Rollo swore a pledge
of loyalty to the king.
Recognizing
Effects
What was the
impact of Viking,
Magyar, and
Muslim invasions
on medieval
Europe?
Feudalism Structures Society The worst years of the invaders’ attacks spanned
roughly 850 to 950. During this time, rulers and warriors like Charles and Rollo made
similar agreements in many parts of Europe. The system of governing and landholding, called feudalism, had emerged in Europe. A similar feudal system existed in
China under the Zhou Dynasty, which ruled from around the 11th century B.C. until
256 B.C. Feudalism in Japan began in A.D. 1192 and ended in the 19th century.
The feudal system was based on rights and obligations. In exchange for military
protection and other services, a lord, or landowner, granted land called a fief.The
person receiving a fief was called a vassal. Charles the Simple, the lord, and Rollo,
the vassal, showed how this two-sided bargain worked. Feudalism depended on the
control of land.
The Feudal Pyramid The structure of feudal society was much like a pyramid. At
the peak reigned the king. Next came the most powerful vassals—wealthy
landowners such as nobles and bishops. Serving beneath these vassals were
knights. Knights were mounted horsemen who pledged to defend their lords’ lands
in exchange for fiefs. At the base of the pyramid were landless peasants who toiled
in the fields. (See Analyzing Key Concepts on next page.)
Social Classes Are Well Defined In the feudal system, status determined a per-
son’s prestige and power. Medieval writers classified people into three groups:
those who fought (nobles and knights), those who prayed (men and women of the
Church), and those who worked (the peasants). Social class was usually inherited.
In Europe in the Middle Ages, the vast majority of people were peasants. Most
peasants were serfs. Serfs were people who could not lawfully leave the place where
they were born. Though bound to the land, serfs were not slaves. Their lords could
not sell or buy them. But what their labor produced belonged to the lord.
Manors: The Economic Side of Feudalism
The manor was the lord’s estate. During the Middle Ages, the manor system was
the basic economic arrangement. The manor system rested on a set of rights and
obligations between a lord and his serfs. The lord provided the serfs with housing,
farmland, and protection from bandits. In return, serfs tended the lord’s lands,
cared for his animals, and performed other tasks to maintain the estate. Peasant
women shared in the farm work with their husbands. All peasants, whether free or
serf, owed the lord certain duties. These included at least a few days of labor each
week and a certain portion of their grain.
A Self-Contained World Peasants rarely traveled more than 25 miles from their
own manor. By standing in the center of a plowed field, they could see their entire
world at a glance. A manor usually covered only a few square miles of land. It
360 Chapter 13
Vocabulary
Status is social
ranking.
Feudalism
FEUDAL FACTS AND
FIGURES
Feudalism was a political system in which nobles were granted the use of
land that legally belonged to the king. In return, the nobles agreed to give
their loyalty and military services to the king. Feudalism developed not only
in Europe but also in countries like Japan.
European Feudalism
• In the 14th century, before the
bubonic plague struck, the
population of France was
probably between 10 and 21
million people.
• In feudal times, the building of
King
a cathedral took between 50 to
150 years.
• In feudal times, dukedoms
Church
Official
were large estates ruled by a
duke. In 1216, the Duke of
Anjou had 34 knights, the
Duke of Brittany had 36
knights, and the Count of
Flanders had 47 knights.
Noble
Knights
• In the 14th century, the nobility
Knights
in France made up about 1
percent of the population.
• The word feudalism comes
from the Latin word feudum,
meaning fief.
Peasants
Peasants
Emperor
comes from the words dai,
meaning “large,” and myo
(shorten from myoden),
meaning “name-land” or
“private land.”
* SOURCES: A Distant Mirror by Barbara
Tuchman; Encyclopaedia Britannica
Japanese Feudalism
Daimyo
• The Japanese word daimyo
Daimyo
Samurai
Samurai
Artisans
Peasants
1. Comparing What are the similarities
between feudalism in Europe and
feudalism in Japan?
See Skillbuilder Handbook, Page R7.
Merchants
RESEARCH LINKS For more on
feudalism, go to classzone.com
2. Forming and Supporting Opinions
Today, does the United States have a
system of social classes? Support
your answer with evidence.
361
The Medieval Manor
The medieval manor varied in size. The
illustration to the right is a plan of a typical
English manor.
1 Manor House
The dwelling place of the lord and his
family and their servants
2 Village Church
Site of both religious services and
public meetings
3 Peasant Cottages
Where the peasants lived
4 Lord’s Demesne
Fields owned by the lord and worked
by the peasants
5 Peasant Crofts
Gardens that belonged to the peasants
6 Mill
Water-powered mill for grinding grain
7 Common Pasture
Common area for grazing animals
8 Woodland
Forests provided wood for fuel.
typically consisted of the lord’s manor house, a church, and workshops. Generally,
15 to 30 families lived in the village on a manor. Fields, pastures, and woodlands
surrounded the village. Sometimes a stream wound through the manor. Streams
and ponds provided fish, which served as an important source of food. The mill for
grinding the grain was often located on the stream.
The manor was largely a self-sufficient community. The serfs and peasants
raised or produced nearly everything that they and their lord needed for daily life—
crops, milk and cheese, fuel, cloth, leather goods, and lumber. The only outside
purchases were salt, iron, and a few unusual objects such as millstones. These were
huge stones used to grind flour. Crops grown on the manor usually included grains,
such as wheat, rye, barley, and oats, and vegetables, such as peas, beans, onions,
and beets.
The Harshness of Manor Life For the privilege of living on the lord’s land, peasants paid a high price. They paid a tax on all grain ground in the lord’s mill. Any
attempt to avoid taxes by baking bread elsewhere was treated as a crime. Peasants
also paid a tax on marriage. Weddings could take place only with the lord’s
362 Chapter 13
Analyzing Causes
How might the
decline of trade
during the early
Middle Ages have
contributed to the
self-sufficiency of
the manor system?
consent. After all these payments to the lord, peasant families owed the village
priest a tithe, or church tax. A tithe represented one-tenth of their income.
Serfs lived in crowded cottages, close to their neighbors. The cottages had only
one or two rooms. If there were two rooms, the main room was used for cooking,
eating, and household activities. The second was the family bedroom. Peasants
warmed their dirt-floor houses by bringing pigs inside. At night, the family huddled on a pile of straw that often crawled with insects. Peasants’ simple diet consisted mainly of vegetables, coarse brown bread, grain, cheese, and soup.
Piers Plowman, written by William Langland in 1362, reveals the hard life of
English peasants:
Analyzing Primary
Sources
What problems
did peasant families
face?
PRIMARY SOURCE
What by spinning they save, they spend it in house-hire,
Both in milk and in meal to make a mess of porridge,
To cheer up their children who chafe for their food,
And they themselves suffer surely much hunger
And woe in the winter, with waking at nights
And rising to rock an oft restless cradle.
WILLIAM LANGLAND, Piers Plowman
For most serfs, both men and women, life was work and more work. Their days
revolved around raising crops and livestock and taking care of home and family. As
soon as children were old enough, they were put to work in the fields or in the home.
Many children did not survive to adulthood. Illness and malnutrition were constant
afflictions for medieval peasants. Average life expectancy was about 35 years. And
during that short lifetime, most peasants never traveled more than 25 miles from
their homes.
Yet, despite the hardships they endured, serfs accepted their lot in life as part of
the Church’s teachings. They, like most Christians during medieval times, believed
that God determined a person’s place in society.
2
SECTION
This 14th century
drawing shows two
men flailing corn.
ASSESSMENT
TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• lord
• fief
• vassal
• knight
• serf
• manor
• tithe
USING YOUR NOTES
MAIN IDEAS
CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING
2. What is the main reason
3. What groups invaded Europe in
the 800s?
6. COMPARING How were the Vikings different from earlier
4. What obligations did a peasant
7. MAKING INFERENCES How was a manor largely self-
feudalism developed? Explain.
have to the lord of the manor?
Cause
Cause
5. What were the three social
classes of the feudal system?
Feudalism
Germanic groups that invaded Europe?
sufficient both militarily and economically during the early
Middle Ages?
8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS What benefits do you think a
medieval manor provided to the serfs who lived there?
9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Draw up a
Effect
Effect
contract between a lord and a vassal, such as a knight, or
between the lord of a manor and a serf. Include the
responsibilities, obligations, and rights of each party.
CONNECT TO TODAY WRITING A NEWS ARTICLE
Research modern marauders, who, like the Vikings of history, are involved in
piracy on the seas. Write a brief news article describing their activities.
European Middle Ages 363
3
The Age of Chivalry
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS
The code of chivalry has shaped
modern ideas of romance in
Western cultures.
The code of chivalry for knights
glorified both combat and
romantic love.
TERMS & NAMES
• chivalry
• tournament
• troubadour
SETTING THE STAGE During the Middle Ages, nobles constantly fought one
another. Their feuding kept Europe in a fragmented state for centuries. Through
warfare, feudal lords defended their estates, seized new territories, and increased
their wealth. Lords and their armies lived in a violent society that prized combat
skills. By the 1100s, though, a code of behavior began to arise. High ideals
guided warriors’ actions and glorified their roles.
TAKING NOTES
Summarizing Identify
the ideas associated
with chivalry.
Knights: Warriors on Horseback
Soldiers mounted on horseback became valuable in combat during the reign of
Charlemagne’s grandfather, Charles Martel, in the 700s. Charles Martel had
observed that the Muslim cavalry often turned the tide of battles. As a result, he
organized Frankish troops of armored horsemen, or knights.
The Technology of Warfare Changes Leather saddles and stirrups changed the
Chivalry
way warfare was conducted in Europe during the 700s. Both had been developed
in Asia around 200 B.C.
The saddle kept a warrior firmly seated on a moving horse. Stirrups enabled
him to ride and handle heavier weapons. Without stirrups to brace him, a charging warrior was likely to topple off his own horse. Frankish knights, galloping
full tilt, could knock over enemy foot soldiers and riders on horseback.
Gradually, mounted knights became the most important part of an army. Their
warhorses played a key military role.
The Warrior’s Role in Feudal Society By the 11th century, western Europe was
a battleground of warring nobles vying for power. To defend their territories,
feudal lords raised private armies of knights. In exchange for military service,
2 inches
▲
These twoinch iron spikes,
called caltrops,
were strewn on
a battlefield to
maim warhorses
or enemy foot
soldiers.
0
364 Chapter 13
feudal lords used their most abundant resource—land. They rewarded knights,
their most skilled warriors, with fiefs from their sprawling estates. Wealth from
these fiefs allowed knights to devote their lives to war. Knights could afford to pay
for costly weapons, armor, and warhorses.
As the lord’s vassal, a knight’s main obligation was to serve in battle. From his
knights, a lord typically demanded about 40 days of combat a year. Knights’ pastimes also often revolved around training for war. Wrestling and hunting helped
them gain strength and practice the skills they would need on the battlefield.
Knighthood and the Code of Chivalry
Knights were expected to display courage in battle and loyalty to their lord. By the
1100s, the code of chivalry (SHIHV•uhl•ree), a complex set of ideals, demanded
that a knight fight bravely in defense of three masters. He devoted himself to his
earthly feudal lord, his heavenly Lord, and his chosen lady. The chivalrous knight
also protected the weak and the poor. The ideal knight was loyal, brave, and courteous. Most knights, though, failed to meet all of these high standards. For example, they treated the lower classes brutally.
A Knight’s Training Sons of nobles began training for knighthood at an early age
and learned the code of chivalry. At age 7, a boy would be sent off to the castle of
another lord. As a page, he waited on his hosts and began to practice fighting skills.
At around age 14, the page reached the rank of squire. A squire acted as a servant
to a knight. At around age 21, a squire became a full-fledged knight.
Chivalry
The Italian painter Paolo
Uccello captures the spirit of
the age of chivalry in this
painting, St. George and the
Dragon (c. 1455–1460).
According to myth, St. George
rescues a captive princess by
killing her captor, a dragon.
• The Knight St. George,
mounted on a horse and
dressed in armor, uses his
lance to attack the dragon.
• The Dragon The fiercelooking dragon represents evil.
• The Princess The princess
remains out of the action as
her knight fights the dragon
on her behalf.
SKILLBUILDER:
Interpreting Visual Sources
In what way does this
painting show the knight’s
code of chivalry?
European Middle Ages 365
Castles and Siege Weapons
Attacking armies carefully planned how to capture a castle. Engineers would
inspect the castle walls for weak points in the stone. Then, enemy soldiers
would try to ram the walls, causing them to collapse. At the battle site,
attackers often constructed the heavy and clumsy weapons shown here.
Siege Tower
Battering Ram
Trebuchet
• had a platform on top that
lowered like a drawbridge
• made of heavy timber
with a sharp metal tip
• worked like a
giant slingshot
• could support weapons
and soldiers
• swung like a pendulum
to crack castle walls or to
knock down drawbridge
• propelled objects
up to a distance
of 980 feet
Mantlet
• shielded soldiers
Tortoise
• moved slowly on wheels
• sheltered soldiers from
falling arrows
An Array of High-Flying Missiles
Using the trebuchet, enemy soldiers launched
a wide variety of missiles over the castle walls:
• pots of burning lime
• captured soldiers
• boulders
• diseased cows
• severed human heads
• dead horses
1. Making Inferences How do these
Mangonel
• flung huge rocks
that crashed into
castle walls
RESEARCH LINKS For more on medieval
weapons go to classzone.com
366
• propelled objects
up to a distance
of 1,300 feet
siege weapons show that their
designers knew the architecture of a
castle well?
See Skillbuilder Handbook, Page R16.
2. Drawing Conclusions What are
some examples of modern weapons
of war? What do they indicate about
the way war is conducted today?
Comparing
How are tournaments like
modern sports
competitions?
Vocabulary
A siege is a military
blockade staged by
enemy armies trying
to capture a fortress.
After being dubbed a knight, most young men traveled for a year or two. The
young knights gained experience fighting in local wars. Some took part in mock
battles called tournaments. Tournaments combined recreation with combat training. Two armies of knights charged each other. Trumpets blared, and lords and
ladies cheered. Like real battles, tournaments were fierce and bloody competitions.
Winners could usually demand large ransoms from defeated knights.
Brutal Reality of Warfare The small-scale violence of tournaments did not match
the bloodshed of actual battles, especially those fought at castles. By the 1100s,
massive walls and guard towers encircled stone castles. These castles dominated
much of the countryside in western Europe. Lord and lady, their family, knights
and other men-at-arms, and servants made their home in the castle. The castle also
was a fortress, designed for defense.
A castle under siege was a gory sight. Attacking armies used a wide range of
strategies and weapons to force castle residents to surrender. Defenders of a castle
poured boiling water, hot oil, or molten lead on enemy soldiers. Expert archers
were stationed on the roof of the castle. Armed with crossbows, they fired deadly
bolts that could pierce full armor.
The Literature of Chivalry
In the 1100s, the themes of medieval literature downplayed
the brutality of knighthood and feudal warfare. Many stories
idealized castle life. They glorified knighthood and chivalry,
tournaments and real battles. Songs and poems about a
knight’s undying love for a lady were also very popular.
Epic Poetry Feudal lords and their ladies enjoyed listening
to epic poems. These poems recounted a hero’s deeds and
adventures. Many epics retold stories about legendary
heroes such as King Arthur and Charlemagne.
The Song of Roland is one of the earliest and most
famous medieval epic poems. It praises a band of French
soldiers who perished in battle during Charlemagne’s reign.
The poem transforms the event into a struggle. A few brave
French knights led by Roland battle an overwhelming army
of Muslims from Spain. Roland’s friend, Turpin the
Archbishop, stands as a shining example of medieval ideals.
Turpin represents courage, faith, and chivalry:
PRIMARY SOURCE
And now there comes the Archbishop.
He spurs his horse, goes up into a mountain,
summons the French; and he preached them a sermon:
“Barons, my lords, [Charlemagne] left us in this place.
We know our duty: to die like good men for our King.
Fight to defend the holy Christian faith.”
from The Song of Roland
Love Poems and Songs Under the code of chivalry, a
knight’s duty to his lady became as important as his duty to
his lord. In many medieval poems, the hero’s difficulties
resulted from a conflict between those two obligations.
Troubadours were traveling poet-musicians at the castles and courts of Europe. They composed short verses and
Epic Films
The long, narrative epic poem has
given way in modern times to the
epic film. Epic films feature largerthan-life characters in powerful
stories that deal with mythic and
timeless themes. These films take
their stories from history, legend, and
fantasy. The first epic film was Birth
of a Nation, released in 1915.
Some modern epic films are
Braveheart (1995), pictured above;
Gladiator (2000); and the Star Wars
saga (six films, 1977–2005).
INTERNET ACTIVITY Research five epic
films. Write a one-sentence description
of the historical content for each. Go to
classzone.com for your research.
European Middle Ages 367
songs about the joys and sorrows of romantic love. Sometimes troubadours sang
their own verses in the castles of their lady. They also sent roving minstrels to carry
their songs to courts.
A troubadour might sing about love’s disappointments: “My loving heart, my
faithfulness, myself, my world she deigns to take. Then leave me bare and comfortless to longing thoughts that ever wake.”
Other songs told of lovesick knights who adored ladies they would probably
never win: “Love of a far-off land/For you my heart is aching/And I can find no
relief.” The code of chivalry promoted a false image of knights, making them seem
more romantic than brutal. In turn, these love songs created an artificial image of
women. In the troubadour’s eyes, noblewomen were always beautiful and pure.
The most celebrated woman of the age was Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204).
Troubadours flocked to her court in the French duchy of Aquitaine. Later, as queen
of England, Eleanor was the mother of two kings, Richard the Lion-Hearted and
John. Richard himself composed romantic songs and poems.
Women’s Role in Feudal Society
Most women in feudal society were powerless, just as most men were. But
women had the added burden of being thought inferior to men. This was the view
of the Church and was generally accepted in feudal society. Nonetheless, women
Daily Life of a Noblewoman
Daily Life of a Peasant Woman
This excerpt describes the daily life of an English
noblewoman of the Middle Ages, Cicely Neville, Duchess of
York. A typical noblewoman is pictured below.
This excerpt describes the daily life of a typical medieval
peasant woman as pictured below.
PRIMARY SOURCE
She gets up at 7a.m., and her chaplain is
waiting to say morning prayers . . . and
when she has washed and dressed . . .
she has breakfast, then she goes to the
chapel, for another service, then
has dinner. . . . After dinner, she
discusses business . . . then has
a short sleep, then drinks ale or
wine. Then . . . she goes to the
chapel for evening service, and has
supper. After supper, she relaxes with
her women attendants. . . . After that,
she goes to her private room, and says
nighttime prayers. By 8 p.m. she is in bed.
DAILY ROUTINE OF CICELY, DUCHESS OF YORK,
quoted in Women in Medieval Times by Fiona Macdonald
PRIMARY SOURCE
I get up early . . . milk our cows and
turn them into the field. . . . Then I
make butter. . . . Afterward I make
cheese. . . . Then the children need
looking after. . . . I give the chickens
food . . . and look after the young
geese. . . . I bake, I brew. . . .
I twist rope. . . . I tease out wool,
and card it, and spin it on a
wheel. . . . I organize food for the
cattle, and for ourselves. . . . I look
after all the household.
FROM A BALLAD FIRST WRITTEN
DOWN IN ABOUT 1500, quoted in Women
in Medieval Times by Fiona Macdonald
DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS
1. Drawing Conclusions What seem to be the major concerns in the noblewoman’s life? How
do they compare with those of the peasant woman?
2. Making Inferences What qualities would you associate with the peasant woman and the
life she lived?
368 Chapter 13
played important roles in the lives of both noble and
peasant families.
Noblewomen Under the feudal system, a noble-
woman could inherit an estate from her husband. Upon
her lord’s request, she could also send his knights to
war. When her husband was off fighting, the lady of a
medieval castle might act as military commander and a
warrior. At times, noblewomen played a key role in
defending castles. They hurled rocks and fired arrows
at attackers. (See the illustration to the right.)
In reality, however, the lives of most noblewomen
were limited. Whether young or old, females in noble
families generally were confined to activities in the
home or the convent. Also, noblewomen held little
property because lords passed down their fiefs to sons
and not to daughters.
Summarizing
What privileges
did a noblewoman
have in medieval
society?
SECTION
Peasant Women For the vast majority of women of
the lower classes, life had remained unchanged for centuries. Peasant women performed endless labor around
the home and often in the fields, bore children, and
took care of their families. Young peasant girls learned
practical household skills from their mother at an early
age, unlike daughters in rich households who were educated by tutors. Females in peasant families were poor
and powerless. Yet, the economic contribution they
made was essential to the survival of the peasant household.
As you have read in this section, the Church significantly influenced the status
of medieval women. In Section 4, you will read just how far-reaching was the
influence of the Church in the Middle Ages.
3
▲ The noblewomen
depicted in this
manuscript show
their courage and
combat skills in
defending a castle
against enemies.
ASSESSMENT
TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• chivalry
• tournament
• troubadour
USING YOUR NOTES
MAIN IDEAS
CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING
2. Which ideas associated with
3. What were two inventions
6. DEVELOPING HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE How important a
chivalry have remnants in
today’s society? Explain.
from Asia that changed the
technology of warfare in
western Europe?
7. MAKING INFERENCES How was the code of chivalry like
4. Who were the occupants of a
8. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING In what ways were the
castle?
Chivalry
5. What were some of the themes
of medieval literature?
role did knights play in the feudal system?
the idea of romantic love?
lives of a noblewoman and a peasant woman the same?
different?
9. WRITING ACTIVITY RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Write
a persuasive essay in support of the adoption of a code
of chivalry, listing the positive effects it might have on
feudal society.
CONNECT TO TODAY WRITING AN ADVERTISEMENT
Conduct research to learn more about tournaments. Then, write a 50-word advertisement
promoting a tournament to be held at a modern re-creation of a medieval fair.
European Middle Ages 369
4
The Power of the Church
MAIN IDEA
POWER AND AUTHORITY
Church leaders and political
leaders competed for power
and authority.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Today, many religious leaders
still voice their opinions on
political issues.
TERMS & NAMES
• clergy
• sacrament
• canon law
• Holy Roman
Empire
• lay
investiture
SETTING THE STAGE Amid the weak central governments in feudal Europe,
the Church emerged as a powerful institution. It shaped the lives of people from
all social classes. As the Church expanded its political role, strong rulers began
to question the pope’s authority. Dramatic power struggles unfolded in the Holy
Roman Empire, the scene of mounting tensions between popes and emperors.
TAKING NOTES
Following Chronological
Order List the significant
dates and events for the
Holy Roman Empire.
Date/Event
The Far-Reaching Authority of the Church
In crowning Charlemagne as the Roman Emperor in 800, the Church sought to
influence both spiritual and political matters. Three hundred years earlier, Pope
Gelasius I recognized the conflicts that could arise between the two great forces—
the Church and the state. He wrote, “There are two powers by which this world is
chiefly ruled: the sacred authority of the priesthood and the authority of kings.”
Gelasius suggested an analogy to solve such conflicts. God had created two
symbolic swords. One sword was religious. The other was political. The pope
held a spiritual sword. The emperor wielded a political one. Gelasius thought that
the pope should bow to the emperor in political matters. In turn, the emperor
should bow to the pope in religious matters. If each ruler kept the authority in his
own realm, Gelasius suggested, the two leaders could share power in harmony.
In reality, though, they disagreed on the boundaries of either realm. Throughout
the Middle Ages, the Church and various European rulers competed for power.
The Structure of the Church Like the system of feudalism, the Church had its
own organization. Power was based on status. Church structure consisted of different ranks of clergy, or religious officials. The pope in Rome headed the
Church. All clergy, including bishops and priests, fell under his authority.
Bishops supervised priests, the lowest ranking members of the clergy.
Bishops also settled disputes over Church teachings and practices. For
most people, local priests served as the main contact with the Church.
Religion as a Unifying Force Feudalism and the manor system cre-
ated divisions among people. But the shared beliefs in the teachings of
the Church bonded people together. The church was a stable force during an era of constant warfare and political turmoil. It provided
Christians with a sense of security and of belonging to a religious community. In the Middle Ages, religion occupied center stage.
370 Chapter 13
▼ A pope’s
tiara symbolized
his power.
Analyzing Motives
Why did
medieval peasants
support the
Church?
Medieval Christians’ everyday lives were harsh. Still,
they could all follow the same path to salvation—everlasting life in heaven. Priests and other clergy administered the
sacraments, or important religious ceremonies. These rites
paved the way for achieving salvation. For example, through
the sacrament of baptism, people became part of the
Christian community.
At the local level, the village church was a unifying force
in the lives of most people. It served as a religious and social
center. People worshiped together at the church. They also met
with other villagers. Religious holidays, especially Christmas
and Easter, were occasions for festive celebrations.
The Law of the Church The Church’s authority was both
An Age of Superstition
religious and political. It provided a unifying set of spiritual
beliefs and rituals. The Church also created a system of justice to guide people’s conduct. All medieval Christians, kings
and peasants alike, were subject to canon law, or Church
law, in matters such as marriage and religious practices. The
Church also established courts to try people accused of violating canon law. Two of the harshest punishments that
offenders faced were excommunication and interdict.
Popes used the threat of excommunication, or banishment from the Church, to wield power over political rulers.
For example, a disobedient king’s quarrel with a pope might
result in excommunication. This meant the king would be
denied salvation. Excommunication also freed all the king’s
vassals from their duties to him. If an excommunicated king
continued to disobey the pope, the pope, in turn, could use
an even more frightening weapon, the interdict.
Under an interdict, many sacraments and religious services
could not be performed in the king’s lands. As Christians, the
king’s subjects believed that without such sacraments they
might be doomed to hell. In the 11th century, excommunication and the possible threat of an interdict would force a
German emperor to submit to the pope’s commands.
Lacking knowledge of the laws of
nature, many people during the
Middle Ages were led to irrational
beliefs. They expected the dead to
reappear as ghosts. A friendly goblin
might do a person a good deed, but
an evil witch might cause great harm.
Medieval people thought an evil
witch had the power to exchange a
healthy child for a sickly one.
The medieval Church frowned
upon superstitions such as these:
• preparing a table with three knives
to please good fairies
• making a vow by a tree, a pond, or
any place but a church
• believing that a person could
change into the shape of a wolf
• believing that the croak of a raven
or meeting a priest would bring a
person good or bad luck
The Church and the Holy Roman Empire
When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor in 800, he unknowingly set the
stage for future conflicts between popes and emperors. These clashes would go on
for centuries.
Otto I Allies with the Church The most effective ruler of medieval Germany was
Otto I, known as Otto the Great. Otto, crowned king in 936, followed the policies
of his hero, Charlemagne. Otto formed a close alliance with the Church. To limit
the nobles’ strength, he sought help from the clergy. He built up his power base by
gaining the support of the bishops and abbots, the heads of monasteries. He dominated the Church in Germany. He also used his power to defeat German princes.
Following in Charlemagne’s footsteps, Otto also invaded Italy on the pope’s behalf.
In 962, the pope rewarded Otto by crowning him emperor.
Signs of Future Conflicts The German-Italian empire Otto created was first
called the Roman Empire of the German Nation. It later became the Holy Roman
Empire. It remained the strongest state in Europe until about 1100. However,
European Middle Ages 371
Otto’s attempt to revive Charlemagne’s empire caused trouble for future German
leaders. Popes and Italian nobles, too, resented German power over Italy.
The Emperor Clashes with the Pope
The Church was not happy that kings, such as Otto, had control over clergy and
their offices. It especially resented the practice of lay investiture, a ceremony in
which kings and nobles appointed church officials. Whoever controlled lay investiture held the real power in naming bishops, who were very influential clergy that
kings sought to control. Church reformers felt that kings should not have that
power. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII banned lay investiture.
The furious young German emperor, Henry IV, immediately called a meeting of
the German bishops he had appointed. With their approval, the emperor ordered
Gregory to step down from the papacy. Gregory then excommunicated Henry.
Afterward, German bishops and princes sided with the pope. To save his throne,
Henry tried to win the pope’s forgiveness.
Showdown at Canossa In January 1077, Henry crossed the snowy Alps to the
Italian town of Canossa (kuh•NAHS•uh). He approached the castle where Gregory
was a guest. Gregory later described the scene:
PRIMARY SOURCE
There, having laid aside all the belongings of royalty, wretchedly, with bare feet and clad
in wool, he [Henry IV] continued for three days to stand before the gate of the castle.
Nor did he desist from imploring with many tears the aid and consolation of the
apostolic mercy until he had moved all of those who were present there.
POPE GREGORY, in Basic Documents in Medieval History
The Holy Roman
Empire, 1100
16°E
8°E
0°
24°E
0
Friesland
.
Franconia
Worms
FRANCE
400 Kilometers
POLAND
eR
Lorraine
0
Saxony E
lb
ne R.
Rhi
Aachen
50°N
200 Miles
Swabia
KINGDOM
OF
HUNGARY
Bavaria
Rhône
R.
Burgundy
Carinthia
Lombardy
Po R.
Tuscany
Spoleto
c
ti
Rome
ria
Mediterranean
Sea
The Holy Roman
Empire
Papal States
Ad
Papal
States
42°N
Concordat of Worms The succes-
Bohemia
Danube R
.
Se
a
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps
1. Region How many states made up the Holy Roman Empire?
What does this suggest about ruling it as an empire?
2. Location How did the location of the Papal States make them
an easy target for frequent invasions by Germanic rulers?
372
The Pope was obligated to forgive
any sinner who begged so humbly.
Still, Gregory kept Henry waiting in
the snow for three days before ending his excommunication. Their
meeting actually solved nothing.
The pope had humiliated Henry, the
proudest ruler in Europe. Yet, Henry
felt triumphant and rushed home to
punish rebellious nobles.
sors of Gregory and Henry continued to fight over lay investiture until
1122. That year, representatives of
the Church and the emperor met in
the German city of Worms (wurms).
They reached a compromise known
as the Concordat of Worms. By its
terms, the Church alone could
appoint a bishop, but the emperor
could veto the appointment. During
Henry’s struggle, German princes
regained power lost under Otto. But a
later king, Frederick I, would resume
the battle to build royal authority.
Making Inferences
Why was
Henry’s journey to
Canossa a political
act?
Disorder in the Empire
By 1152, the seven princes who elected the German king realized that Germany needed a strong ruler to keep the peace. They
chose Frederick I, nicknamed “Barbarossa” for his red beard.
Vocabulary
Barbarossa means
“red beard” in
Italian.
The Reign of Frederick I Frederick I was the first ruler to call
his lands the Holy Roman Empire. However, this region was
actually a patchwork of feudal territories. His forceful personality and military skills enabled him to dominate the German
princes. Yet, whenever he left the country, disorder returned.
Following Otto’s example, Frederick repeatedly invaded the rich
cities of Italy. His brutal tactics spurred Italian merchants to
unite against him. He also angered the pope, who joined the
merchants in an alliance called the Lombard League.
In 1176, the foot soldiers of the Lombard League faced
Frederick’s army of mounted knights at the Battle of Legnano
(lay•NYAHN•oh). In an astonishing victory, the Italian foot soldiers used crossbows to defeat feudal knights for the first time in
history. In 1177, Frederick made peace with the pope and returned
to Germany. His defeat, though, had undermined his authority
with the German princes. After he drowned in 1190, his empire fell to pieces.
German States Remain Separate German kings after Frederick, including his
grandson Frederick II, continued their attempts to revive Charlemagne’s empire
and his alliance with the Church. This policy led to wars with Italian cities and to
further clashes with the pope. These conflicts were one reason why the feudal
states of Germany did not unify during the Middle Ages. Another reason was that
the system of German princes electing the king weakened royal authority. German
rulers controlled fewer royal lands to use as a base of power than French
and English kings of the same period, who, as you will learn in Chapter 14, were
establishing strong central authority.
Analyzing Causes
What political
trend kept German
states separate
during the Middle
Ages?
SECTION
4
▲ This manuscript
shows Frederick I
at the height of his
imperial power.
ASSESSMENT
TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• clergy
• sacrament
• canon law
• Holy Roman Empire
• lay investiture
USING YOUR NOTES
MAIN IDEAS
CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING
2. Which of the events were
3. What were some of the matters
6. COMPARING How was the structure of the Church like
power struggles between the
Church and rulers? Explain.
Date/Event
covered by canon law?
4. How did Otto the Great make
the crown stronger than the
German nobles?
5. Why did lay investiture cause a
struggle between kings and
popes?
that of the feudal system?
7. EVALUATING DECISIONS Was the Concordat of Worms a
fair compromise for both the emperor and the Church?
Why or why not?
8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Why did German kings fail to
unite their lands?
9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Why did
Henry IV go to Canossa to confront Pope Gregory VII?
Write a brief dialogue that might have taken place
between them at their first meeting.
CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A CHART
Research the ruling structure of the modern Roman Catholic Church and then create a chart
showing the structure, or hierarchy.
European Middle Ages 373
Chapter
13 Assessment
TERMS & NAMES
The Power of the Church Section 4 (pages 370–373)
18. What was Gelasius’s two-swords theory?
For each term or name below, briefly explain its connection to
the Middle Ages from 500 to 1200.
1. monastery
5. manor
2. Charlemagne
6. chivalry
3. vassal
7. clergy
4. serf
8. Holy Roman Empire
19. Why was Otto I the most effective ruler of Medieval
Germany?
20. How was the conflict between Pope Gregory VII and
Henry IV resolved?
CRITICAL THINKING
MAIN IDEAS
Charlemagne Unites Germanic Kingdoms Section 1
(pages 353–357)
9. How did Gregory I increase the political power of the pope?
10. What was the outcome of the Battle of Tours?
11. What was the significance of the pope’s declaring
Charlemagne emperor?
12. Which invading peoples caused turmoil in Europe during
the 800s?
14. What duties did the lord of a manor and his serfs owe
one another?
The Age of Chivalry Section 3 (pages 364–369)
15. What were the stages of becoming a knight?
16. What were common subjects of troubadours’ songs?
17. What role did women play under feudalism?
Medieval Europe
government
religion
social roles
2. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING
EMPIRE BUILDING How did Otto I and Frederick I try to imitate
Charlemagne’s approach to empire building?
Feudalism in Europe Section 2 (pages 358–363)
13. What exchange took place between lords and vassals
under feudalism?
1. USING YOUR NOTES
In a chart, compare medieval
Europe to an earlier civilization,
such as Rome or Greece.
Consider government, religion,
and social roles.
3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
POWER AND AUTHORITY Why do you think the ownership of
land became an increasing source of power for feudal lords?
4. ANALYZING ISSUES
Why did the appointment of bishops become the issue in a
struggle between kings and popes?
5. SYNTHESIZING
RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS What generalizations could
you make about the relationship between politics and religion
in the Middle Ages?
European Middle Ages
Economic System
Code of Behavior
Manors
•
•
Lord’s estate
Set of rights and
obligations between
serfs and lords
•
Chivalry
Belief System
•
•
The Church
Power over people’s • Involvement in
everyday lives
political affairs
Unifying force of
Christian faith
374 Chapter 13
• Displays of courage • Devotion to a
Self-sufficient
community
producing a
variety of goods
and valor in combat
feudal lord and
heavenly lord
• Respect toward
women
MEDIEVAL
SOCIETY
Political System
•
•
DEE
D
Feudalism
Form of govern• Oaths of loyalty in
ment based on
exchange for land
landholding
and military service
Alliances between
lords and vassals
•
Ranking of power
and authority
Use the quotation and your knowledge of world history to
answer questions 1 and 2.
Additional Test Practice, pp. S1-S33
Use the bar graph and your knowledge of world history to
answer question 3.
Population of Three Roman Cities
1. Which of these phrases does not characterize the knight
Chaucer describes?
A. a skilled fighter
350
Population (in thousands)
There was a knight, a most distinguished man,
Who from the day on which he first began
To ride abroad had followed chivalry,
Truth, honor, generous, and courtesy.
He had done nobly in sovereign’s war
And ridden in battle, no man more,
As well as Christian in heathen places
And ever honored for his noble graces.
GEOFFREY CHAUCER, The Canterbury Tales
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
B. a devoted Christian
D. a well-traveled warrior
A. that a knight was of noble birth
B. that a knight was a skilled warrior
C. that a knight adored his chosen lady
D. that a knight devoted himself to his heavenly Lord
Lyon
Trier
(in France)
(in Germany)
City Populations around A.D. 100
City Populations around A.D. 900
C. a young man
2. What qualities of knighthood do you think are missing from
Chaucer’s description?
Rome
Sources: Man and History; 3,000 Years of Urban Growth
3. What is the most important point this chart is making?
A. Trier and Lyon were not as large as Rome.
B. Rome was the most populous city in the Roman Empire.
C. All three cities lost significant population after the fall of the
Roman Empire.
D. Rome lost about 300,000 people from A.D. 100 to A.D. 200.
TEST PRACTICE Go to classzone.com
• Diagnostic tests
• Strategies
• Tutorials
• Additional practice
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
1.
Interact with History
On page 352, you considered the issue of what freedoms you
would give up for protection. Now that you have read the
chapter, reconsider your answer. How important was security?
Was it worth not having certain basic freedoms? Discuss your
ideas in a small group.
2.
WRITING ABOUT HISTORY
Refer to the text, and then write a three-paragraph character
sketch of a religious or political figure described in this chapter.
Consider the following:
Designing a Video Game
Use the Internet, books, and other reference materials to find
out more about medieval tournaments. Then create a video
game that imitates a medieval tournament between knights.
Describe your ideas in a proposal that you might send to a
video game company.
Think about video games that are based on contests.
You might adapt some of the rules to your game.
Consider the following:
• the rules of the game
• why the figure was important
• the system of keeping score of wins and losses
• how the figure performed his or her role
• weapons that should be used
European Middle Ages 375