Symbols of Power
Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815
Resource for Educators
American Federation of Arts
Symbols of Power
Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815
Resource for Educators
American Federation of Arts
Symbols of Power: Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815
American Federation of Arts
is organized by the American Federation of Arts, New York, and Les Arts
305 East 47th Street, 10th floor
Décoratifs, Paris. The national tour is made possible, in part, by the Joseph
New York, NY 10017
and Sylvia Slifka Foundation, Inc., and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation.
212.988.7700
The exhibition is also supported by an indemnity from the Federal Council
www.afaweb.org
on the Arts and the Humanities.
© 2007 American Federation of Arts
All materials included in this resource
may be reproduced for educational
purposes.
Please direct questions about this
resource to:
Suzanne Elder Burke
Director of Education
American Federation of Arts
212.988.7700 x226
sburke@afaweb.org
Exhibition Itinerary
Saint Louis Art Museum
June 17–September 16, 2007
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
October 21, 2007–January 27, 2008
Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris
April 2–October 5, 2008
Design/Production: Emily Lessard
Front cover: Gondola Chair from
Josephine Bonaparte’s Boudoir at
Saint-Cloud (no. 7)
Back cover: Soup Tureen: A Model for
Apprentice Silversmiths (no. 6)
The AFA is a nonprofit institution that organizes art exhibitions for presentation in museums around the world, publishes exhibition catalogues, and
develops education programs.
c o n t en t s
About This Resource
4
Exhibition Overview
5
Selected Works of Art from the Exhibition
1. Revolutionary Poster, Atelier Basset
2. Console Table, François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter
3. Folding Campaign Bed, Desouches
Folding Campaign Table, François-Honoré-Georges
Jacob-Desmalter
Folding Campaign Chair, attributed to François-Honoré Georges Jacob-Desmalter
7
4. Napoleon’s Cuirass, Dominique-Vivant Denon
8
10
12
14
5. Carpet from the Throne Room, François Debret and Jacques
Barraband
16
6. Soup Tureen: A Model for Apprentice Silversmiths,
Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot
18
7. Gondola Chair from Josephine Bonaparte’s Boudoir at
Saint-Cloud, attributed to Jacob Frères
20
8. Plate from the Olympic Service: Apollo and Daphne,
Manufacture de Sèvres
22
24
9. Sleeveless Gown with Train, anonymous
Chronology 26
Thematic Connections
29
Quotations by Napoleon
30
Guide to Empire Style Symbols 31
Glossary
33
Bibliography
35
4
a b o u t t h i s r es o u r c e
Designed to complement the exhibition Symbols of Power: Napoleon
and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815, this Resource for Educators
provides information and ideas to assist you in teaching your students
about Napoleon Bonaparte’s life and the decorative arts style that he
inspired and that flourished under his patronage. We recommend that, if
possible, you use this resource in conjunction with a visit to the exhibition.
Encourage your students to look closely at the works of art and to learn
about their historical context. The experience of careful looking, combined
with thoughtful questioning and access to information about history and
culture, creates a rewarding and powerful learning experience. This
resource may also be used independently from the exhibition. Please note
that those words that appear in boldface can be found in the glossary or
the guide to Empire style symbols. The discussion questions and activities
can be adjusted to the level of your students.
This Resource for Educators was prepared by Molly Cygan, Assistant Educator, and Suzanne Elder Burke, AFA Director of Education, with the assistance of Education Intern Elizabeth Marcus. Michaelyn Mitchell, AFA Director of Publications and Design, edited the text and supervised the design
of the resource. Some of the text has been excerpted or adapted from the
exhibition catalogue, Symbols of Power: Napoleon and the Art of the Empire
Style, 1800–1815 (New York: American Federation of Arts in association
with Abrams and Les Arts Décoratifs, 2007).
e x h i b i t i o n ov e r v i e w
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So named because it was designed to promote the First French Empire—
Napoleon’s rule of France—the Empire style is an early nineteenth-century
design movement that influenced architecture, furniture, and other decorative arts, as well as the visual arts. The Empire style was informed by
the classical vocabulary of Greco-Roman antiquity, which had captured the
imaginations of Napoleon’s official architects, Charles Percier and PierreFrançois-Léonard Fontaine. During the Napoleonic era, the Empire aesthetic, which was made popular by the designs of Percier and Fontaine,
permeated every aspect of life—both public and private.
Among the rich diversity of objects presented in this first definitive exhibition on the Empire style are furniture, silverware, porcelain, bronzes,
jewelry, clothing, textiles, architectural studies, wallpapers, metalwork,
and sculpture. Drawn from the remarkable holdings of the Musée des Arts
Décoratifs, Paris, and other prominent collections, both public and private,
in France and the United States, the selection includes some of the most
important works of the Empire period, among them, the empress’s coronation nef (a gilded silver container in the shape of a ship designed to hold
Josephine’s personal eating utensils), Napoleon’s sword, and Napoleon’s
throne. In addition to the Empire style objects, the exhibition includes a
small number of works designed and produced during and immediately
following the revolution—the Directoire (1795–99) and Consulate (1799–
1804) periods, respectively. These works provide a context for the evolution
of decorative arts in France in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries and illustrate the hallmarks of the emerging Empire style.
Symbols of Power reveals Napoleon’s deep understanding of the power of
symbols to aggrandize his ideas and promote and legitimize the aspiring
new Empire. Under his direction and patronage, designers, craftsmen, and
architects of the period developed a formal language for decorative arts that
reinterpreted existing symbols of power—such as the eagle, the bee, and
imagery depicting Greek and Roman mythology—and fueled a renaissance
among French artisans and industry. Emblems of power appropriated from
ancient Rome, Egypt, and Greece visually and conceptually linked Napoleon’s reign with these great civilizations. The resulting style—a reaction to
the stylistic delirium of the Rococo—was characterized by the juxtaposition of simplified designs with bold and saturated colors, expensive and
elaborately worked materials, and ornate decoration that included mythological figures, as well as symbolic references to Napoleon’s reign. No longer independent features, ornament and function now had to be conceived
together. The impact of the new style was felt through architecture, interior
design, furnishings, and fashion. Even after Napoleon’s final abdication in
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1815, the Empire style continued to be in favor for many decades and was
highly influential in Europe and the United States.
As the exhibition shows, imperial emblems, as well as military symbols, are
to be found on everything from Napoleon’s coronation robe and snuffbox
to wallpapers, furniture, and carpets. Perhaps as a counterweight to the
masculinity of the military emblems, feminine symbols began to appear.
Images of nudity, women in motion, the swan, the butterfly, flowers, and
cornucopia—metaphors of femininity meant to evoke ideas of love and
seduction—abound during the period.
Symbols of Power: Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815
provides a sumptuous overview of a remarkably sophisticated and highly
influential decorative style, as well as intriguing insight into the political,
social, and economic forces behind its development and evolution. Odile
Nouvel Kammerer, Chief Curator of Nineteenth-Century Art at the Musée
des Arts Décoratifs, Paris, is the guest curator of the exhibition.
Selected Works of Art from
the Exhibition
This section provides background information on nine selected images
from Symbols of Power: Napoleon and the Art of Empire Style, 1800–1815.
These represent a range of objects and materials from the Empire period.
Each object commentary is accompanied by a set of discussion questions.
You may wish to begin with open-ended questions such as the following: What do you see? What do you think the object is made of? Can you
describe the images or decoration on the object? What colors do you see?
As in any discussion, students’ opinions may differ; ask them to explain
their answers and back them up with direct observations. Comparing
answers and noting differences in perspective can be a fruitful avenue for
discussion.
Suggested classroom activities that relate to the object discussed are also
provided. The activities are designed to utilize a range of student skills.
Some are language based, others math or art based. The activities can be
adapted for use with students of any age.
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Discussion Questions
1. Describe the composition of the
Revolutionary Poster. Is it ordered or
cluttered? Which is more prominent, the
text or the images? Why do you think the
poster was designed in this way?
2. Do you think it was important for this
poster to be easily reproduced? Why?
3. Do you see anything in this poster that
reminds you of America? If so, what
elements are familiar?
4. Define the term “propaganda.” Do you
think this poster is effective as propaganda? Why?
Activity: What is a symbol?
Suggested materials: paper, colored
pencils or markers
1. Define the terms “symbol” and
“iconography” for students.
2. Provide students with symbol
dictionaries and access to the Web.
Suggested dictionaries include Dictionary
of Subjects and Symbols in Art (Icon
Editions) by James Hall or The Penguin
Dictionary of Symbols (Penguin) by
Jean Chevalier and Alain Gheerbrant.
3. Ask students to choose five symbols
they find interesting. Ask them to draw
their symbols and write three to five
sentences about each one, explaining
their iconographic, historical, and artistic
significance.
4. Ask students to draw a symbol of their
own design that represents their family,
friends, and interests. Have students write
a short explanation of what the symbol
means to them.
1. Revolutionary Poster
Atelier Basset, 1791–95
Pre-joined sheets of paper and steel plate painted in black and
stenciled with three colored inks, 22 x 17M in.
Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris; purchase, 1948 (35968)
Atelier Basset was one of the most well-known makers of wallpapers, posters, and other fine graphic material in Paris in the second half of the eighteenth century. The studio had the capacity for mass production, which lent
itself to the production of propaganda posters such as the one shown here,
which is created from several joined pages. Posters and wallpapers with
revolutionary symbols such as this were used at official ceremonies and
displayed in government buildings as a way to build and sustain support
for the revolution.
Set within an ornamental shield, the inscription is the motto of the newly
formed French Republic: “Unité et Indivisibilité de la République. Liberté,
Egalité, Fraternité, ou la Mort” (Unity and Indivisibility of the Republic. Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood, or Death). Similar patriotic sentiments can be
found in the slogans popularized by the leaders of the Revolutionary War
in the United States (1775–83).
Among the revolutionary images this poster features is the Phrygian cap,
a symbol of liberty, which appears above the inscription. The two flags on
either side of the cap, as well as the bow below, have the red, white, and
blue stripes of the tricolor, the official flag of the Republic. These emblems—
inspired by the coats of arms and badges of heraldic art—were openly propagandistic, a departure from the more frivolous and highly embellished
style of the Bourbon dynasty of the previous period.
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Activity: Designing a
Campaign Poster
Suggested materials: poster board,
paper, markers or tempera paint
1. Organize students into groups and
have each group create an imaginary
city.
2. Ask the students the following
questions to help them develop their
ideas: Where is the city located? In
America, Asia, near the mountains, the
ocean, or even outer space? What are
the people like? Is the city safe? What is
the government like? What are the
important rules and values of your city?
3. Ask each group to write a one-page
description of their city, including as
much detail as possible.
4. Provide each group with one large
poster board and ask them to design a
campaign poster that promotes their city.
5. Ask the group to elect a representative to present their city and their
campaign poster to the class.
6. After the presentations are finished,
conduct a blind vote to see which city
the students like best. Discuss that city
and what makes it appealing.
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Discussion Questions
1. What kind of room do you think this
table was made for? Do you think the table
was made primarily as a decorative or
functional piece of furniture (such as a
desk or dinner table)?
2. Console Table
François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter, ca. 1813
Elm, gilded bronze, and sea-green marble top, 35 x 53M x 27 ¾ in.
Grand Trianon, Versailles (T 163c)
2. Describe the two figures that support
the tabletop. How are they dressed? Do
you think they are representations of
nineteenth-century French women, or are
they from another time period?
This table has both an unusual history and an unusual design. It was com-
3. Discuss the fact that art objects are
often damaged over time, resulting in
repairs that sometimes alter the appearance of the piece. How might such
damage affect the modern viewer’s
perspective?
original tabletop was a mosaic found among the ruins of Herculaneum, the
Activity: Making an Imperial
Diorama
with its original mosaic top, was placed in Napoleon’s bedroom. Sometime
Suggested materials: colored construction
paper, newspaper, foam core, balsa wood,
cardboard, fabric scraps, self-drying clay,
paint, glitter, ribbon, empty thread spools,
Christmas lights, beads, gold leaf
within the palace. In 1875, the mosaic was removed and in 1882 replaced
1. Share some exterior images of
Versailles, Elysée, Malmaison, etc.,
with students or ask students to find
images on the Web.
seen from all sides, not placed against a wall as many console tables were
2. Ask students to think about one of
Napoleon’s palaces and imagine what one
of the rooms might look like. Have them
draw some of their ideas.
3. Ask students to design and build a
miniature version of a palace room—a
bedroom, dining room, drawing room—
either a room from one of the photos or
one of their own creation. The students
may use a shoebox for the basic structure
of the room. Ask them to gather materials
for the furniture, wallpaper, and decorations. Have them share their diorama with
the class, explaining their choices.
missioned by Napoleon for the Elysée Palace to complement the rich set
of furnishings left behind by the palace’s former owner, Marshal Joachim
Murat, the king of Naples and husband of Napoleon’s sister, Caroline. The
ancient city outside of Naples that was destroyed in the violent eruption
of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. The antique artifact depicted a mythological scene: a goat fighting a satyr (one of the followers of Bacchus, the god
of wine) surrounded by decorative patterns. After it was made, the table,
afterward, the delicate mosaic was damaged, probably while being moved
by a marble slab when the table was relocated to the Grand Trianon.
Designed to be placed in the center of a room, this piece was meant to be
at the time. Four caryatids—female figures dressed in antique robes—act
as supporting columns. Rendered in gilded bronze, these figures were
inspired by Greek architectural figures and are just one of a number of
classical ornamental features. A band of laurel leaves and flowers wraps
around the base of the tabletop while garlands of plant-like forms climb up
the sides of the columns. Two mythological griffins flank an ancient vase
at the bottom of the table. These emblems were appropriated from GrecoRoman styles and served to visually and conceptually link Napoleon’s reign
with the great civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome. While the decoration is rich, the shape of the piece is very simple, relying on straight lines
and right angles.
From 1796 to 1825, François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter oversaw one of the most successful and influential furniture workshops in
Paris. He received commissions from Pauline Borghese, Napoleon’s sister
in Rome, and the empresses Josephine and Marie-Louise, for whom he
supplied numerous pieces for Château Malmaison and for the Tuileries
Palace and other imperial residences.
11
Activity: Making a Mosaic
Suggested materials: graph paper, colored
paper, poster board, glue (optional: use
small colored ceramic tiles instead of
colored paper)
1. Explain to students what a mosaic is—
how mosaics are made and what their
history is. Share some examples.
2. Ask students to design a dinner-table
mosaic. Provide students with graph paper
to make a drawing of their mosaic design.
3. Provide each student with a stack of
colored paper. Ask them to cut the paper
into half-inch squares. Put the squares in a
box and mix them up.
4. Give each student a large handful of the
colored squares, a piece of poster board,
and glue.
5. Ask the students to create a mosaic of
the design they sketched earlier.
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Discussion Questions
1. Describe this furniture. Do the pieces
look like they would be used in one of
Napoleon’s palaces? Why or why not?
2. Do you think this furniture was built
with the primary focus on comfort or
appearance?
3. How does this furniture compare to the
furniture in your home? The classroom?
4. Do you think these pieces would have
been useful and easy to move?
5. What other furniture items might have
been needed on military expeditions or
campaigns?
6. Do you think most soldiers had
furniture like this for the battlefield? Why
or why not?
Activity: Exploring the
Evolution of Military Gear
Suggested materials: paper, found
images, colored pencils, glue
1. Lead a discussion about the usefulness of the campaign furniture. Ask
students to think about and make a list of
other gear or equipment that would have
been necessary for battle in the eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries (swords,
helmets, uniforms, guns, tents, etc.).
2. Let each student choose one item from
their list. Ask them to research the history
of the object.
3. Ask students to make a drawing or
collage showing at least four important
developments in the history of their
chosen object. Ask them to include the
date and maker (if available) and list the
stylistic differences or improvements in
each of the four drawings or collages.
3. Folding Campaign Bed
Desouches, ca. 1810
Steel, iron, and copper, 42H x 71L x 33M in.
Mobilier National, Paris (GME 17812)
Folding Campaign Table
François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter, ca. 1810
Poplar, walnut, and iron, 28fi/¡§ x 37K x 18H in.
Mobilier National, Paris (GME 952/1)
Folding Campaign Chair
Attributed to François-Honorè-Georges Jacob-Desmalter, ca. 1810
Beech wood, iron, canvas, and green morocco, 37 x 37K x 18H in. Mobilier National, Paris (GMT 2427/1)
The unadorned campaign furniture used by Napoleon was sturdy, transportable, and above all modest. From 1809 on, Napoleon owned furniture
that was specifically designed for his military exploits. Desouches, the
ironsmith at the Garde-Meuble (Furniture Storehouse), had the job of creating these very simple, functional pieces of furniture. Napoleon liked the
design and practicality of this furniture and sometimes even used it in his
private residences. In fact, versions of the campaign bed seen here were
also used in his bedroom at Château Fontainebleau, as well as on Saint
Helena, the island he was exiled to in 1815.
Wooden campaign beds had existed for a very long time, but this model by
Desouches is distinguished from earlier examples by its very high quality
and its steel fabrication. The frame, including a headboard and a footboard
decorated with miniature apples at the top, is supported by six legs on
wheels. The entire unit can be collapsed and stored in a small wooden
trunk when not in use. Desouches made ten of these types of beds in 1810
(around the time this example was produced) and another ten three years
later. The straight lines and remarkably spare quality of the bed embody
key characteristics of the Empire style.
Made of poplar and walnut, the top of the table is in three parts, and the base
consists of three slender folding legs. A catch-mechanism locks the legs in
place and can be released to fold away under the top, facilitating easy transport. The unusual three-leg design makes it easier to fold the table and position it steadily on the irregular ground of the battlefield or campground. The
campaign chair has a seat of soft goatskin, or morocco. The chair is sturdy,
yet its base pivots on an axis, which allows it to be easily folded.
13
Activity: Researching
Napoleon’s Military
Campaigns
Suggested materials: found imagery
such as maps; glue, markers
1. Divide the class into five small
groups. Assign each of them one of
Napoleon’s military campaigns to
research: the Austrian Campaign (1797),
the Egyptian Campaign (1798–99), the
War of the 2nd Coalition (1798–1801),
Waterloo (1812), the Russian Campaign
(1815).
2. Ask each group to research their
campaign and make a list of the
important people, places, and events.
3. Ask students to plot their information
on an illustrated timeline that includes
maps and other visual aids.
4. Collect the five timelines and connect
them to create a single timeline. Hang it
up in the classroom so the students have
a “picture” of Napoleon’s battles.
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Discussion Questions
4. Napoleon’s Cuirass
1. How do you think it would feel to wear
this piece of armor?
Dominique-Vivant Denon, ca. 1805
2. Discuss how military dress and
weaponry have changed since the
Napoleonic era. What do these changes
say about how wars are fought today?
Musée Carnavalet, Paris; Donated by Mme Marchal, 1935 (OM 3240)
3. Can you think of any occupations in
which people wear something similar to
armor?
4. Describe the scene at the center of
this cuirass or breastplate. How is the
scene related to the function of this item?
5. Do you think this was actually worn in
battle? Why? What is the difference
between a ceremonial object and a
functional object.
6. Why do you think Napoleon would
have wanted a reference to an ancient god
on his breastplate?
Steel and chiseled brass, 21I x 15I in.
The creation and presentation of a ceremonial cuirass, or breastplate, to a
political or military leader is a tradition dating back to ancient times. Also
known as a pair of curates, a cuirass is a set of two plates of armor meant
to cover the chest and back. In ancient Rome, they were referred to as
muscle cuirasses because they depicted chest and stomach muscles. They
were made of leather and specially fitted to the wearer’s upper body. In
the Middle Ages, both bronze and steel were used in making this protective gear. In the seventeenth century, foot soldiers wore a lighter version
called a corslet, while the mounted cavalry wore very heavy cuirasses that
restricted mobility.
Designed purely for ceremonial rather than functional purposes, this
7. As a class, discuss the following
quotation from Napoleon: “Alexander,
Caesar, Charlemagne, and myself founded
empires; but what foundation did we rest
the creations of our genius? Upon force.
Jesus Christ founded an empire upon love;
and at this hour millions of men would die
for Him.” What did Napoleon mean when
he said this? Do you think this quote is
accurate?
breastplate was never worn by Napoleon. It was created and offered to him
Activity: Designing a Shield for
Napoleon
fastening his shield and sheathing his sword. The imagery on this cuirass
Suggested materials: paper, colored
pencils, tempera paint
and Greece.
1. Imagine you were hired to design a
shield to go with this cuirass.
This piece was fabricated by armuriers, or metalsmiths, craftsmen held in
2. Do some research on Greek/Roman
mythology and Napoleon’s imperial
emblems and choose some imagery for
your shield.
nique-Vivant Denon, was an artist, writer, diplomat, and archeologist who
3. Incorporate this imagery into a drawing
of the shield.
4. Optional: Make the shield out of
papier-mâché and paint the finished
shield.
as a gesture of respect and a symbol of his military power. The imagery on
the front symbolizes Napoleon’s military prowess and strength as a leader,
specifically linking him with Mars, the Roman god of war and the father of
Romulus, one of the founders of and the first king of Rome. As the founder of
a nation to which armed combat had brought renewal and peace, Napoleon
viewed himself as a symbolic descendant of Mars, who is shown on the
cuirass flanked by two nude figures who are helping him prepare for battle,
symbolically links Napoleon’s regime with the civilizations of ancient Rome
high regard because of the difficulty of their work. The designer, Domiworked with Louis XV as the attaché for the French Embassy in St. Petersburg and as a diplomat for Louis XVI. In 1798, he accompanied Napoleon
on his Egyptian expedition, and in 1804 Napoleon named him directorgeneral of museums.
15
Activity: Assessing the
Qualities of Influential
Historical Figures
Suggested materials: paper, colored
pencils, markers
1. Ask students to research the
individuals mentioned in Napoleon’s
quote (see no. 7 of the discussion
questions): Alexander the Great, Julius
Caesar, Charlemagne, Napoleon, and
Jesus Christ.
2. Ask each student to make a list of five
words that describe each figure.
3. As a class, discuss each figure
and ask the students to share their five
words.
4. Write all of the words on the board
and list the figure or figures they apply to
next to that word, illustrating the different
and shared qualities.
16
Discussion Questions
5. Carpet from the Throne Room
1. Describe the pattern and design of this
carpet. Is it ordered or cluttered? Is it
symmetrical or disorganized? What colors
do you see?
Manufacture de la Savonnerie
2. What symbols can you identify? Which
ones do you think are the most important?
Why?
Musée National des Châteaux de Malmaison et Bois-Préau, Rueil-
3. Do you think this is an appropriate
design for a carpet in Napoleon’s Throne
Room (the grand hall in his palace where
the throne was placed and where official
ceremonies were held)? Why or why not?
4. Compare this carpet to the Revolutionary Poster. How are they similar? What
symbols do they share?
5. Do you think the carpet was used for
propaganda purposes like the Revolutionary Poster or used just as decoration?
Think about the dates of manufacture for
each. What do the dates tell you about
the function of each object?
Activity: Experimenting
with Weaving to Create a
Personalized Tapestry
Suggested materials: graph paper,
markers, colored paper, ribbons, yarn or
pipe cleaners, weaving loom (optional)
1. Have students create a design for a
carpet or tapestry by using a sheet of
graph paper and coloring in the squares.
2. Have the students personalize their
tapestries with symbols of their choosing.
They can include their monogram or other
drawings. (Encourage the students to
make their designs simple since they are
going to be woven.)
3. Ask students to take an 11-by-17-inch
piece of construction paper and fold
it in half. Cut parallel lines into the folded
paper starting at the fold and moving
toward the outside edge. They should stop
cutting about a H inch from the edge
of the paper.
4. Provide students with multi-colored
construction paper and ask them to
cut 11-inch-long strips in varying widths.
Designed by François Debret and Jacques Barraband, 1807–09
Wool, 25H x 21 ft. Malmaison; Donated by Helen Fahnestock-Hubbard, 1926 (MM
40.47.8112)
This perfectly symmetrical carpet exemplifies the Napoleonic system of
emblems. At the top, in the center, is the letter N (Napoleon’s monogram)
surrounded by a laurel wreath (used in ancient Rome to adorn the heads
of victorious warriors), around which is a garland of twenty-eight bees.
Napoleon chose the bee, one of the oldest emblems of the sovereigns of
France, as one of his imperial emblems. By adopting this emblem, he
associated himself with the very origins of France, rather than the more
recent Capetian and Bourbon kings. Napoleon also used the Roman eagle
as one of his imperial symbols. The jeweled crowns decorating this highly
symbolic carpet reference Napoleon’s singular power as emperor. The
Fritillaria, a type of lily, holds up each gold crown. The juxtaposition of
the imperial crown and the floral “crown” reflects Napoleon’s desire to
use strong, self-referential symbols. The outside border is dotted with five
pointed stars, which come from Napoleon’s family crest.
The emblems of the bee, the flower, and the laurel wreath were used not
only in the emperor’s apartments and on his personal effects and those of
his entourage, but also in public places. In contrast to the highly stylized
fleur-de-lis of the Bourbon monarchy, Napoleonic emblems were more
direct representations of nature with strong references to the past. Their
symbolic significance was therefore more easily understood.
Napoleonic emblems formed the framework for a new symbolic language
repeated endlessly in palaces, civic buildings, and public places. At the
time of their introduction, no writings were produced to explain them;
nonetheless, they combined to form a strong, simple, clear message that
united the entire nation around its leader. Much of the imagery was based
on the heritage of ancient Rome, a model of political unity.
17
5. Ask them to unfold their sheet of
construction paper and weave the first
strip of paper over and under the cuts.
With their next strip of paper they should
weave in the opposite way; first under,
then over. They should repeat this
process, while following their pattern
plan, until their original sheet is
complete.
6. Students can experiment with
threading paper strips, yarn, pipe
cleaners, or ribbon through the finished
woven sheet in order to produce
diagonals and circular shapes within
their design.
7.   Optional: If available, you can use
some type of loom for this project.
18
Discussion Questions
6. Soup Tureen: A Model for Apprentice Silversmiths
1. What imagery do you see on this soup
tureen? What do you think the swans
symbolize? The pine cone? The wheat,
vines, and acanthus leaves?
Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot, 1819
2. What is an “apprentice”? Do you think
it is important for young artists to learn
from older, more experienced artists? In
what other disciplines is it common to
have apprentices?
l’Instruction Publique et des Beaux-Arts (FNAC PFH-4537)
3. Do you think that a functional object,
such as this soup tureen, can be a piece
of art? Why?
Silverplated bronze with electrolytic silverplating, 18J x 18J x 11 in.
Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris; on deposit from the Ministère de
This soup tureen is attributed to Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot, a silversmith Napoleon commissioned for many prestigious projects for his family
and himself. Part of a collection presented by Odiot to the government in
1835 for use in the training of young silversmiths, this tureen is exemplary
for its quality of workmanship, stylistic refinement, and choice of iconog-
4. There are several different techniques
that silversmiths can use to shape silver.
Since silver is a malleable metal, it can be
shaped using gentle, carefully placed
taps with a hammer or press. This method
is called forging. A silversmith can also
create a mold in wax or clay and then
pour the silver into the mold. Can you tell
from looking at this tureen which method
Odiot used?
raphy. A soup tureen is typically raised by a molding or small foot that pro-
Activity: Imperial Style Dining
Both beautiful and functional, tureens of this period were highly deco-
Suggested materials: images of Napoleonera dress and interiors, paper, pencil
rated, frequently with hunting scenes or fruit. Here, Odiot chose the theme
1. Show students images of clothing and
interiors from Napoleon’s palaces.
Ears of wheat, vines, and acanthus leaves adorn the edges of the tureen.
2. Ask students to research food,
etiquette, and table rituals such as prayers
during the Empire period.
on the lid is in the shape of a pine cone.
3. Ask students to imagine they are either
guests at Napoleon’s table or are working
at the palace serving the guests.
4. Have students write a short story about
this experience. Encourage them to
include imaginary details about their
clothing, food, place setting, the room they
are in, and the guests around the table.
tects the surface it is placed on from the heat of its contents. Instead, Odiot’s
unique piece has two winged figures holding the weight of the bowl. A
tureen such as this was meant to be the centerpiece of a ceremonial table
that would include other ornate serving pieces and tableware. Some of
Napoleon and Josephine’s dinner-service sets consisted of thousands of
intricately decorated pieces.
of victory, using kneeling figures of Winged Victory to support the vessel.
On the handles are two delicate swans wearing pearl necklaces. The knob
During the Consulate and Empire periods, the decorative arts were
dominated by themes of triumph expressed in emblematic language such
as the figure of Victory. These emblems were widespread, appearing on
house wares and furniture in even the most modest homes. The aim was to
exalt the virtues of the regime. The designs of Charles Percier and PierreFrançois-Léonard Fontaine, which were laden with cultural and historical
significance, created a universal vehicle for shared ideals that were
acceptable to all, even to the conquered countries, which rapidly adopted
the new style. The systematic repetition of this imagery and the infiltration
of such designs into private homes was a powerful tool of propaganda.
19
20
Discussion Questions
1. How do you think it would feel (both
physically and emotionally) to sit in this
chair? Would the armrests be
comfortable?
2. Compare this chair to chairs in your
home and your classroom. How are they
different? The same?
3. The letter J, flowers, cornucopia,
swans, and butterflies were often used on
items for Empress Josephine. Why do you
think it was important for Josephine to
have her own set of symbols?
4. How are Josephine’s symbols different
from Napoleon’s symbols (his monogram,
the bee, and the eagle)? Can you draw any
parallels between the ones they chose?
Activity: French Word Study
Suggested materials: paper, pencil,
markers, card stock
1. Assign each student two or three
English words that have been borrowed
from the French language. Some
suggestions are listed below:
à la carte
attaché
boudoir
bouquet
brochure
brasserie
beau
chalet
chateau
déjà vu
ennui
facade
fondant
foyer
frappe
genre
gourmet
hors d’oeuvre
je ne sais quoi
lozenge
madam
motif
mousse
nouveau riche
papier-mâché
pastiche
pied-à-terre
questionnaire
raconteur
raison d’être
sauté
sabotage
tableaux
tromp l’oeil
vogue
vis-à-vis
voyeur
7. Gondola Chair from Josephine Bonaparte’s Boudoir at
Saint-Cloud
Attributed to Jacob Frères, ca. 1802–03
Gilded and white painted wood and orange-red velvet, embroidered
with gold, 30 x 27G x 26K in.
Musée National des Châteaux de Malmaison et Bois-Préau, RueilMalmaison; on deposit from the Mobilier National, Paris (MM 40.47.942
and GMT 1504)
This rare armchair with elbow rests in the shape of swans appears to have
been the first of its kind. Attributed to the renowned designer Jacob Frères,
it belongs to a set of four that stood in Josephine Bonaparte’s boudoir at the
Château de Saint-Cloud, Napoleon’s residence on the Seine. Saint-Cloud
was constructed as an extension to a Parisian hotel in the sixteenth century and was expanded by Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, in the seventeenth
century and again by Marie Antoinette in the 1780s. It is also the historic
location where Napoleon was proclaimed emperor in 1804.
Armchairs with wing-shaped armrests inspired by mythological animals
existed in France under the ancien régime (fourteenth–early eighteenth
century). Earlier chairs tended to be decorated with vicious winged beasts
such as griffins and dragons. The originality of this gondola chair comes
from its use of the graceful and feminine swan form. Representations of
the swan as an ornamental motif were frequent in ancient Roman art and
design, then disappeared almost completely until reappearing under the
Consulate period and becoming even more common in the decorative arts
of the Empire period. Swans are associated with the god Apollo because
they are said to have flown overhead on the day of Apollo’s birth. They are
often depicted pulling his chariot. The swan, symbolizing love and seduction, is also associated with Zeus, the god who transformed himself into
a swan in order to seduce Leda, a beautiful mortal queen with whom he
was in love.
Like Napoleon, Empress Josephine had her own set of imperial emblems.
Among them were the J (her monogram), cornucopia, butterflies, and the
2. Ask students to research the words
and their meanings in English and French.
Ask them to find their Latin roots as well.
swan, which she was particularly fond of. Her symbols were the feminine
3. Ask the students to illustrate each of
their words on an 8½-by-11-inch piece of
paper and put the definitions on the back.
Josephine Beauharnais, a native of Martinique, a French colony in the
equivalent of Napoleon’s more masculine and militaristic emblems.
Caribbean, met Napoleon in 1795. In January 1796, Napoleon proposed to
her, and they were married three months later. After the wedding, Napoleon left to lead the French army in Italy, but he sent her many love letters,
21
some of which are still intact. They were crowned emperor and empress
in 1804. Six years later Napoleon divorced her because she was not able
produce an heir. Josephine went to live at Château Malmaison with her pug
named Fortune.
4. Collect the sheets and use them to
create a set of oversized flashcards for
the classroom. Review all the words a
few times with the class.
5. Have a definition challenge during
the next class and award a prize to the
winner.
6. Ask students to think about common
English words. What words might be
used by people in other countries?
Activity: Design Contest
Suggested materials: paper, poster
board, colored pen and pencils, balsa
wood, foam core, fabric scraps, cotton
balls
1. Divide students into small groups and
ask them to think about the qualities of a
good chair (size, comfort, style, etc.).
2. Ask the students to sketch a design
for a chair that has the qualities they
listed.
3. Provide students with poster board
and colored pens and pencils and ask
them to draw their ideal chair. They
should include front and side views and
a detail of any decoration or pattern.
4. Ask students to create a model of
their chair using balsa wood or foam
core. Fabric and cotton balls can be
used for upholstery.
5. Organize a design show using the
student sketches and models. Make
categories for the judging such as Most
Comfortable, Most Original, etc.
6. Display the designs and ask students
to quietly walk around and score the
designs according to criteria such as
function, appearance, and originality.
22
Discussion Questions
1. Describe the scene in the center of the
plate. Are the figures life-like? Describe
their posture. What does this tell you
about their relationship?
2. Discuss the myth of Apollo and
Daphne and identify the moment that this
plate captures. Is it accurate? Would you
have changed the scene? If so, how?
3. Describe the decoration around the rim
of the plate. Does it complement the
scene in the center? If so, how?
Activity: Exploring Mythology
Suggested materials: paper, pencils,
costumes
1. Ask students to research the twelve
Olympian gods.
2. Ask each student to choose one
god to research and present to the
class. Encourage the students to be as
creative as possible for their presentations. Suggest that they dress up as
their chosen god, tell a story as if they
were the god, or act out an important
moment in the god’s life.
3. As a class, discuss the use of this
imagery in this set of plates. Why do you
think this imagery was chosen?
8. Plate from the Olympic Service: Apollo and Daphne
Manufacture de Sèvres, 1805
Hard-paste porcelain, 9 H in. (diameter)
Musée National de Céramique, Sèvres (MNC 1790)
The plate belongs to the Olympic Service, a set of plates commissioned by
Napoleon and presented to Czar Alexander of Russia in 1807. The service
was manufactured at Sèvres, the imperial porcelain factory.
Napoleon wanted French products to be regarded by the rest of the world
as beyond compare. To that end, he stimulated industry by placing large
official orders with national factories, such as Sèvres and other producers
of luxury goods. Ultimately, all the great craftsmen of the time contributed
to the Empire style in which decorative moderation and simplicity often
went hand in hand with expensive materials such as porcelain, bronze,
and silk.
The decoration on the Olympic Service features stories of the Olympian
gods. The imagery was intended to make pointed reference to the gods as
illustrious predecessors of Napoleon. Each plate in the set has the same
composition: a painted scene from mythology on the bottom and a raised
rim decorated with vegetable motifs that vary from plate to plate. The decorative elements on the rim of this plate include rosettes, thin leaves, and
spiraling ferns.
The central medallion of the plate shows the metamorphosis of the nymph
Daphne into a laurel tree, as recounted by Ovid, the famous poet of ancient
Rome. Apollo, the Greco-Roman god of light, truth, and healing, is featured
here with a golden scarf, embracing his beloved Daphne as she transforms
into a tree. Apollo is a key figure in the love imagery of the Empire period.
Radiantly beautiful, he is represented as a dreamy, effeminate adolescent
male, often presiding over the games of the muses and accompanying their
dances with the sounds of his lyre.
Young women in antique dress were a particularly common motif in the
early years of the Empire. Dancing in the clouds and among the stars,
these figures embodied the Apollonian muses, the Seasons (or the Hours),
performing a dance for Time. With loose-flowing hair and wind-blown
garments clinging to their shapely bodies, these females are allegorical
expressions of desire. In this plate, the flowing scarf, nude figure, and
embracing couple embody this type of motif.
23
24
Discussion Questions
1. Describe this gown. Do you think it
was an everyday dress or a dress worn for
special occasions?
2. What do you think this dress says
about the social status of the owner?
What type of clothing do you think the
lower and middle classes wore?
9. Sleeveless Gown with Train
Anonymous, ca. 1804-06
White muslin, embroidered in white cotton stitch and French knit-stitch,
50 I x 24 K in.
Les Arts Décoratifs, Musée de la Mode et du Textile, Paris; Bequest of
Mme Chappée, 1961 (UF 61-14-19)
3. During the Empire period, women often
wore white fabrics, while men typically
wore colorful fabrics and items with
metallic embroidery. What do you think is
the significance of this?
As the only decoration on this gown, the pineapple and its leaves are
Activity: Designing Clothing
for Royalty
for botanical exoticism. A common motif for sumptuous silks in the 1730s,
Suggested materials: paper, colored pen
and pencils
the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Josephine Beauharnais—a
1. Assign each student a country (for
example, India, Spain, South Africa, Saudi
Arabia) and ask them to research the
dress of royalty in that country in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Ask
students to find pictures of the distinctive
royal attire and share with the class.
to acclimatize at Malmaison. The white color of the gown is characteristic
2. Ask students to write a detailed
description of the clothing and draw some
comparisons between this dress and royal
clothing from other cultures.
3. Ask students to make designs for an
original ensemble in the same style for the
royalty of their assigned country/culture.
4. Optional: ask students to also design
an outfit they would want to wear if they
were royalty.
embroidered in cotton in a central band down the center front and along the
hem of the dress, extending into the train. This design, which emphasizes
the delicacy of materials and simple lines of the dress, speaks to the taste
the pineapple exerted a fascination as powerful as that of the artichoke in
native of Martinique—had a great taste for exotic plants, which she tried
of feminine style during the Empire period. Men typically wore colorful
clothes decorated with metallic embroidery.
An ideal model for the slender fashions of the day, Empress Josephine was
very mindful of her appearance and a great fashion leader. She owned
countless day and ceremonial outfits and even introduced a new style of
dress, the high-waisted court dress with a train, to the French public. She
was continuously acquiring new clothing and many of her older dresses
and outfits were often given away. All that remains of the hundreds of
dresses, coats, hats, and shoes the empress had are a few court dresses
and coats, and some undergarments.
25
26
c h r o n o lo gy
1589 The Bourbon dynasty is established in France; Henry the Great (IV) is
crowned king
1600 Baroque art, associated with the Catholic Counter-Reformation, becomes
the dominant style of European art
1610 Louis XIII, “The Just,” is crowned king
1618 The Thirty Years’ War between Catholics and Protestants begins in Europe
1625–28 The Huguenots (a Protestant minority) rebel against Louis XIII
1643 Louis XIII dies; Louis XIV, “The Sun King,” accedes the throne at the
age of four
1648
The Treaty of Westphalia (also known as the Treaty of Münster) ends the
Thirty Years’ War
1682 The royal court moves to Versailles
1715 Louis XIV dies; Louis XV, “The Well-Beloved,” accedes; the Rococo style
(known for its delicacy and elaborate ornamentation) begins to emerge
1762 Enlightenment thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes his Social
Contract
1769 On August 15, Napoleon is born to a noble family on the island of Corsica,
off the coast of Italy
1774 Louis XV dies of smallpox; Louis XVI becomes king; Marie Antoinette
becomes queen
1775 The American Revolutionary War begins
1776 The Declaration of Independence is signed
1778 Napoleon’s father, Carlo, a representative of the Corsican Parliament,
enrolls his nine-year-old son at Brienne, a private academy in France;
Napoleon is a very small child (as an adult he stands at only 5 feet 2
inches)
1784 Napoleon is promoted to the Royal Military Academy in Paris
1785 Napoleon begins an apprenticeship as a second lieutenant in the best
artillery unit in the French army
1789 The French Revolution begins with the storming of the Bastille;
revolutionaries issue the Declaration of the Rights of Man; George
Washington is elected the first president of the United States
c h r o n o lo gy
27
1792 Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette are tried for treason and guillotined; the
new Republic is established; Napoleon takes leave of the French
army and returns to Corsica to join the island’s National Guard; his
dedication to Corsica is called into question, and he is forced to flee to the
mountains with his family
1793
Banished from Corsica, Napoleon sets sail for France with his family;
Napoleon rejoins the French military and is promoted to major; his early victories make him a hero throughout France
1795
In October, civic unrest erupts in Paris due to the oppression of the lower
classes by the government; the Directoire becomes the government of
France and five directors are named—Jean François Rewbell, Paul François
Jean Nicolas Barras, Louis Marie de La Révellière Lépeaux, Comte Lazare
Nicolas Marguerite Carnot, and Etienne-François-Louis–Honoré Le Tourneur
1796
On March 9, Napoleon marries Josephine Beauharnais; in May, Napoleon
leads his troops into Milan to liberate Italians from Austrian rule; his
soldiers take many of Italy’s finest artworks and bring them to Paris
1797 John Quincy Adams is elected the second president of the United States.
1798 Napoleon and his army begin the Egyptian expedition; his fleet is
destroyed at the Battle of the Nile, and his army attacks Syria; the soldiers
loot valuable Egyptian treasures, including the Rosetta Stone
1799 The Consulate replaces the Directoire government; Napoleon Bonaparte is
named First Consul
1801 Napoleon appoints Charles Percier and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine
the official architects and designers of the Empire; Thomas Jefferson is
elected the third president of the United States
1803 The U.S. negotiates the Louisiana Purchase with France
1804 Napoleon is crowned emperor; the First Empire begins; the Napoleonic
Code, based on both French and ancient Roman law, is established; the
Empire style begins to emerge
1810 On January 10, Napoleon and Josephine are divorced; Napoleon marries his
second wife, Marie-Louise of Austria, in April
1811
Napoleon II is born
1812 Percier and Fontaine publish Recueils de Décorations Intérieures, a pattern
book that provides models of Empire style design; Napoleon invades Russia,
an event that marks the beginning of his downfall
28
c h r o n o lo gy
1813 In October, Napoleon is defeated by the 6th Coalition—allied forces
including Britain, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Austria, and Sweden—in the
Battle of the Nations (also known as the Battle of Leipzig), the biggest battle of the Napoleonic wars
1814 The allied forces from Russia, Prussia, and Austria capture Paris;
Napoleon abdicates the throne and is exiled to the Italian island of Elba;
Louis XVIII is crowned king
1815
On February 26, Napoleon escapes from Elba with 600 soldiers; he returns
to Paris and from March 20 to July 8, the period referred to as the Hundred Days or Cent-Jours, assumes power in the absence of Louis XVIII, who has
fled; the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon’s last battle, takes place on June 18;
Napoleon’s final abdication—he surrenders to the British and is exiled to
the island of Saint Helena
1821 On May 5, Napoleon dies on Saint Helena
1852 Napoleon’s nephew is crowned as Emperor Napoleon III
TH E M ATIC CO N N E CTIO N S
29
Below are themes that educators can use to approach the works of art
included in this resource.
Classical Mythology:
Console Table, François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter, ca. 1813
Plate from the Olympic Service: Apollo and Daphne, Manufacture de Sèvres,
1805
Napoleon’s Cuirass, Dominique-Vivant Denon, ca. 1805
Soup Tureen: A Model for Apprentice Silversmiths, Jean-Baptiste-Claude
Odiot, 1819
Textiles:
Sleeveless Gown with Train, Anonymous, ca. 1804–06
Carpet from the Throne Room, François Debret and Jacques Barraband,
1807–09
Military:
Folding Campaign Bed, Desouches, ca. 1810
Folding Campaign Table, François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter,
ca. 1810
Folding Campaign Chair, attributed to François-Honoré-Georges JacobDesmalter, ca. 1810
Revolutionary Poster, Atelier Basset, 1791–95
Napoleon’s Cuirass, Dominique-Vivant Denon, ca. 1805
Nationalism:
Revolutionary Poster, Atelier Basset, 1791–95
Carpet from the Throne Room, François Debret and Jacques Barraband,
1807–09
Gondola Chair from Josephine Bonaparte’s Boudoir at Saint-Cloud,
attributed to Jacob Frères, ca. 1802–03
Roman Empire/Republic:
Revolutionary Poster, Atelier Basset, 1791–95
Napoleon’s Cuirass, Dominique-Vivant Denon, ca. 1805
30
Q u otat i o ns by N ap o le o n
Below are quotations that can be used to help convey Napoleon’s
perspectives on life as a soldier, emperor, and patriot.
“All men of genius are French.”
“He who fears being conquered is sure of defeat.”
“It is the cause, not the death, that makes the martyr.”
“Take time to deliberate, but when the time for action has arrived, stop
thinking and go in.”
“Alexander, Caesar, Charlemagne, and myself founded empires; but what
foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. Jesus Christ
founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die
for Him.”
“A throne is only a bench covered with velvet.”
“To extraordinary circumstance we must apply extraordinary remedies.”
“Ability is of little account without opportunity.”
“Even when I am gone, I shall remain in people’s minds the star of their
rights, my name will be the war cry of their efforts, the motto of their
hopes.”
“We should always go before our enemies with confidence, otherwise our
apparent uneasiness inspires them with greater boldness.”
“Great ambition is the passion of a great character. Those endowed with
it may perform very good or very bad acts. All depends on the principles
which direct them.”
“All men are equal before God: wisdom, talents, and virtue are the only
difference between them.”
G UI D E TO E M P IR E S TY L E SY M BO L S
31
Bee
Chosen by Napoleon as one of his imperial emblems. More than 300 bees
made of gold were found in the tomb of King Childeric I, king of the Franks
in the fifth century A.D., so by adopting this emblem, Napoleon linked himself with the earliest French rulers.
Butterfly
Associated with the mythological figure Psyche, who is often depicted
with butterfly wings. When shown fluttering around bouquets or baskets
of flowers, the butterfly refers to the myth of Flora, the goddess of Spring,
who symbolizes the beginning of life.
Cornucopia
A symbol of abundance and wealth dating back to the fifth century B.C.
Used during the Empire period as a symbol of the natural resources and
cultural and economic riches of the new republic.
Eagle
Adopted by Napoleon to represent his new French Empire. Derived from the
Romans, who used the eagle, a symbol of power and independence, on the
standards or flags of the Roman army. A bronze sculpture of the eagle was
carried by Napoleon’s regiment.
Fleur-de-lis
A stylized flower design that is both decorative and symbolic. Used by the
earliest French kings, including Charlemagne; part of the French flag until
the Revolution, when it was replaced by the tricolor flag.
Fritillaria
A member of the lily family and in France referred to as the imperial flower.
Chosen for its large size, symmetrical appearance, and crown-like shape,
this was one of the two most common flowers depicted in the Empire
period. It symbolizes wealth and triumph.
Laurel wreath
In Greek mythology, the sun god Apollo is represented wearing a laurel
wreath on his head. In Rome it was a symbol of military victory.
32
G UI D E TO E M P IR E S TY L E SY M BO L S
Napoleon’s monogram
The single uppercase N marks many Empire period objects. Like a brand,
the monogram typically identified objects as belonging to Napoleon, his
household, or his entourage.
Phrygian cap
A symbol of Liberty adopted by the revolutionaries in France. Worn during
the Roman Empire by slaves who had been emancipated by their masters
and whose descendants were therefore considered citizens of the Roman
Empire.
Swan
A symbol of love and of the sun god Apollo. Swans are said to have flown
overhead on the day of Apollo’s birth and are often pictured pulling his
chariot. The swan is also associated with Zeus, the god who transformed
himself into a swan in order to seduce Leda, the beautiful mortal queen
with whom he was in love.
glossa ry
33
Ancien régime: Refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political
system established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties
(fourteenth–eighteenth century). The term is French for “former regime”
but rendered in English as “old rule,” “old order,” or simply “old regime.”
Bourbon dynasty: The Bourbon dynasty ruled France as a monarchy
from the sixteenth century, lost power following the French Revolution,
and reasserted power with the coronation of Louis XVIII in 1814.
Capetian dynasty: This dynasty ruled France from 987 to 1328 and is
the oldest continuously running monarchy in Europe.
Château Fontainebleau: The largest royal château during the French
Revolution.
Château Malmaison: In 1799, Josephine, Napoleon’s first wife, purchased this country chateau while Napoleon was on his Egyptian expedition. Following their divorce in 1810, Josephine moved there, remaining
until her death in 1814.
Château de Saint-Cloud: A royal chateau overlooking the Seine in
Saint-Cloud in the western suburbs of Paris; purchased in 1785 by Louis
XVI for Marie Antoinette and their children; destroyed in 1870 during the
Franco-Prussian War.
Consulate: The government of France from 1799 to 1804—from the fall of
the Directoire until the start of the Napoleonic Empire.
Cuirass: Armor meant to cover the chest and back; formed of two pieces
of metal or other rigid material.
Decorative arts: Traditionally defined as art that is both functional and
ornamental. Pieces may be created in a variety of materials including
ceramic, wood, glass, metal, or textile.
Dominique Vivant-Denon: An artist, writer, diplomat, and archeologist
who accompanied Napoleon on his Egyptian expedition in 1798. VivantDenon also worked with Louis XV and Louis XVI as a diplomat.
François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter: Head of one of the most
successful and influential furniture workshops in Paris, from 1796 to
1825. Desmalter received commissions from the empresses Josephine and
Marie Louise for Malmaison and other imperial residences.
Desouches: An ironsmith who made iron and steel furniture, including
Napoleon’s campaign furniture.
Directoire: The Directoire held power in France between 1795 and 1799,
instating a system in which executive power was shared among five
Directors. The constitution under the Directoire called for the strict control
of all local authorities by the central government and guaranteed freedom
of religion, of the press, and of labor, but did not allow for armed assemblies or even public meetings.
34
glossa ry
Elba: Napoleon was exiled to Elba (an island in Tuscany) after his forced
abdication in 1814. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of six hundred men and was made the emperor of the island.
Elysée Palace: In 1808, the property was offered to Napoleon by the
King of Naples, Joaquim Murat, and was used as an imperial residence.
Empire: The First French Empire, commonly known as the French Empire
or the Napoleonic Empire, is dated between the years 1804 and 1815.
During this time, France controlled much of continental Europe, and at
its height its territories spanned from France in the west to Poland in the
east and from Spain and Italy in the south as far north as Holland.
Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine: An architect, interior decorator, and
designer who worked in close partnership with Charles Percier. Together,
they were the proponents of the Empire style and were named the official
designers for the Empire by Napoleon.
Garde-Meuble: The large storehouse where imperial furnishings and
house wares were cared for and restored.
Grand Trianon: Built as a retreat near Versailles for Louis XIV; later
refurnished in the Empire style and occupied by Napoleon from 1805 to
1815.
Heraldic art: An art form that includes badges, coats of arms, flags,
and family crests. Certain colors, patterns, and mottoes define levels of
achievement and skill in combat.
Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot: One of the most famous silver manufacturers of his time. Napoleon gave Odiot many important commissions for
himself and his family.
Olympic Service: The name given to a set of plates and other tableware
that illustrates the lives and loves of the Olympian gods and was created
as Napoleon’s diplomatic gift to Czar Alexander of Russia in 1807.
Charles Percier: An architect, interior decorator, and designer who
worked in close partnership with Fontaine. Together, they were the proponents of the Empire style and were named the official designers for the
Empire by Napoleon.
Rococo style: An eighteenth-century French style of architecture and
decoration distinguished by its elegance, focus on nature, and playful
themes.
Saint Helena: A volcanic island in the southern Atlantic Ocean where
Napoleon was exiled in 1815. He died there in 1821.
Sèvres: A small city in the southwestern suburbs of Paris where the
Manufacture nationale de Sèvres, the famous porcelain factory, is located.
Tuileries Palace: A palace in Paris on the Seine. On November 9,
1789, the governmental officials moved their political discussions from
Versailles to the Tuileries. Napoleon made the Tuileries the official
residence of the First Consul and later the imperial palace.
b i b l i o g r ap h y
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Text Resources
Baca, Albert R. Napoleon, Russia, and the Olympian Gods: The “Olympic
Service” of the Armory Museum in the Kremlin. Los Angeles: CoaStar
Publishing, 1996.
Beunat, Joseph. Empire Style Designs and Ornaments. New York: Dover
Publications, 1974.
Boime, Albert. A Social History of Modern Art, Volume 2: Art in an Age of
Bonapartism, 1800-1815. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
Bolton, Andrew, Danielle Kisluk-Grosheide, Mimi Hellman, and Harold
Koda. Dangerous Liaisons: Fashion and Furniture in the Eighteenth
Century. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2006.
Cherry, Deborah, and Katie Scott. Between Luxury and the Everyday:
French Decorative Arts in the Eighteenth Century. Boston: Blackwell
Publishing Limited, 2006.
Conner, Susan P. The Age of Napoleon. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,
2004.
Delorme, Eleanor P. Josephine: Napoleon’s Incomparable Empress. New
York: Harry N. Abrams, 2002.
Fleming, John. Dictionary of Decorative Arts. New York: Viking Adult,
1990.
Greenblatt, Miriam. Napoleon Bonaparte and Imperial France (Rulers and
Their Times). New York: Benchmark Books, 2005.*
Grimal, Pierre, and A.R. Maxwell-Hyslop. The Dictionary of Classical
Mythology. Boston: Blackwell Publishing Limited, 1996.
Haig, Diana Reid, and Napoleon Bonaparte. The Letters of Napoleon to
Josephine. London: Ravenhall Books, 2005.
Hickman, Barbara Ann-Day. Napoleonic Art: Nationalism and the Spirit of
Rebellion in France 1815-1848. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press,
1999.
36
b i b l i o g r ap h y
Landau, Elaine. Napoleon Bonaparte. Minneapolis: Lerner Publishing,
2005.*
O’Brien, David. After the Revolution: Antoine-Jean Gros, Painting and
Propaganda Under Napoleon. University Park, PA: Penn State University
Press, 2006.
Obstfeld, Raymond, and Loretta Obstfeld. Napoleon Bonaparte (People
Who Made History). Farmington Hills, MI: Greenhaven Press, 2000.*
Percier, Charles. Empire Stylebook of Interior Design: All 72 Plates from
the “Recueil de Decorations Interieures” with New English Text. New York:
Dover Publications, 1991.
Savage, George. French Decorative Art: 1638-1793. New York: Penguin,
1969.
Schom, Alan. Napoleon Bonaparte: A Life. New York: Harper Collins, 1998.
Trench, Lucy. Materials & Techniques in the Decorative Arts: An Illustrated
Dictionary. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
Wark, Robert R. French Decorative Art: In the Huntington Collection. San
Marino, CA: The Huntington Library, 1979.
* text suitable for children
Video and DVD Resources
Napoleon Bonaparte: The Glory of France. A&E Television Networks, 1997.
The Campaigns of Napoleon. PBS, 1998.
Empires: Napoleon. PBS, 2000.
The French Revolution. The History Channel, 2005.
Napoleon Bonaparte and the Battle of Austerlitz. Ambrose Video/A&E,
1993.
Conquerors. The Learning Channel, 1996.
Waterloo. Dino De Laurentiis Cinematografia, 1970.
b i b l i o g r ap h y
37
Selected Web Resources
www.uncg.edu/rom/courses/dafein/civ/timeline.htm
An interactive detailed timeline of French history from prehistory to
the 1970s.
www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook.html
A collection of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented for educational use. A great place to find primary sources and
quotations.
www.ambafrance-us.org/kids/
This Web site was developed by the French Embassy. A Web site for
children interested in basic historical, cultural facts about France.
www.napoleon.org
Organized by the Fondation Napoleon and updated regularly; provides
a timeline, imperial family tree, quizzes, a glossary, and many other
resources.
www.napoleonica.org/us/index.html
A highly academic site that provides access to primary sources supported by the Fondation Napoleon.
www.pbs.org/empires/napoleon
This resource is designed to be used in conjunction with the PBS
“Napoleon” video series but can easily be used independently. It has a
very detailed timeline, classroom activities, an interactive battlefield
simulator, and an option to watch clips of the series.
www.napoleonguide.com
The Napoleonic Guide is a reference source for the life and times of
Napoleon Bonaparte. It has more than 2,000 pages of information.
www.getty.edu/education/for_teachers/curricula/decarts/
Developed by the Getty Education Department; contains general information, classroom activities about French decorative arts, and a small
image bank.
38
b i b l i o g r ap h y
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Empire_style
A great quick reference guide, the text is hyperlinked to other Wikipedia
pages, which makes it easy to find additional background about the
people, places, and events mentioned.
www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/empr/hd_empr.htm
Part of the Metropolitan Museum of Art education Web site; contains an
easily accessible image bank with supporting information; also provides
a good overview of the Empire style and the key artists, architects, and
craftsmen of the period.
www.lesartsdecoratifs.fr/index_gb.html
Most of this site is in French, but the decorative arts image database can
be very helpful.
Music Resources
http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/browse/songs/#
http://www.napoleon.org/en/fun_stuff/music/index.asp
http://www.napoleon.org/en/reading_room/biographies/files/lesueur.asp
http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/music/c_musiclist.html
39
40
Books for Adults
Aldred, Cyril. Egyptian Art in the Days of the Pharaohs: 3100–320 B.C.
New York: Thames and Hudson, 1987.
Baines, John, and Jaromir Malek. Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New
York: Facts on File, Inc., 2000.
Brooklyn Museum of Art. The Art of Ancient Egypt: A Portfolio. New York:
The New Press, 1996.
Davies, Vivian, and Reness Freidman. Egypt. London: British Museum
Press, 1999.
Faulkner, Raymond O. (trans.), and Carol Andrews (ed.). The Book of the
Dead. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1972.
Fazzini, Richard A., James F. Romano, and Madeleine F. Cody. Art for
Eternity: Masterworks from Ancient Egypt. London: Scala Publishers Ltd.,
1999.
Hart, George. Egyptian Myths. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991.
Houlihan, Patrick F. The Animal World of the Pharaohs. London: Thames
and Hudson, 1997.
Ions, Veronica. Egyptian Mythology. New York: School Specialty Children’s
Publishing, 1991.
James, T. G. Egyptian Painting. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 1986.
———. Egyptian Sculpture. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1983.
Janssen, Rosalind M., and J. Jac. Getting Old in Ancient Egypt. London:
The Rubicon Press, 1996.
Mertz, Barbara. Temples, Tombs, and Hieroglyphs: A Popular History of
Ancient Egypt. New York: School Specialty Children’s Publishing, 1990.
———. Red Land, Black Land: Daily Life in Ancient Egypt. New York: School
Specialty Children’s Publishing, 1990.