Ref 6.36
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership: A literature review
Refereed paper
Mina Dadehbeigi1 (Corresponding author)
Management and Accounting Faculty, Allameh Tabatabaee University, Tehran, Iran
Email: mina.beigi@gmail.com
Melika Shirmohammadi,
Management Faculty, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Shiva Ershadi
ECO College of Insurance, Allameh Tabatabaee University, Tehran, Iran
Keywords: Emotional intelligence, leadership style, effective leadership, performance.
Abstract
The concept of emotional intelligence (EI) has emerged as an influential research
stream in leadership field. EI is considered to be a prerequisite for many key leadership issues
including leadership emergence, leadership effectiveness, effective leader outcomes, and
transformational leadership. In this article studies -both theoretical and empirical- exploring
the relationship between EI and leadership are reviewed and classified. The main question
that we seek to address is: in what ways does EI effect leadership. Three major themes are
identified in the existing literature which addresses this question. Implications and
suggestions for further research are also provided.
1
Tel.: 0098 912 133 2685; Fax: 0098 21 2230 7512
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Introduction
The advancements of information technology and the emergence of modern
organizations has not decreased the role of leadership in work settings but also has made this
role more critical. It could be claimed that the emergence of EI concept has freshened
leadership trait approach which goes back to 1930s (Robbins 2001), but this time with a
considerable difference; opposite to many of the traits included in different trait theory
(especially IQ), EI has the potential to be developed.
Emotional intelligence refers to "the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and
those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in
our relationships" (Goleman 1998a, 317). There exist three main models of emotional
intelligence. The first model introduced by Mayer and Salovey (1997) was a cognitive ability
model which considered EI as a form of pure intelligence. In the second model Goleman
(1998a) argued that EI is a critical factor for workplace success. His model considers EI as a
set of competencies that can be learned and developed. Bar-On’s (1997) mixed model regards
EI as a mixed intelligence consisting of both ability and personality aspects.
Goleman (1995) popularized the concept of EI by publication of his bestseller book
"Emotional Intelligence". Researchers started paying attention to this new concept. Over the
years various measurement tools were designed and many models of EI were developed.
Many organizations from public to private in various industries applied EI training programs
to foster organizational outcomes.
Different research efforts were devoted to studying the relationship between EI and
different organizational issues. Several scholars have tried to explore the organizational
benefits of having emotionally intelligent managers and employees; EI is shown to leverage
human resource practices (O'Leary et al. 2002; Rynes, Colbert, and Brown 2002; Teng Fatt
2002; Voola, Carlson, and West 2004) and especially human resource development (Brooks
and Nafukho 2006). Another strand of research confirms the idea that improving emotional
intelligence enhances individual performance (Abraham 2004; Kunnanatt 2004; Lopes,
Salovey, and Straus 2003; Sy and Cöté 2004; Sy, Tram, and O’Hara 2006; Tischler,
Biberman, and McKeage 2002), group performance and also team performance (Jordan et al.
2002; Kelly and Barsade 2001; Welch 2003).
Since Goleman (1998b) argued that emotional intelligence is critical for successful
leadership, many researchers have focused on the relationship between EI and leadership.
The early studies exploring this relationship were mainly theoretical. George (2000) explains
that moods and emotions play a central role in the leadership process, and EI contributes to
effective leadership in organizations; Prati et al. (2003a) discuss that EI presents a critically
important competency for effective leadership and team performance in organizations today;
Dulewicz and Higgs (2003) agree with Goleman’s hypothesis that the higher one advances,
the more important EI becomes.
At the same time some researchers developed empirical research designs to test these
theoretical notions. Barling, Slater, and Kelloway (2000) were among the first to conduct an
empirical study, examining the relationship between EI and transformational leadership.
Consistently Palmer et al. (2001) studying the relationship between EI and effective
leadership found that EI is significantly related to transformational leadership. Higgs and
Aitken (2003) provide evidence that general EI is associated with leadership, and it may be a
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predictor of leadership potential. Rosete and Ciarrochi (2005) claimed that EI specifically the
capacity to perceive emotions is able to predict effective leadership. Feyerherm and Rice
(2002) mentioned that understanding and managing emotions is positively related to team
performance.
Reviewing the available literature we identified three major themes including EI and
leadership style, EI and leadership effectiveness, and EI of leaders and followers’
performance.
EI and Leadership Style
Leadership is critical for suffering and prospering in the dynamic world of
competiveness. The twenty-first-century organization requires competent leaders to climb up
the ladder of success. There are as many definitions available for leadership as there are
researchers who study leadership. Typically according to Robbins (2001) leadership is “the
ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals”.
The available literature provides various theories for studying leadership. Trait
theorists have tried to identify personality, social, physical or intellectual traits of leaders.
Behavioral theorists have focused on specific behaviors of leaders. Contingent theorists bring
into account the role of situation in effective leadership. There exists another recent stream of
research which seeks to distinguish between transactional and transformational leadership
(Robbins 2001). In recent years much attention is given to transformational leadership theory.
Within the large literature on leadership transformational leadership has probably attracted
more empirical scrutiny than any other current theory, focusing either on its nature or effects
(Baling, Slater, and Kelloway 2000). The concept of transformational leadership, first named
by Burns in 1978 and championed by Bass has widely enjoyed theoretical and practical
acceptance (McColl-Kennedy and Anderson 2002). Transformational leadership comprises
idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized
consideration. Bass defined the transformational leader as one who arouses awareness and
interest in the group or organization, increases the confidence of individuals or groups, and
attempts to move the concerns of subordinates to achievement and growth rather than
existence. Transactional leader is described by Bass as one who prefers a leader-member
exchange relationship, whereby the leader fulfills the needs of the followers in exchange for
their performance meeting basic expectations. There is a third component to Bass’s model of
transformational/transactional leadership known as nontransactional or laissez-faire
leadership (Gardner and Stough 2002). Transformational leadership is proved to be more
effective than transactional style in organizations.
“Because of positive organizational outcomes associated with transformational
leadership, researchers are exploring factors that predict transformational leadership
behaviors. Such factors will contribute to the theoretical elaboration of transformational
leadership theory and have potential for improving leader training and selection. One of the
variables showing much promise is emotional intelligence” (Sivanathan and Fekken 2002).
Gardner and Stough (2002) argue that the limited theoretical and empirical studies of
leadership and EI have utilized one of the models of emotional intelligence (namely Mayer
and Salovey’s ability model, Bar-On’s non-cognitive model, Goleman’s competency-based
model) and have generally measured leadership based on the transformational/transactional
model of Bass and Avolio (1995).
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Ashkanasy and Tse (2000) were among early researchers who argued about emotional
factors underpinning transformational leadership. Their empirical findings show that there are
relationships between EI and transformational leadership. Barling, Slater, and Kelloway
(2000) were the first to empirically examine the relationship between EI and transformational
leadership using self-report data. They selected a small sample of 49 managers to explore
whether individuals high in emotional intelligence would be more likely to exhibit
transformational behaviors. Their research findings showed that EI is associated with three
aspects of transformational leadership (namely idealized influence, inspirational motivation,
and individualized consideration), and contingent reward. In contrast, active and passive
management by expectation, and laissez-faire management were not associated with EI. In a
similar study Gardner and Stough (2002) sampled 250 of top managers. Based on self-report
data they admitted the existence of a strong relationship between transformational leadership
and overall emotional intelligence. A negative relationship was also found between laissezfaire leadership style and emotional intelligence.
Palmer et al. (2001) identified effective leaders as those having transformational
leadership style. According to the research findings EI was correlated with two aspects of
transformational leadership (inspirational motivation and individualized consideration).
Sivanathan and Fekken (2002) followed the same stream of research but with a
difference in their method. Similar to previous works of Barling, Slater, and Kelloway
(2000), Palmer et al. (2001), and Gardner and Stough (2002) they evaluated the EI level of 58
managers using a self-report questionnaire. Unlike previous studies they were the first to use
subordinate ratings for determining the leadership style. They asked 232 employees to
evaluate their supervisors according to Bass and Avolio’s transformational/transactional
leadership model.
Later studies have provided empirical evidence of the existence of such link between
EI and transformational leadership (e.g. Barbuto and Burbach 2006; Downey, Papageorgiou,
and Stough 2006; Duckett and McFarlane 2003; Gardner and Stough 2002; Hoffman and
Frost 2006; Leban and Zulauf 2004; Mandell and Pherwani 2003; Sivanathan and Fekken
2002). A concise summary of the findings and contributions of these works is showed in
Table 1.
Unlike most of the studies which proved the link between EI and transformational
leadership the result of Weinberger’s (2002) study, using Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional
Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) and Bass and Avolio’s Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
within a sample of 138 managers showed no significant relationship between EI and
transformational leadership. Similarly, Brown, Bryant, and Reilly’s (2006) research showed
no significant relationship between EI and transformational leadership. Using a sample of
2’411 manufacturing workers, engineers, and professional staff the researchers investigated
the impact of EI as measured by Bar-On’s Emotional Quotient Inventory on organizational
outcomes; the well documented ability of transformational leadership to predict those
outcomes, and the relationship between EI and transformational leadership.
EI and Leadership effectiveness
The concern to predict leadership behavior accounts for the main task of leaders.
Leaders are expected to achieve organizational outcomes such as effectiveness, performance,
and satisfaction.
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Effectiveness being critical from organization perspective has received much attention
from researchers. Theoretical background supports this notion that emotionally intelligent
leaders promote organizational effectiveness at all levels of the organization. Goleman,
Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) in their influential book “The new leaders: Transforming the art
of leadership into the science of results” proposed that EI is essential for leadership
effectiveness.
In a theoretical review George (2000) proposes that since leadership is an emotionladen process -both from leader and follower perspective- it is relevant to emotional
intelligence domain. He explains that EI has the potential to contribute to leadership
effectiveness in various ways. In George’s opinion EI contributes to effective leadership by
focusing on five essential elements of leader effectiveness: development of collective goals
and objectives; instilling in others an appreciation of the importance of work activities;
generating and maintaining enthusiasm, confidence, optimism, cooperation, and trust;
encouraging flexibility in decision making and change; and establishing and maintaining a
meaningful identity for an organization.
Prati et al. (2003a) discuss that since EI is the ability to read and understand others in
social contexts, to detect the nuances of emotional reactions and to utilize such knowledge to
influence others through emotional regulation and control; it represents a critically important
competency for effective leadership and team performance. Antonakis (2003) in a critical
article questions the importance of EI for effective leadership. He argues EI is not needed for
leadership effectiveness. Prati et al. (2003b) answer his reservations in another article.
As mentioned above “The recent evidence makes a strong case for concluding that EI
is an essential element in leadership effectiveness. As such, it should probably be added to
the list of traits associated with leadership” (Robbins 2001, 333). However Brown, Bryant,
and Reilly (2006) note that the idea of strong EI being associated with leadership
performance has attracted considerable, albeit empirically unsupported, attention.
In recent years researchers have conducted empirical studies to explore these
theoretical propositions. Afzalur Rahim and Psenicka (2005) collected questionnaire data on
EI from 1’184 employed MBA students, and data on effectiveness of leader role from their
colleagues. Out of four countries, data from three countries revealed that empathy was a
mediator of the relationship between social skills (an EI component) and effectiveness of
leader role.
In another empirical study Rosete and Ciarrochi (2005) established a link between EI
and workplace measures of leadership effectiveness, using an objective measure of
performance and a 360° assessment tool. Research result showed that executives higher on EI
are more likely to achieve organizational outcomes and be considered as effective leaders by
their subordinates and direct manager.
Kerr et al. (2006) investigated the relationship between leaders’ level of EI and
leadership effectiveness from subordinates perspective. 38 supervisors of a large
manufacturing organization completed a self-report EI test. 1’258 subordinates rated their
supervisors on an attitude survey detailing questions relating to supervisor performance.
Unlike previous studies Kerr et al. had not used a student sample; they utilized subordinate
ratings to determine supervisory leadership effectiveness. Table1 summarizes the result of
major works in this research stream.
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EI of leaders and followers’ performance
As mentioned in the previous section theoretical and empirical evidence reveal that
emotional intelligence of leaders is related to effectiveness. There is also evidence that the
supportive behavior of leaders has a positive effect on performance of followers. Prati et al.
(2003a) argued that EI presents a critically important competency for team performance in
organizations today. Wong and Law (2002) showed that the EI of leaders is positively related
to the job satisfaction and extra-role behavior of followers. However, no relationship between
the EI of leaders and the job performance of their followers has been found in their research.
Originally it is believed that the relationship between a leader and a follower is an
emotional one. George (2000) claims that since the link between leader and follower is
emotional-laden, emotional intelligence of leaders plays an important role in enhancing job
performance and effectiveness at all levels of organization.
Center for Creative Leadership (2003) reports that higher levels of EI is associated
with better performance in following areas: participative management, putting people at ease,
self awareness, balance between personal life and work, straightforwardness and composure,
building and mending relations, doing whatever it takes, decisiveness, confronting problem
employees, change management, etc. Sosik and Megerian (1999) found correlations between
emotional intelligence aspects, leader behavior, and performance varied as a function of selfawareness of managers.
Reviewing the literature shows that despite the long history of studies on emotions
and leadership, little empirical evidence supports the relationship between leaders’ EI and
actual followers’ performance. This strand of research calls for more investigations.
Only recently in an empirical research Johnson (2008) reported that emotional
contagion is one way by which leader affect effects follower affect. Leader’s positive and
negative affect at work related to follower’s positive affect at work via emotional contagion.
Follower’s positive and negative affect at work related to perceptions of charismatic
leadership and organizational citizenship behavior.
It is said that a key leadership function is to manage the emotions of group members.
Feelings related to frustration and optimism are two of the most important emotions for
leaders to manage (Humphrey 2002).
Koman and Wolff (2008) examined the relationship between team leader’s EI, team’s
level of EI and team performance. In consistence with previous research, the research result
showed that team leader’s EI fosters team’s level of EI. Furthermore, group EI promotes
performance, and positively influences group effectiveness through development of
Emotional Competence Group Norms (ECGNs).
Research Method
This literature review tends to review particularly the relevant studies which had
focused on the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership. We searched
electronic databases including "Emerald", “Business Source Premier” and “Science Direct”
and viewed relevant websites such as eiconsortium.org. We accessed about 80 related
articles. At first we went through the abstracts of the major articles and sorted them based on
their subjects of study. 41 of these articles met our criterion for selection. We were especially
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concerned to study the articles that specifically examined the relationship between EI and
leadership. A summary of reviewed articles is mentioned in Table 1.
Discussion
This literature review supports the recognition of disciplines emotional intelligence,
leadership, and specifically the relationship between EI and leadership. Reviewing the
literature, we tried to track the existing gaps that need further research.
Theoretical discussions emphasized on the predictive value of emotional intelligence
for leadership behavior and application of transformational leadership style (Higgs and
Aitken 2003). Consistently empirical studies tempted to assume that EI leads to applying
higher levels of transformational leadership, but the possibility that transformational
leadership might increase the level of emotional intelligence cannot be excluded (Barling,
Slater, and Kelloway 2000). In other words the literature -both theoretical and empiricalsupports a causal link between EI and leadership (emotionally intelligent leader is more likely
to use a transformational rather than transactional or laissez-faire style). However, in an
empirical study Downey, Papageorgiou, and Stough (2006) showed that female managers
displaying transformational leadership behaviors were more likely to display higher levels of
EI than female managers displaying less transformational leadership behaviors. Similar
further research exploring the EI level of leaders is needed.
Published studies have tended to examine leadership based on Bass and Avolio’s
(1995) transformational/transactional leadership model. Yet new research is needed to be
designed using other leadership models. Among reviewed articles we noted that most
empirical works specially exploring the link between EI and transformational leadership have
utilized Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Furthermore early studies which indicated the
existence of such relationship were conducted among small samples. To better understand the
link between EI and leadership, qualitative research methods would be valuable. Examining
objective aspects of leadership behavior and performance will add a great contribution to the
available literature.
The use of self-report measurement tools suggests another limitation in previous
studies. The need for 360° measurement tools is essential for further researchers. In some
studies leader’s level of EI was evaluated using a self-report questionnaire, and subordinates
were asked to determine their supervisor’s leadership style according to their perceptions. In
other words the literature reflects the relationship between self-reported EI and perceived
leadership. Little effort has been devoted to studying actual leadership performance.
The effects of cultural differences on research findings cannot be left out. Crosscultural and comparative studies must be further developed to explore such effects.
Organizational climate and working conditions are other interfering elements that cannot be
disregarded. Perhaps in a different nation or organization, using other models to assess both
EI and leadership, would reveal different results.
As George (2000) proposes, emotionally intelligent leader increases organizational
effectiveness. The reviewed literature indicates that EI is related to transformational
leadership, effective leadership, leadership performance outcomes and better performance of
followers. On the other hand, emotional intelligence literature reports strong evidence that EI
has the potential to be developed (e.g. Groves, Mcenrue, and Shen 2008). Human resource
7
functions can benefit from this result. EI could be regarded as criterion for selection.
Organizations can take great advantage of including EI skills in their leadership training and
development programs. As Goleman (2001, 43-44) notes:
“Organizations need to hire for emotional intelligence along with whatever other
technical skills or business expertise they are seeking. When it comes to promotions and
succession planning, EI should be a major criterion, particularly to the extent that a position
requires leadership. When those with high potential are being selected and groomed, EI
should be central. And in training and development, EI should again be a major focus”
It is necessary to remind that the classification we have asserted in this review is not
exact. The three streams of research we identified actually overlap: researchers focusing on
the relationship between EI and transformational leadership have been simultaneously
concerned with effectiveness. Those studying leadership effectiveness have also discussed
about performance outcomes of emotionally intelligent leadership.
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Table1. A concise summary of major works in EI and Leadership literature
Research
Year
Researcher
Contribution
streams
Transformational leaders must possess multiple intelligences. Other than cognitive intelligence, Social
EI and
Bass
and emotional intelligences are important because they help the leader to inspire and build
leadership 1990
relationships.
style
Leader’s self-awareness moderates the relationship between aspects of EI and transformational
1999
Sosik & Megerian
leadership behavior.
Emotional factors underpin transformational leadership. Empirical findings show that there are
Ashkanasy & Tse
relationships between EI and transformational leadership.
2000
EI is associated with three aspects of transformational leadership (idealized influence, inspirational
Barling et al.
motivation, and individualized consideration).
Effective leaders were identified as those who displayed a transformational leadership rather than
2001
Palmer et al.
transactional leadership style. EI is related to transformational leadership style.
There is a strong relationship between transformational leadership and overall EI. There is a negative
Gardner & Stough
relationship between laissez-faire leadership and EI.
2002
Sivanathan &
Leaders who have higher levels of EI are perceived by their followers as higher in transformational
Fekken
leadership and more effective.
Wienberger
No significant correlations were found between EI and transformational leadership.
Mandell &
Transformational leadership style of managers could be predicted from their EI scores.
Pherwani
Gender does not interfere in EI predicting transformational leadership style.
Existence of a relationship between EI and leadership ability is likely. A possible relationship between
Dulewics & Higgs
EI and transformational leadership is proposed.
2003
Duckett &
There are strong relationships between retail managers’ level of EI and transformational leadership.
McFarlane
For leaders to exercise value-driven leadership, they need to work on EQ, SQ, and behavioral
Mussig
competencies.
EI ability contributes to transformational project manager leader behavior and actual project
2004
Leban & Zulauf
performance.
9
Brown et al.
Downey et al.
2006
Hoffman & Frost
Barbuto & Burbach
There is no significant relationship between EI and transformational leadership
Female managers displaying transformational leadership behaviors were more likely to display higher
levels of EI and intuition than female managers displaying less transformational leadership behaviors.
EI is positively related to subordinate ratings of their individualized consideration (a Transformational
Leadership component).
EI of leaders shared significant variance with self-perceptions and rater-perceptions of
transformational leadership. The present results also somewhat support the predictive value of EI in
antecedent leadership field research.
10
Year Researcher
1998 Goleman
2000
2001
2002
George
Palmer et al.
Goleman et
al.
Prati et al.
Antonakis
EI and
leadership
effectiveness
2003
2004
Higgs &
Aitken
Prati et al.
Antonakis
Rosete &
Ciarrochi
2005
2006
2007
EI of leaders
1999
and follower
Afzalur
Rahim &
Psenicka
Kerr et al.
Hopkins et
al.
Sosik &
Megerian
Contribution
Effective leaders have a common trait; they all have high level of EI. EI is the sine qua non of leadership.
EI contributes to effective leadership by development of collective goals and objectives; instilling in others
an appreciation of the importance of work activities; generating and maintaining enthusiasm, confidence,
optimism, cooperation, and trust; encouraging flexibility in decision making and change; and establishing
and maintaining a meaningful identity for an organization.
EI may be an important component of effective leadership.
EI is essential for leadership effectiveness.
EI presents a critically important competency for effective and team outcomes leadership.
A commentary on Prati et al. article, questioning whether EI is needed for leadership effectiveness. This
discussion concludes with a cautionary note about premature excitement over the use of EI in the workplace.
EI may be a predictor of leadership potential
Prati et al. attempt to answer Antonakis’s reservations.
Underline contradictions and inconsistencies which may cast doubt on the necessity of EI for understanding
and predicting leadership effectiveness.
Executives higher on EI are more likely to achieve organizational outcomes & be considered as effective
leaders by their subordinates and direct manager.
EI, specifically the capacity to perceive emotions, was able to predict effective leadership.
Empathy (EI component) is a mediator of the relationship between social skills and effectiveness of leader
role.
Half of the MSCEIT scores may act as a strong predictor of leadership effectiveness, particularly the
branches within the experienced EI domain.
EI is a critical factor for effective school boards.
A set of six core competencies are universal across the six board practice domains.
Correlations between emotional intelligence aspects, leader behavior, and performance varied as a function
of self-awareness of managers.
11
performance
Humphrey
2002
Feyerherm &
Rice
McCollKennedy &
Anderson
Wong &
Law
Prati et al.
2003
Center for
creative
leadership
2006
Groves
EI of leaders
and follower
performance
Johnson
2008
Koman &
Wolff
Empathy is an important trait that predicts well to leadership emergence
Management of group members' emotions is an important part of the leadership process.
Emotional displays have large effects on our perceptions of leaders
Understanding and managing emotions is positively related to team performance.
Emotions common in the workplace, frustration and optimism, may be viewed as a consequence of
transformational leadership style and as antecedents of subordinate performance.
EI of followers affects job performance and job satisfaction, while the EI of leaders affects their satisfaction
and extra-role behavior.
For followers, the proposed interaction effects between EI and emotional labor on job performance,
organizational commitment, and turnover intention are also supported.
EI presents a critically important competency for team performance in organizations today.
Higher levels of EI is associated with better performance in following areas: participative management,
putting people at ease, self awareness, balance between personal life and work, straightforwardness &
composure, building & mending relations, doing whatever it takes, decisiveness, confronting problem
employees, change management, etc.
Leader emotional expressivity was strongly related to visionary leadership
Leader emotional expressivity moderated the relationship between visionary leadership and organizational
change magnitude.
Visionary leaders with high emotion expressivity facilitated greatest changes in their organizations.
Leader positive and negative affect at work related to follower positive affect at work via emotional
contagion. Follower positive and negative affect at work related to perceptions of charismatic leadership and
organizational citizenship behavior. Follower perceptions of charismatic leadership related to organizational
citizenship behavior.
Team leaders EI fosters team level of EI. Group EI promotes performance, and positively influences group
effectiveness through development of Emotional Competence Group Norms (ECGNs).
12
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