Symbols of Power Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815 Resource for Educators American Federation of Arts Symbols of Power Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815 Resource for Educators American Federation of Arts Symbols of Power: Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815 American Federation of Arts is organized by the American Federation of Arts, New York, and Les Arts 305 East 47th Street, 10th floor Décoratifs, Paris. The national tour is made possible, in part, by the Joseph New York, NY 10017 and Sylvia Slifka Foundation, Inc., and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation. 212.988.7700 The exhibition is also supported by an indemnity from the Federal Council www.afaweb.org on the Arts and the Humanities. © 2007 American Federation of Arts All materials included in this resource may be reproduced for educational purposes. Please direct questions about this resource to: Suzanne Elder Burke Director of Education American Federation of Arts 212.988.7700 x226 sburke@afaweb.org Exhibition Itinerary Saint Louis Art Museum June 17–September 16, 2007 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston October 21, 2007–January 27, 2008 Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris April 2–October 5, 2008 Design/Production: Emily Lessard Front cover: Gondola Chair from Josephine Bonaparte’s Boudoir at Saint-Cloud (no. 7) Back cover: Soup Tureen: A Model for Apprentice Silversmiths (no. 6) The AFA is a nonprofit institution that organizes art exhibitions for presentation in museums around the world, publishes exhibition catalogues, and develops education programs. c o n t en t s About This Resource 4 Exhibition Overview 5 Selected Works of Art from the Exhibition 1. Revolutionary Poster, Atelier Basset 2. Console Table, François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter 3. Folding Campaign Bed, Desouches Folding Campaign Table, François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter Folding Campaign Chair, attributed to François-Honoré Georges Jacob-Desmalter 7 4. Napoleon’s Cuirass, Dominique-Vivant Denon 8 10 12 14 5. Carpet from the Throne Room, François Debret and Jacques Barraband 16 6. Soup Tureen: A Model for Apprentice Silversmiths, Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot 18 7. Gondola Chair from Josephine Bonaparte’s Boudoir at Saint-Cloud, attributed to Jacob Frères 20 8. Plate from the Olympic Service: Apollo and Daphne, Manufacture de Sèvres 22 24 9. Sleeveless Gown with Train, anonymous Chronology 26 Thematic Connections 29 Quotations by Napoleon 30 Guide to Empire Style Symbols 31 Glossary 33 Bibliography 35 4 a b o u t t h i s r es o u r c e Designed to complement the exhibition Symbols of Power: Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815, this Resource for Educators provides information and ideas to assist you in teaching your students about Napoleon Bonaparte’s life and the decorative arts style that he inspired and that flourished under his patronage. We recommend that, if possible, you use this resource in conjunction with a visit to the exhibition. Encourage your students to look closely at the works of art and to learn about their historical context. The experience of careful looking, combined with thoughtful questioning and access to information about history and culture, creates a rewarding and powerful learning experience. This resource may also be used independently from the exhibition. Please note that those words that appear in boldface can be found in the glossary or the guide to Empire style symbols. The discussion questions and activities can be adjusted to the level of your students. This Resource for Educators was prepared by Molly Cygan, Assistant Educator, and Suzanne Elder Burke, AFA Director of Education, with the assistance of Education Intern Elizabeth Marcus. Michaelyn Mitchell, AFA Director of Publications and Design, edited the text and supervised the design of the resource. Some of the text has been excerpted or adapted from the exhibition catalogue, Symbols of Power: Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815 (New York: American Federation of Arts in association with Abrams and Les Arts Décoratifs, 2007). e x h i b i t i o n ov e r v i e w 5 So named because it was designed to promote the First French Empire— Napoleon’s rule of France—the Empire style is an early nineteenth-century design movement that influenced architecture, furniture, and other decorative arts, as well as the visual arts. The Empire style was informed by the classical vocabulary of Greco-Roman antiquity, which had captured the imaginations of Napoleon’s official architects, Charles Percier and PierreFrançois-Léonard Fontaine. During the Napoleonic era, the Empire aesthetic, which was made popular by the designs of Percier and Fontaine, permeated every aspect of life—both public and private. Among the rich diversity of objects presented in this first definitive exhibition on the Empire style are furniture, silverware, porcelain, bronzes, jewelry, clothing, textiles, architectural studies, wallpapers, metalwork, and sculpture. Drawn from the remarkable holdings of the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris, and other prominent collections, both public and private, in France and the United States, the selection includes some of the most important works of the Empire period, among them, the empress’s coronation nef (a gilded silver container in the shape of a ship designed to hold Josephine’s personal eating utensils), Napoleon’s sword, and Napoleon’s throne. In addition to the Empire style objects, the exhibition includes a small number of works designed and produced during and immediately following the revolution—the Directoire (1795–99) and Consulate (1799– 1804) periods, respectively. These works provide a context for the evolution of decorative arts in France in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries and illustrate the hallmarks of the emerging Empire style. Symbols of Power reveals Napoleon’s deep understanding of the power of symbols to aggrandize his ideas and promote and legitimize the aspiring new Empire. Under his direction and patronage, designers, craftsmen, and architects of the period developed a formal language for decorative arts that reinterpreted existing symbols of power—such as the eagle, the bee, and imagery depicting Greek and Roman mythology—and fueled a renaissance among French artisans and industry. Emblems of power appropriated from ancient Rome, Egypt, and Greece visually and conceptually linked Napoleon’s reign with these great civilizations. The resulting style—a reaction to the stylistic delirium of the Rococo—was characterized by the juxtaposition of simplified designs with bold and saturated colors, expensive and elaborately worked materials, and ornate decoration that included mythological figures, as well as symbolic references to Napoleon’s reign. No longer independent features, ornament and function now had to be conceived together. The impact of the new style was felt through architecture, interior design, furnishings, and fashion. Even after Napoleon’s final abdication in 6 1815, the Empire style continued to be in favor for many decades and was highly influential in Europe and the United States. As the exhibition shows, imperial emblems, as well as military symbols, are to be found on everything from Napoleon’s coronation robe and snuffbox to wallpapers, furniture, and carpets. Perhaps as a counterweight to the masculinity of the military emblems, feminine symbols began to appear. Images of nudity, women in motion, the swan, the butterfly, flowers, and cornucopia—metaphors of femininity meant to evoke ideas of love and seduction—abound during the period. Symbols of Power: Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style, 1800–1815 provides a sumptuous overview of a remarkably sophisticated and highly influential decorative style, as well as intriguing insight into the political, social, and economic forces behind its development and evolution. Odile Nouvel Kammerer, Chief Curator of Nineteenth-Century Art at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris, is the guest curator of the exhibition. Selected Works of Art from the Exhibition This section provides background information on nine selected images from Symbols of Power: Napoleon and the Art of Empire Style, 1800–1815. These represent a range of objects and materials from the Empire period. Each object commentary is accompanied by a set of discussion questions. You may wish to begin with open-ended questions such as the following: What do you see? What do you think the object is made of? Can you describe the images or decoration on the object? What colors do you see? As in any discussion, students’ opinions may differ; ask them to explain their answers and back them up with direct observations. Comparing answers and noting differences in perspective can be a fruitful avenue for discussion. Suggested classroom activities that relate to the object discussed are also provided. The activities are designed to utilize a range of student skills. Some are language based, others math or art based. The activities can be adapted for use with students of any age. 8 Discussion Questions 1. Describe the composition of the Revolutionary Poster. Is it ordered or cluttered? Which is more prominent, the text or the images? Why do you think the poster was designed in this way? 2. Do you think it was important for this poster to be easily reproduced? Why? 3. Do you see anything in this poster that reminds you of America? If so, what elements are familiar? 4. Define the term “propaganda.” Do you think this poster is effective as propaganda? Why? Activity: What is a symbol? Suggested materials: paper, colored pencils or markers 1. Define the terms “symbol” and “iconography” for students. 2. Provide students with symbol dictionaries and access to the Web. Suggested dictionaries include Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art (Icon Editions) by James Hall or The Penguin Dictionary of Symbols (Penguin) by Jean Chevalier and Alain Gheerbrant. 3. Ask students to choose five symbols they find interesting. Ask them to draw their symbols and write three to five sentences about each one, explaining their iconographic, historical, and artistic significance. 4. Ask students to draw a symbol of their own design that represents their family, friends, and interests. Have students write a short explanation of what the symbol means to them. 1. Revolutionary Poster Atelier Basset, 1791–95 Pre-joined sheets of paper and steel plate painted in black and stenciled with three colored inks, 22 x 17M in. Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris; purchase, 1948 (35968) Atelier Basset was one of the most well-known makers of wallpapers, posters, and other fine graphic material in Paris in the second half of the eighteenth century. The studio had the capacity for mass production, which lent itself to the production of propaganda posters such as the one shown here, which is created from several joined pages. Posters and wallpapers with revolutionary symbols such as this were used at official ceremonies and displayed in government buildings as a way to build and sustain support for the revolution. Set within an ornamental shield, the inscription is the motto of the newly formed French Republic: “Unité et Indivisibilité de la République. Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité, ou la Mort” (Unity and Indivisibility of the Republic. Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood, or Death). Similar patriotic sentiments can be found in the slogans popularized by the leaders of the Revolutionary War in the United States (1775–83). Among the revolutionary images this poster features is the Phrygian cap, a symbol of liberty, which appears above the inscription. The two flags on either side of the cap, as well as the bow below, have the red, white, and blue stripes of the tricolor, the official flag of the Republic. These emblems— inspired by the coats of arms and badges of heraldic art—were openly propagandistic, a departure from the more frivolous and highly embellished style of the Bourbon dynasty of the previous period. 9 Activity: Designing a Campaign Poster Suggested materials: poster board, paper, markers or tempera paint 1. Organize students into groups and have each group create an imaginary city. 2. Ask the students the following questions to help them develop their ideas: Where is the city located? In America, Asia, near the mountains, the ocean, or even outer space? What are the people like? Is the city safe? What is the government like? What are the important rules and values of your city? 3. Ask each group to write a one-page description of their city, including as much detail as possible. 4. Provide each group with one large poster board and ask them to design a campaign poster that promotes their city. 5. Ask the group to elect a representative to present their city and their campaign poster to the class. 6. After the presentations are finished, conduct a blind vote to see which city the students like best. Discuss that city and what makes it appealing. 10 Discussion Questions 1. What kind of room do you think this table was made for? Do you think the table was made primarily as a decorative or functional piece of furniture (such as a desk or dinner table)? 2. Console Table François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter, ca. 1813 Elm, gilded bronze, and sea-green marble top, 35 x 53M x 27 ¾ in. Grand Trianon, Versailles (T 163c) 2. Describe the two figures that support the tabletop. How are they dressed? Do you think they are representations of nineteenth-century French women, or are they from another time period? This table has both an unusual history and an unusual design. It was com- 3. Discuss the fact that art objects are often damaged over time, resulting in repairs that sometimes alter the appearance of the piece. How might such damage affect the modern viewer’s perspective? original tabletop was a mosaic found among the ruins of Herculaneum, the Activity: Making an Imperial Diorama with its original mosaic top, was placed in Napoleon’s bedroom. Sometime Suggested materials: colored construction paper, newspaper, foam core, balsa wood, cardboard, fabric scraps, self-drying clay, paint, glitter, ribbon, empty thread spools, Christmas lights, beads, gold leaf within the palace. In 1875, the mosaic was removed and in 1882 replaced 1. Share some exterior images of Versailles, Elysée, Malmaison, etc., with students or ask students to find images on the Web. seen from all sides, not placed against a wall as many console tables were 2. Ask students to think about one of Napoleon’s palaces and imagine what one of the rooms might look like. Have them draw some of their ideas. 3. Ask students to design and build a miniature version of a palace room—a bedroom, dining room, drawing room— either a room from one of the photos or one of their own creation. The students may use a shoebox for the basic structure of the room. Ask them to gather materials for the furniture, wallpaper, and decorations. Have them share their diorama with the class, explaining their choices. missioned by Napoleon for the Elysée Palace to complement the rich set of furnishings left behind by the palace’s former owner, Marshal Joachim Murat, the king of Naples and husband of Napoleon’s sister, Caroline. The ancient city outside of Naples that was destroyed in the violent eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. The antique artifact depicted a mythological scene: a goat fighting a satyr (one of the followers of Bacchus, the god of wine) surrounded by decorative patterns. After it was made, the table, afterward, the delicate mosaic was damaged, probably while being moved by a marble slab when the table was relocated to the Grand Trianon. Designed to be placed in the center of a room, this piece was meant to be at the time. Four caryatids—female figures dressed in antique robes—act as supporting columns. Rendered in gilded bronze, these figures were inspired by Greek architectural figures and are just one of a number of classical ornamental features. A band of laurel leaves and flowers wraps around the base of the tabletop while garlands of plant-like forms climb up the sides of the columns. Two mythological griffins flank an ancient vase at the bottom of the table. These emblems were appropriated from GrecoRoman styles and served to visually and conceptually link Napoleon’s reign with the great civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome. While the decoration is rich, the shape of the piece is very simple, relying on straight lines and right angles. From 1796 to 1825, François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter oversaw one of the most successful and influential furniture workshops in Paris. He received commissions from Pauline Borghese, Napoleon’s sister in Rome, and the empresses Josephine and Marie-Louise, for whom he supplied numerous pieces for Château Malmaison and for the Tuileries Palace and other imperial residences. 11 Activity: Making a Mosaic Suggested materials: graph paper, colored paper, poster board, glue (optional: use small colored ceramic tiles instead of colored paper) 1. Explain to students what a mosaic is— how mosaics are made and what their history is. Share some examples. 2. Ask students to design a dinner-table mosaic. Provide students with graph paper to make a drawing of their mosaic design. 3. Provide each student with a stack of colored paper. Ask them to cut the paper into half-inch squares. Put the squares in a box and mix them up. 4. Give each student a large handful of the colored squares, a piece of poster board, and glue. 5. Ask the students to create a mosaic of the design they sketched earlier. 12 Discussion Questions 1. Describe this furniture. Do the pieces look like they would be used in one of Napoleon’s palaces? Why or why not? 2. Do you think this furniture was built with the primary focus on comfort or appearance? 3. How does this furniture compare to the furniture in your home? The classroom? 4. Do you think these pieces would have been useful and easy to move? 5. What other furniture items might have been needed on military expeditions or campaigns? 6. Do you think most soldiers had furniture like this for the battlefield? Why or why not? Activity: Exploring the Evolution of Military Gear Suggested materials: paper, found images, colored pencils, glue 1. Lead a discussion about the usefulness of the campaign furniture. Ask students to think about and make a list of other gear or equipment that would have been necessary for battle in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (swords, helmets, uniforms, guns, tents, etc.). 2. Let each student choose one item from their list. Ask them to research the history of the object. 3. Ask students to make a drawing or collage showing at least four important developments in the history of their chosen object. Ask them to include the date and maker (if available) and list the stylistic differences or improvements in each of the four drawings or collages. 3. Folding Campaign Bed Desouches, ca. 1810 Steel, iron, and copper, 42H x 71L x 33M in. Mobilier National, Paris (GME 17812) Folding Campaign Table François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter, ca. 1810 Poplar, walnut, and iron, 28fi/¡§ x 37K x 18H in. Mobilier National, Paris (GME 952/1) Folding Campaign Chair Attributed to François-Honorè-Georges Jacob-Desmalter, ca. 1810 Beech wood, iron, canvas, and green morocco, 37 x 37K x 18H in. Mobilier National, Paris (GMT 2427/1) The unadorned campaign furniture used by Napoleon was sturdy, transportable, and above all modest. From 1809 on, Napoleon owned furniture that was specifically designed for his military exploits. Desouches, the ironsmith at the Garde-Meuble (Furniture Storehouse), had the job of creating these very simple, functional pieces of furniture. Napoleon liked the design and practicality of this furniture and sometimes even used it in his private residences. In fact, versions of the campaign bed seen here were also used in his bedroom at Château Fontainebleau, as well as on Saint Helena, the island he was exiled to in 1815. Wooden campaign beds had existed for a very long time, but this model by Desouches is distinguished from earlier examples by its very high quality and its steel fabrication. The frame, including a headboard and a footboard decorated with miniature apples at the top, is supported by six legs on wheels. The entire unit can be collapsed and stored in a small wooden trunk when not in use. Desouches made ten of these types of beds in 1810 (around the time this example was produced) and another ten three years later. The straight lines and remarkably spare quality of the bed embody key characteristics of the Empire style. Made of poplar and walnut, the top of the table is in three parts, and the base consists of three slender folding legs. A catch-mechanism locks the legs in place and can be released to fold away under the top, facilitating easy transport. The unusual three-leg design makes it easier to fold the table and position it steadily on the irregular ground of the battlefield or campground. The campaign chair has a seat of soft goatskin, or morocco. The chair is sturdy, yet its base pivots on an axis, which allows it to be easily folded. 13 Activity: Researching Napoleon’s Military Campaigns Suggested materials: found imagery such as maps; glue, markers 1. Divide the class into five small groups. Assign each of them one of Napoleon’s military campaigns to research: the Austrian Campaign (1797), the Egyptian Campaign (1798–99), the War of the 2nd Coalition (1798–1801), Waterloo (1812), the Russian Campaign (1815). 2. Ask each group to research their campaign and make a list of the important people, places, and events. 3. Ask students to plot their information on an illustrated timeline that includes maps and other visual aids. 4. Collect the five timelines and connect them to create a single timeline. Hang it up in the classroom so the students have a “picture” of Napoleon’s battles. 14 Discussion Questions 4. Napoleon’s Cuirass 1. How do you think it would feel to wear this piece of armor? Dominique-Vivant Denon, ca. 1805 2. Discuss how military dress and weaponry have changed since the Napoleonic era. What do these changes say about how wars are fought today? Musée Carnavalet, Paris; Donated by Mme Marchal, 1935 (OM 3240) 3. Can you think of any occupations in which people wear something similar to armor? 4. Describe the scene at the center of this cuirass or breastplate. How is the scene related to the function of this item? 5. Do you think this was actually worn in battle? Why? What is the difference between a ceremonial object and a functional object. 6. Why do you think Napoleon would have wanted a reference to an ancient god on his breastplate? Steel and chiseled brass, 21I x 15I in. The creation and presentation of a ceremonial cuirass, or breastplate, to a political or military leader is a tradition dating back to ancient times. Also known as a pair of curates, a cuirass is a set of two plates of armor meant to cover the chest and back. In ancient Rome, they were referred to as muscle cuirasses because they depicted chest and stomach muscles. They were made of leather and specially fitted to the wearer’s upper body. In the Middle Ages, both bronze and steel were used in making this protective gear. In the seventeenth century, foot soldiers wore a lighter version called a corslet, while the mounted cavalry wore very heavy cuirasses that restricted mobility. Designed purely for ceremonial rather than functional purposes, this 7. As a class, discuss the following quotation from Napoleon: “Alexander, Caesar, Charlemagne, and myself founded empires; but what foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. Jesus Christ founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die for Him.” What did Napoleon mean when he said this? Do you think this quote is accurate? breastplate was never worn by Napoleon. It was created and offered to him Activity: Designing a Shield for Napoleon fastening his shield and sheathing his sword. The imagery on this cuirass Suggested materials: paper, colored pencils, tempera paint and Greece. 1. Imagine you were hired to design a shield to go with this cuirass. This piece was fabricated by armuriers, or metalsmiths, craftsmen held in 2. Do some research on Greek/Roman mythology and Napoleon’s imperial emblems and choose some imagery for your shield. nique-Vivant Denon, was an artist, writer, diplomat, and archeologist who 3. Incorporate this imagery into a drawing of the shield. 4. Optional: Make the shield out of papier-mâché and paint the finished shield. as a gesture of respect and a symbol of his military power. The imagery on the front symbolizes Napoleon’s military prowess and strength as a leader, specifically linking him with Mars, the Roman god of war and the father of Romulus, one of the founders of and the first king of Rome. As the founder of a nation to which armed combat had brought renewal and peace, Napoleon viewed himself as a symbolic descendant of Mars, who is shown on the cuirass flanked by two nude figures who are helping him prepare for battle, symbolically links Napoleon’s regime with the civilizations of ancient Rome high regard because of the difficulty of their work. The designer, Domiworked with Louis XV as the attaché for the French Embassy in St. Petersburg and as a diplomat for Louis XVI. In 1798, he accompanied Napoleon on his Egyptian expedition, and in 1804 Napoleon named him directorgeneral of museums. 15 Activity: Assessing the Qualities of Influential Historical Figures Suggested materials: paper, colored pencils, markers 1. Ask students to research the individuals mentioned in Napoleon’s quote (see no. 7 of the discussion questions): Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Charlemagne, Napoleon, and Jesus Christ. 2. Ask each student to make a list of five words that describe each figure. 3. As a class, discuss each figure and ask the students to share their five words. 4. Write all of the words on the board and list the figure or figures they apply to next to that word, illustrating the different and shared qualities. 16 Discussion Questions 5. Carpet from the Throne Room 1. Describe the pattern and design of this carpet. Is it ordered or cluttered? Is it symmetrical or disorganized? What colors do you see? Manufacture de la Savonnerie 2. What symbols can you identify? Which ones do you think are the most important? Why? Musée National des Châteaux de Malmaison et Bois-Préau, Rueil- 3. Do you think this is an appropriate design for a carpet in Napoleon’s Throne Room (the grand hall in his palace where the throne was placed and where official ceremonies were held)? Why or why not? 4. Compare this carpet to the Revolutionary Poster. How are they similar? What symbols do they share? 5. Do you think the carpet was used for propaganda purposes like the Revolutionary Poster or used just as decoration? Think about the dates of manufacture for each. What do the dates tell you about the function of each object? Activity: Experimenting with Weaving to Create a Personalized Tapestry Suggested materials: graph paper, markers, colored paper, ribbons, yarn or pipe cleaners, weaving loom (optional) 1. Have students create a design for a carpet or tapestry by using a sheet of graph paper and coloring in the squares. 2. Have the students personalize their tapestries with symbols of their choosing. They can include their monogram or other drawings. (Encourage the students to make their designs simple since they are going to be woven.) 3. Ask students to take an 11-by-17-inch piece of construction paper and fold it in half. Cut parallel lines into the folded paper starting at the fold and moving toward the outside edge. They should stop cutting about a H inch from the edge of the paper. 4. Provide students with multi-colored construction paper and ask them to cut 11-inch-long strips in varying widths. Designed by François Debret and Jacques Barraband, 1807–09 Wool, 25H x 21 ft. Malmaison; Donated by Helen Fahnestock-Hubbard, 1926 (MM 40.47.8112) This perfectly symmetrical carpet exemplifies the Napoleonic system of emblems. At the top, in the center, is the letter N (Napoleon’s monogram) surrounded by a laurel wreath (used in ancient Rome to adorn the heads of victorious warriors), around which is a garland of twenty-eight bees. Napoleon chose the bee, one of the oldest emblems of the sovereigns of France, as one of his imperial emblems. By adopting this emblem, he associated himself with the very origins of France, rather than the more recent Capetian and Bourbon kings. Napoleon also used the Roman eagle as one of his imperial symbols. The jeweled crowns decorating this highly symbolic carpet reference Napoleon’s singular power as emperor. The Fritillaria, a type of lily, holds up each gold crown. The juxtaposition of the imperial crown and the floral “crown” reflects Napoleon’s desire to use strong, self-referential symbols. The outside border is dotted with five pointed stars, which come from Napoleon’s family crest. The emblems of the bee, the flower, and the laurel wreath were used not only in the emperor’s apartments and on his personal effects and those of his entourage, but also in public places. In contrast to the highly stylized fleur-de-lis of the Bourbon monarchy, Napoleonic emblems were more direct representations of nature with strong references to the past. Their symbolic significance was therefore more easily understood. Napoleonic emblems formed the framework for a new symbolic language repeated endlessly in palaces, civic buildings, and public places. At the time of their introduction, no writings were produced to explain them; nonetheless, they combined to form a strong, simple, clear message that united the entire nation around its leader. Much of the imagery was based on the heritage of ancient Rome, a model of political unity. 17 5. Ask them to unfold their sheet of construction paper and weave the first strip of paper over and under the cuts. With their next strip of paper they should weave in the opposite way; first under, then over. They should repeat this process, while following their pattern plan, until their original sheet is complete. 6. Students can experiment with threading paper strips, yarn, pipe cleaners, or ribbon through the finished woven sheet in order to produce diagonals and circular shapes within their design. 7. Optional: If available, you can use some type of loom for this project. 18 Discussion Questions 6. Soup Tureen: A Model for Apprentice Silversmiths 1. What imagery do you see on this soup tureen? What do you think the swans symbolize? The pine cone? The wheat, vines, and acanthus leaves? Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot, 1819 2. What is an “apprentice”? Do you think it is important for young artists to learn from older, more experienced artists? In what other disciplines is it common to have apprentices? l’Instruction Publique et des Beaux-Arts (FNAC PFH-4537) 3. Do you think that a functional object, such as this soup tureen, can be a piece of art? Why? Silverplated bronze with electrolytic silverplating, 18J x 18J x 11 in. Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris; on deposit from the Ministère de This soup tureen is attributed to Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot, a silversmith Napoleon commissioned for many prestigious projects for his family and himself. Part of a collection presented by Odiot to the government in 1835 for use in the training of young silversmiths, this tureen is exemplary for its quality of workmanship, stylistic refinement, and choice of iconog- 4. There are several different techniques that silversmiths can use to shape silver. Since silver is a malleable metal, it can be shaped using gentle, carefully placed taps with a hammer or press. This method is called forging. A silversmith can also create a mold in wax or clay and then pour the silver into the mold. Can you tell from looking at this tureen which method Odiot used? raphy. A soup tureen is typically raised by a molding or small foot that pro- Activity: Imperial Style Dining Both beautiful and functional, tureens of this period were highly deco- Suggested materials: images of Napoleonera dress and interiors, paper, pencil rated, frequently with hunting scenes or fruit. Here, Odiot chose the theme 1. Show students images of clothing and interiors from Napoleon’s palaces. Ears of wheat, vines, and acanthus leaves adorn the edges of the tureen. 2. Ask students to research food, etiquette, and table rituals such as prayers during the Empire period. on the lid is in the shape of a pine cone. 3. Ask students to imagine they are either guests at Napoleon’s table or are working at the palace serving the guests. 4. Have students write a short story about this experience. Encourage them to include imaginary details about their clothing, food, place setting, the room they are in, and the guests around the table. tects the surface it is placed on from the heat of its contents. Instead, Odiot’s unique piece has two winged figures holding the weight of the bowl. A tureen such as this was meant to be the centerpiece of a ceremonial table that would include other ornate serving pieces and tableware. Some of Napoleon and Josephine’s dinner-service sets consisted of thousands of intricately decorated pieces. of victory, using kneeling figures of Winged Victory to support the vessel. On the handles are two delicate swans wearing pearl necklaces. The knob During the Consulate and Empire periods, the decorative arts were dominated by themes of triumph expressed in emblematic language such as the figure of Victory. These emblems were widespread, appearing on house wares and furniture in even the most modest homes. The aim was to exalt the virtues of the regime. The designs of Charles Percier and PierreFrançois-Léonard Fontaine, which were laden with cultural and historical significance, created a universal vehicle for shared ideals that were acceptable to all, even to the conquered countries, which rapidly adopted the new style. The systematic repetition of this imagery and the infiltration of such designs into private homes was a powerful tool of propaganda. 19 20 Discussion Questions 1. How do you think it would feel (both physically and emotionally) to sit in this chair? Would the armrests be comfortable? 2. Compare this chair to chairs in your home and your classroom. How are they different? The same? 3. The letter J, flowers, cornucopia, swans, and butterflies were often used on items for Empress Josephine. Why do you think it was important for Josephine to have her own set of symbols? 4. How are Josephine’s symbols different from Napoleon’s symbols (his monogram, the bee, and the eagle)? Can you draw any parallels between the ones they chose? Activity: French Word Study Suggested materials: paper, pencil, markers, card stock 1. Assign each student two or three English words that have been borrowed from the French language. Some suggestions are listed below: à la carte attaché boudoir bouquet brochure brasserie beau chalet chateau déjà vu ennui facade fondant foyer frappe genre gourmet hors d’oeuvre je ne sais quoi lozenge madam motif mousse nouveau riche papier-mâché pastiche pied-à-terre questionnaire raconteur raison d’être sauté sabotage tableaux tromp l’oeil vogue vis-à-vis voyeur 7. Gondola Chair from Josephine Bonaparte’s Boudoir at Saint-Cloud Attributed to Jacob Frères, ca. 1802–03 Gilded and white painted wood and orange-red velvet, embroidered with gold, 30 x 27G x 26K in. Musée National des Châteaux de Malmaison et Bois-Préau, RueilMalmaison; on deposit from the Mobilier National, Paris (MM 40.47.942 and GMT 1504) This rare armchair with elbow rests in the shape of swans appears to have been the first of its kind. Attributed to the renowned designer Jacob Frères, it belongs to a set of four that stood in Josephine Bonaparte’s boudoir at the Château de Saint-Cloud, Napoleon’s residence on the Seine. Saint-Cloud was constructed as an extension to a Parisian hotel in the sixteenth century and was expanded by Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, in the seventeenth century and again by Marie Antoinette in the 1780s. It is also the historic location where Napoleon was proclaimed emperor in 1804. Armchairs with wing-shaped armrests inspired by mythological animals existed in France under the ancien régime (fourteenth–early eighteenth century). Earlier chairs tended to be decorated with vicious winged beasts such as griffins and dragons. The originality of this gondola chair comes from its use of the graceful and feminine swan form. Representations of the swan as an ornamental motif were frequent in ancient Roman art and design, then disappeared almost completely until reappearing under the Consulate period and becoming even more common in the decorative arts of the Empire period. Swans are associated with the god Apollo because they are said to have flown overhead on the day of Apollo’s birth. They are often depicted pulling his chariot. The swan, symbolizing love and seduction, is also associated with Zeus, the god who transformed himself into a swan in order to seduce Leda, a beautiful mortal queen with whom he was in love. Like Napoleon, Empress Josephine had her own set of imperial emblems. Among them were the J (her monogram), cornucopia, butterflies, and the 2. Ask students to research the words and their meanings in English and French. Ask them to find their Latin roots as well. swan, which she was particularly fond of. Her symbols were the feminine 3. Ask the students to illustrate each of their words on an 8½-by-11-inch piece of paper and put the definitions on the back. Josephine Beauharnais, a native of Martinique, a French colony in the equivalent of Napoleon’s more masculine and militaristic emblems. Caribbean, met Napoleon in 1795. In January 1796, Napoleon proposed to her, and they were married three months later. After the wedding, Napoleon left to lead the French army in Italy, but he sent her many love letters, 21 some of which are still intact. They were crowned emperor and empress in 1804. Six years later Napoleon divorced her because she was not able produce an heir. Josephine went to live at Château Malmaison with her pug named Fortune. 4. Collect the sheets and use them to create a set of oversized flashcards for the classroom. Review all the words a few times with the class. 5. Have a definition challenge during the next class and award a prize to the winner. 6. Ask students to think about common English words. What words might be used by people in other countries? Activity: Design Contest Suggested materials: paper, poster board, colored pen and pencils, balsa wood, foam core, fabric scraps, cotton balls 1. Divide students into small groups and ask them to think about the qualities of a good chair (size, comfort, style, etc.). 2. Ask the students to sketch a design for a chair that has the qualities they listed. 3. Provide students with poster board and colored pens and pencils and ask them to draw their ideal chair. They should include front and side views and a detail of any decoration or pattern. 4. Ask students to create a model of their chair using balsa wood or foam core. Fabric and cotton balls can be used for upholstery. 5. Organize a design show using the student sketches and models. Make categories for the judging such as Most Comfortable, Most Original, etc. 6. Display the designs and ask students to quietly walk around and score the designs according to criteria such as function, appearance, and originality. 22 Discussion Questions 1. Describe the scene in the center of the plate. Are the figures life-like? Describe their posture. What does this tell you about their relationship? 2. Discuss the myth of Apollo and Daphne and identify the moment that this plate captures. Is it accurate? Would you have changed the scene? If so, how? 3. Describe the decoration around the rim of the plate. Does it complement the scene in the center? If so, how? Activity: Exploring Mythology Suggested materials: paper, pencils, costumes 1. Ask students to research the twelve Olympian gods. 2. Ask each student to choose one god to research and present to the class. Encourage the students to be as creative as possible for their presentations. Suggest that they dress up as their chosen god, tell a story as if they were the god, or act out an important moment in the god’s life. 3. As a class, discuss the use of this imagery in this set of plates. Why do you think this imagery was chosen? 8. Plate from the Olympic Service: Apollo and Daphne Manufacture de Sèvres, 1805 Hard-paste porcelain, 9 H in. (diameter) Musée National de Céramique, Sèvres (MNC 1790) The plate belongs to the Olympic Service, a set of plates commissioned by Napoleon and presented to Czar Alexander of Russia in 1807. The service was manufactured at Sèvres, the imperial porcelain factory. Napoleon wanted French products to be regarded by the rest of the world as beyond compare. To that end, he stimulated industry by placing large official orders with national factories, such as Sèvres and other producers of luxury goods. Ultimately, all the great craftsmen of the time contributed to the Empire style in which decorative moderation and simplicity often went hand in hand with expensive materials such as porcelain, bronze, and silk. The decoration on the Olympic Service features stories of the Olympian gods. The imagery was intended to make pointed reference to the gods as illustrious predecessors of Napoleon. Each plate in the set has the same composition: a painted scene from mythology on the bottom and a raised rim decorated with vegetable motifs that vary from plate to plate. The decorative elements on the rim of this plate include rosettes, thin leaves, and spiraling ferns. The central medallion of the plate shows the metamorphosis of the nymph Daphne into a laurel tree, as recounted by Ovid, the famous poet of ancient Rome. Apollo, the Greco-Roman god of light, truth, and healing, is featured here with a golden scarf, embracing his beloved Daphne as she transforms into a tree. Apollo is a key figure in the love imagery of the Empire period. Radiantly beautiful, he is represented as a dreamy, effeminate adolescent male, often presiding over the games of the muses and accompanying their dances with the sounds of his lyre. Young women in antique dress were a particularly common motif in the early years of the Empire. Dancing in the clouds and among the stars, these figures embodied the Apollonian muses, the Seasons (or the Hours), performing a dance for Time. With loose-flowing hair and wind-blown garments clinging to their shapely bodies, these females are allegorical expressions of desire. In this plate, the flowing scarf, nude figure, and embracing couple embody this type of motif. 23 24 Discussion Questions 1. Describe this gown. Do you think it was an everyday dress or a dress worn for special occasions? 2. What do you think this dress says about the social status of the owner? What type of clothing do you think the lower and middle classes wore? 9. Sleeveless Gown with Train Anonymous, ca. 1804-06 White muslin, embroidered in white cotton stitch and French knit-stitch, 50 I x 24 K in. Les Arts Décoratifs, Musée de la Mode et du Textile, Paris; Bequest of Mme Chappée, 1961 (UF 61-14-19) 3. During the Empire period, women often wore white fabrics, while men typically wore colorful fabrics and items with metallic embroidery. What do you think is the significance of this? As the only decoration on this gown, the pineapple and its leaves are Activity: Designing Clothing for Royalty for botanical exoticism. A common motif for sumptuous silks in the 1730s, Suggested materials: paper, colored pen and pencils the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Josephine Beauharnais—a 1. Assign each student a country (for example, India, Spain, South Africa, Saudi Arabia) and ask them to research the dress of royalty in that country in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Ask students to find pictures of the distinctive royal attire and share with the class. to acclimatize at Malmaison. The white color of the gown is characteristic 2. Ask students to write a detailed description of the clothing and draw some comparisons between this dress and royal clothing from other cultures. 3. Ask students to make designs for an original ensemble in the same style for the royalty of their assigned country/culture. 4. Optional: ask students to also design an outfit they would want to wear if they were royalty. embroidered in cotton in a central band down the center front and along the hem of the dress, extending into the train. This design, which emphasizes the delicacy of materials and simple lines of the dress, speaks to the taste the pineapple exerted a fascination as powerful as that of the artichoke in native of Martinique—had a great taste for exotic plants, which she tried of feminine style during the Empire period. Men typically wore colorful clothes decorated with metallic embroidery. An ideal model for the slender fashions of the day, Empress Josephine was very mindful of her appearance and a great fashion leader. She owned countless day and ceremonial outfits and even introduced a new style of dress, the high-waisted court dress with a train, to the French public. She was continuously acquiring new clothing and many of her older dresses and outfits were often given away. All that remains of the hundreds of dresses, coats, hats, and shoes the empress had are a few court dresses and coats, and some undergarments. 25 26 c h r o n o lo gy 1589 The Bourbon dynasty is established in France; Henry the Great (IV) is crowned king 1600 Baroque art, associated with the Catholic Counter-Reformation, becomes the dominant style of European art 1610 Louis XIII, “The Just,” is crowned king 1618 The Thirty Years’ War between Catholics and Protestants begins in Europe 1625–28 The Huguenots (a Protestant minority) rebel against Louis XIII 1643 Louis XIII dies; Louis XIV, “The Sun King,” accedes the throne at the age of four 1648 The Treaty of Westphalia (also known as the Treaty of Münster) ends the Thirty Years’ War 1682 The royal court moves to Versailles 1715 Louis XIV dies; Louis XV, “The Well-Beloved,” accedes; the Rococo style (known for its delicacy and elaborate ornamentation) begins to emerge 1762 Enlightenment thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes his Social Contract 1769 On August 15, Napoleon is born to a noble family on the island of Corsica, off the coast of Italy 1774 Louis XV dies of smallpox; Louis XVI becomes king; Marie Antoinette becomes queen 1775 The American Revolutionary War begins 1776 The Declaration of Independence is signed 1778 Napoleon’s father, Carlo, a representative of the Corsican Parliament, enrolls his nine-year-old son at Brienne, a private academy in France; Napoleon is a very small child (as an adult he stands at only 5 feet 2 inches) 1784 Napoleon is promoted to the Royal Military Academy in Paris 1785 Napoleon begins an apprenticeship as a second lieutenant in the best artillery unit in the French army 1789 The French Revolution begins with the storming of the Bastille; revolutionaries issue the Declaration of the Rights of Man; George Washington is elected the first president of the United States c h r o n o lo gy 27 1792 Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette are tried for treason and guillotined; the new Republic is established; Napoleon takes leave of the French army and returns to Corsica to join the island’s National Guard; his dedication to Corsica is called into question, and he is forced to flee to the mountains with his family 1793 Banished from Corsica, Napoleon sets sail for France with his family; Napoleon rejoins the French military and is promoted to major; his early victories make him a hero throughout France 1795 In October, civic unrest erupts in Paris due to the oppression of the lower classes by the government; the Directoire becomes the government of France and five directors are named—Jean François Rewbell, Paul François Jean Nicolas Barras, Louis Marie de La Révellière Lépeaux, Comte Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot, and Etienne-François-Louis–Honoré Le Tourneur 1796 On March 9, Napoleon marries Josephine Beauharnais; in May, Napoleon leads his troops into Milan to liberate Italians from Austrian rule; his soldiers take many of Italy’s finest artworks and bring them to Paris 1797 John Quincy Adams is elected the second president of the United States. 1798 Napoleon and his army begin the Egyptian expedition; his fleet is destroyed at the Battle of the Nile, and his army attacks Syria; the soldiers loot valuable Egyptian treasures, including the Rosetta Stone 1799 The Consulate replaces the Directoire government; Napoleon Bonaparte is named First Consul 1801 Napoleon appoints Charles Percier and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine the official architects and designers of the Empire; Thomas Jefferson is elected the third president of the United States 1803 The U.S. negotiates the Louisiana Purchase with France 1804 Napoleon is crowned emperor; the First Empire begins; the Napoleonic Code, based on both French and ancient Roman law, is established; the Empire style begins to emerge 1810 On January 10, Napoleon and Josephine are divorced; Napoleon marries his second wife, Marie-Louise of Austria, in April 1811 Napoleon II is born 1812 Percier and Fontaine publish Recueils de Décorations Intérieures, a pattern book that provides models of Empire style design; Napoleon invades Russia, an event that marks the beginning of his downfall 28 c h r o n o lo gy 1813 In October, Napoleon is defeated by the 6th Coalition—allied forces including Britain, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Austria, and Sweden—in the Battle of the Nations (also known as the Battle of Leipzig), the biggest battle of the Napoleonic wars 1814 The allied forces from Russia, Prussia, and Austria capture Paris; Napoleon abdicates the throne and is exiled to the Italian island of Elba; Louis XVIII is crowned king 1815 On February 26, Napoleon escapes from Elba with 600 soldiers; he returns to Paris and from March 20 to July 8, the period referred to as the Hundred Days or Cent-Jours, assumes power in the absence of Louis XVIII, who has fled; the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon’s last battle, takes place on June 18; Napoleon’s final abdication—he surrenders to the British and is exiled to the island of Saint Helena 1821 On May 5, Napoleon dies on Saint Helena 1852 Napoleon’s nephew is crowned as Emperor Napoleon III TH E M ATIC CO N N E CTIO N S 29 Below are themes that educators can use to approach the works of art included in this resource. Classical Mythology: Console Table, François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter, ca. 1813 Plate from the Olympic Service: Apollo and Daphne, Manufacture de Sèvres, 1805 Napoleon’s Cuirass, Dominique-Vivant Denon, ca. 1805 Soup Tureen: A Model for Apprentice Silversmiths, Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot, 1819 Textiles: Sleeveless Gown with Train, Anonymous, ca. 1804–06 Carpet from the Throne Room, François Debret and Jacques Barraband, 1807–09 Military: Folding Campaign Bed, Desouches, ca. 1810 Folding Campaign Table, François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter, ca. 1810 Folding Campaign Chair, attributed to François-Honoré-Georges JacobDesmalter, ca. 1810 Revolutionary Poster, Atelier Basset, 1791–95 Napoleon’s Cuirass, Dominique-Vivant Denon, ca. 1805 Nationalism: Revolutionary Poster, Atelier Basset, 1791–95 Carpet from the Throne Room, François Debret and Jacques Barraband, 1807–09 Gondola Chair from Josephine Bonaparte’s Boudoir at Saint-Cloud, attributed to Jacob Frères, ca. 1802–03 Roman Empire/Republic: Revolutionary Poster, Atelier Basset, 1791–95 Napoleon’s Cuirass, Dominique-Vivant Denon, ca. 1805 30 Q u otat i o ns by N ap o le o n Below are quotations that can be used to help convey Napoleon’s perspectives on life as a soldier, emperor, and patriot. “All men of genius are French.” “He who fears being conquered is sure of defeat.” “It is the cause, not the death, that makes the martyr.” “Take time to deliberate, but when the time for action has arrived, stop thinking and go in.” “Alexander, Caesar, Charlemagne, and myself founded empires; but what foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. Jesus Christ founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die for Him.” “A throne is only a bench covered with velvet.” “To extraordinary circumstance we must apply extraordinary remedies.” “Ability is of little account without opportunity.” “Even when I am gone, I shall remain in people’s minds the star of their rights, my name will be the war cry of their efforts, the motto of their hopes.” “We should always go before our enemies with confidence, otherwise our apparent uneasiness inspires them with greater boldness.” “Great ambition is the passion of a great character. Those endowed with it may perform very good or very bad acts. All depends on the principles which direct them.” “All men are equal before God: wisdom, talents, and virtue are the only difference between them.” G UI D E TO E M P IR E S TY L E SY M BO L S 31 Bee Chosen by Napoleon as one of his imperial emblems. More than 300 bees made of gold were found in the tomb of King Childeric I, king of the Franks in the fifth century A.D., so by adopting this emblem, Napoleon linked himself with the earliest French rulers. Butterfly Associated with the mythological figure Psyche, who is often depicted with butterfly wings. When shown fluttering around bouquets or baskets of flowers, the butterfly refers to the myth of Flora, the goddess of Spring, who symbolizes the beginning of life. Cornucopia A symbol of abundance and wealth dating back to the fifth century B.C. Used during the Empire period as a symbol of the natural resources and cultural and economic riches of the new republic. Eagle Adopted by Napoleon to represent his new French Empire. Derived from the Romans, who used the eagle, a symbol of power and independence, on the standards or flags of the Roman army. A bronze sculpture of the eagle was carried by Napoleon’s regiment. Fleur-de-lis A stylized flower design that is both decorative and symbolic. Used by the earliest French kings, including Charlemagne; part of the French flag until the Revolution, when it was replaced by the tricolor flag. Fritillaria A member of the lily family and in France referred to as the imperial flower. Chosen for its large size, symmetrical appearance, and crown-like shape, this was one of the two most common flowers depicted in the Empire period. It symbolizes wealth and triumph. Laurel wreath In Greek mythology, the sun god Apollo is represented wearing a laurel wreath on his head. In Rome it was a symbol of military victory. 32 G UI D E TO E M P IR E S TY L E SY M BO L S Napoleon’s monogram The single uppercase N marks many Empire period objects. Like a brand, the monogram typically identified objects as belonging to Napoleon, his household, or his entourage. Phrygian cap A symbol of Liberty adopted by the revolutionaries in France. Worn during the Roman Empire by slaves who had been emancipated by their masters and whose descendants were therefore considered citizens of the Roman Empire. Swan A symbol of love and of the sun god Apollo. Swans are said to have flown overhead on the day of Apollo’s birth and are often pictured pulling his chariot. The swan is also associated with Zeus, the god who transformed himself into a swan in order to seduce Leda, the beautiful mortal queen with whom he was in love. glossa ry 33 Ancien régime: Refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties (fourteenth–eighteenth century). The term is French for “former regime” but rendered in English as “old rule,” “old order,” or simply “old regime.” Bourbon dynasty: The Bourbon dynasty ruled France as a monarchy from the sixteenth century, lost power following the French Revolution, and reasserted power with the coronation of Louis XVIII in 1814. Capetian dynasty: This dynasty ruled France from 987 to 1328 and is the oldest continuously running monarchy in Europe. Château Fontainebleau: The largest royal château during the French Revolution. Château Malmaison: In 1799, Josephine, Napoleon’s first wife, purchased this country chateau while Napoleon was on his Egyptian expedition. Following their divorce in 1810, Josephine moved there, remaining until her death in 1814. Château de Saint-Cloud: A royal chateau overlooking the Seine in Saint-Cloud in the western suburbs of Paris; purchased in 1785 by Louis XVI for Marie Antoinette and their children; destroyed in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War. Consulate: The government of France from 1799 to 1804—from the fall of the Directoire until the start of the Napoleonic Empire. Cuirass: Armor meant to cover the chest and back; formed of two pieces of metal or other rigid material. Decorative arts: Traditionally defined as art that is both functional and ornamental. Pieces may be created in a variety of materials including ceramic, wood, glass, metal, or textile. Dominique Vivant-Denon: An artist, writer, diplomat, and archeologist who accompanied Napoleon on his Egyptian expedition in 1798. VivantDenon also worked with Louis XV and Louis XVI as a diplomat. François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter: Head of one of the most successful and influential furniture workshops in Paris, from 1796 to 1825. Desmalter received commissions from the empresses Josephine and Marie Louise for Malmaison and other imperial residences. Desouches: An ironsmith who made iron and steel furniture, including Napoleon’s campaign furniture. Directoire: The Directoire held power in France between 1795 and 1799, instating a system in which executive power was shared among five Directors. The constitution under the Directoire called for the strict control of all local authorities by the central government and guaranteed freedom of religion, of the press, and of labor, but did not allow for armed assemblies or even public meetings. 34 glossa ry Elba: Napoleon was exiled to Elba (an island in Tuscany) after his forced abdication in 1814. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of six hundred men and was made the emperor of the island. Elysée Palace: In 1808, the property was offered to Napoleon by the King of Naples, Joaquim Murat, and was used as an imperial residence. Empire: The First French Empire, commonly known as the French Empire or the Napoleonic Empire, is dated between the years 1804 and 1815. During this time, France controlled much of continental Europe, and at its height its territories spanned from France in the west to Poland in the east and from Spain and Italy in the south as far north as Holland. Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine: An architect, interior decorator, and designer who worked in close partnership with Charles Percier. Together, they were the proponents of the Empire style and were named the official designers for the Empire by Napoleon. Garde-Meuble: The large storehouse where imperial furnishings and house wares were cared for and restored. Grand Trianon: Built as a retreat near Versailles for Louis XIV; later refurnished in the Empire style and occupied by Napoleon from 1805 to 1815. Heraldic art: An art form that includes badges, coats of arms, flags, and family crests. Certain colors, patterns, and mottoes define levels of achievement and skill in combat. Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot: One of the most famous silver manufacturers of his time. Napoleon gave Odiot many important commissions for himself and his family. Olympic Service: The name given to a set of plates and other tableware that illustrates the lives and loves of the Olympian gods and was created as Napoleon’s diplomatic gift to Czar Alexander of Russia in 1807. Charles Percier: An architect, interior decorator, and designer who worked in close partnership with Fontaine. Together, they were the proponents of the Empire style and were named the official designers for the Empire by Napoleon. Rococo style: An eighteenth-century French style of architecture and decoration distinguished by its elegance, focus on nature, and playful themes. Saint Helena: A volcanic island in the southern Atlantic Ocean where Napoleon was exiled in 1815. He died there in 1821. Sèvres: A small city in the southwestern suburbs of Paris where the Manufacture nationale de Sèvres, the famous porcelain factory, is located. Tuileries Palace: A palace in Paris on the Seine. On November 9, 1789, the governmental officials moved their political discussions from Versailles to the Tuileries. Napoleon made the Tuileries the official residence of the First Consul and later the imperial palace. b i b l i o g r ap h y 35 Text Resources Baca, Albert R. Napoleon, Russia, and the Olympian Gods: The “Olympic Service” of the Armory Museum in the Kremlin. Los Angeles: CoaStar Publishing, 1996. Beunat, Joseph. Empire Style Designs and Ornaments. New York: Dover Publications, 1974. Boime, Albert. A Social History of Modern Art, Volume 2: Art in an Age of Bonapartism, 1800-1815. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Bolton, Andrew, Danielle Kisluk-Grosheide, Mimi Hellman, and Harold Koda. Dangerous Liaisons: Fashion and Furniture in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2006. Cherry, Deborah, and Katie Scott. Between Luxury and the Everyday: French Decorative Arts in the Eighteenth Century. Boston: Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2006. Conner, Susan P. The Age of Napoleon. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. Delorme, Eleanor P. Josephine: Napoleon’s Incomparable Empress. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2002. Fleming, John. Dictionary of Decorative Arts. New York: Viking Adult, 1990. Greenblatt, Miriam. Napoleon Bonaparte and Imperial France (Rulers and Their Times). New York: Benchmark Books, 2005.* Grimal, Pierre, and A.R. Maxwell-Hyslop. The Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Boston: Blackwell Publishing Limited, 1996. Haig, Diana Reid, and Napoleon Bonaparte. The Letters of Napoleon to Josephine. London: Ravenhall Books, 2005. Hickman, Barbara Ann-Day. Napoleonic Art: Nationalism and the Spirit of Rebellion in France 1815-1848. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press, 1999. 36 b i b l i o g r ap h y Landau, Elaine. Napoleon Bonaparte. Minneapolis: Lerner Publishing, 2005.* O’Brien, David. After the Revolution: Antoine-Jean Gros, Painting and Propaganda Under Napoleon. University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 2006. Obstfeld, Raymond, and Loretta Obstfeld. Napoleon Bonaparte (People Who Made History). Farmington Hills, MI: Greenhaven Press, 2000.* Percier, Charles. Empire Stylebook of Interior Design: All 72 Plates from the “Recueil de Decorations Interieures” with New English Text. New York: Dover Publications, 1991. Savage, George. French Decorative Art: 1638-1793. New York: Penguin, 1969. Schom, Alan. Napoleon Bonaparte: A Life. New York: Harper Collins, 1998. Trench, Lucy. Materials & Techniques in the Decorative Arts: An Illustrated Dictionary. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. Wark, Robert R. French Decorative Art: In the Huntington Collection. San Marino, CA: The Huntington Library, 1979. * text suitable for children Video and DVD Resources Napoleon Bonaparte: The Glory of France. A&E Television Networks, 1997. The Campaigns of Napoleon. PBS, 1998. Empires: Napoleon. PBS, 2000. The French Revolution. The History Channel, 2005. Napoleon Bonaparte and the Battle of Austerlitz. Ambrose Video/A&E, 1993. Conquerors. The Learning Channel, 1996. Waterloo. Dino De Laurentiis Cinematografia, 1970. b i b l i o g r ap h y 37 Selected Web Resources www.uncg.edu/rom/courses/dafein/civ/timeline.htm An interactive detailed timeline of French history from prehistory to the 1970s. www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook.html A collection of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented for educational use. A great place to find primary sources and quotations. www.ambafrance-us.org/kids/ This Web site was developed by the French Embassy. A Web site for children interested in basic historical, cultural facts about France. www.napoleon.org Organized by the Fondation Napoleon and updated regularly; provides a timeline, imperial family tree, quizzes, a glossary, and many other resources. www.napoleonica.org/us/index.html A highly academic site that provides access to primary sources supported by the Fondation Napoleon. www.pbs.org/empires/napoleon This resource is designed to be used in conjunction with the PBS “Napoleon” video series but can easily be used independently. It has a very detailed timeline, classroom activities, an interactive battlefield simulator, and an option to watch clips of the series. www.napoleonguide.com The Napoleonic Guide is a reference source for the life and times of Napoleon Bonaparte. It has more than 2,000 pages of information. www.getty.edu/education/for_teachers/curricula/decarts/ Developed by the Getty Education Department; contains general information, classroom activities about French decorative arts, and a small image bank. 38 b i b l i o g r ap h y http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Empire_style A great quick reference guide, the text is hyperlinked to other Wikipedia pages, which makes it easy to find additional background about the people, places, and events mentioned. www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/empr/hd_empr.htm Part of the Metropolitan Museum of Art education Web site; contains an easily accessible image bank with supporting information; also provides a good overview of the Empire style and the key artists, architects, and craftsmen of the period. www.lesartsdecoratifs.fr/index_gb.html Most of this site is in French, but the decorative arts image database can be very helpful. Music Resources http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/browse/songs/# http://www.napoleon.org/en/fun_stuff/music/index.asp http://www.napoleon.org/en/reading_room/biographies/files/lesueur.asp http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/music/c_musiclist.html 39 40 Books for Adults Aldred, Cyril. Egyptian Art in the Days of the Pharaohs: 3100–320 B.C. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1987. Baines, John, and Jaromir Malek. Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2000. Brooklyn Museum of Art. The Art of Ancient Egypt: A Portfolio. New York: The New Press, 1996. Davies, Vivian, and Reness Freidman. Egypt. London: British Museum Press, 1999. Faulkner, Raymond O. (trans.), and Carol Andrews (ed.). The Book of the Dead. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1972. Fazzini, Richard A., James F. Romano, and Madeleine F. Cody. Art for Eternity: Masterworks from Ancient Egypt. London: Scala Publishers Ltd., 1999. Hart, George. Egyptian Myths. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991. Houlihan, Patrick F. The Animal World of the Pharaohs. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997. Ions, Veronica. Egyptian Mythology. New York: School Specialty Children’s Publishing, 1991. James, T. G. Egyptian Painting. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986. ———. Egyptian Sculpture. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983. Janssen, Rosalind M., and J. Jac. Getting Old in Ancient Egypt. London: The Rubicon Press, 1996. Mertz, Barbara. Temples, Tombs, and Hieroglyphs: A Popular History of Ancient Egypt. New York: School Specialty Children’s Publishing, 1990. ———. Red Land, Black Land: Daily Life in Ancient Egypt. New York: School Specialty Children’s Publishing, 1990.