CELLULAR PHONE EVIDENCE
DATA EXTRACTION AND DOCUMENTATION
DET. CINDY MURPHY
DEVELOPING PROCESS F OR THE EXAMINATION
OF CELLULAR PHONE EVIDENCE
Recently, digital forensic examiners have seen a remarkable increase in requests to examine data
from cellular phones. The examination of cellular phones and the extraction of data from the same
present challenges for forensic examiners:
The numbers of phones examined over time using a variety of tools and techniques may
make it difficult for an examiner to recall the examination of a particular cell phone.
There is an immense variety of cellular phones on the market, encompassing a array of
proprietary operating systems and embedded file systems, applications, services, and
peripherals.
Cellular phones are designed to communicate with the phone network and other networks
via Bluetooth, infrared and wireless (WiFi) networking. To best preserve the data on the
phone it is necessary to isolate the phone from surrounding networks, which may not always
be possible.
Cellular phones employ many internal, removable and online data storage capabilities. In
most cases, it is necessary to apply more than one tool in order to extract and document the
desired data from the cellular phone and its storage media. In certain cases, the tools used to
process cellular phones may report conflicting or erroneous information, thus, it is critical to
verify the accuracy of data from cellular phones.
While the amount of data stored by phones is still small when compared to the storage
capacity of computers, the storage capacity of these devices continues to grow.
The types of data cellular phones contain and the way they are being used are constantly
evolving. With the popularity of smart phones, it is no longer sufficient to document only
the phonebook, call history, text messages, photos, calendar entries, notes and media storage
areas. The data from an ever-growing number of installed applications should be
documented as these applications contain a wealth of information such as passwords, GPS
locations and browsing history.
The reasons for the extraction of data from cellular phones may be as varied as the
techniques used to process them. Cellular phone data is often desired for intelligence
purposes and the ability to process phones in the field is attractive. Sometimes though, only
certain data is needed. In other cases full extraction of the embedded file system and the
physical memory is necessary for a full forensic examination and potential recovery of
deleted data.
Because of the above factors, the development of guidelines and processes for the extraction and
documentation of data from cellular phones is extremely important. What follows is an overview of
process considerations for the extraction and documentation of cell phone data.
CELLULAR PHONE EVIDE NCE EXTRACTION PROCESS
Intake
Identification
Preparation
Isolation
Processing
Verification
Documentation/
Reporting
Presentation
Archiving
Figure 1: Evidence Extraction Process
EVIDENCE INTAKE PHASE
The evidence intake phase involves the procedure by which requests for examinations are
handled. The evidence intake phase generally entails request forms and intake paperwork to
document chain of custody, ownership information, and the type of incident the phone was involved
in and outlines general information regarding the type of data the requester is seeking to have
extracted or documented from the phone.
A critical aspect at this phase of the examination is the development of specific objectives for
each examination. This not only serves to document the examiner’s goals, but also assists in the
triage of examinations and begins the documentation of the examination process for each individual
phone examined. This information allows the examiner to triage cellular phones.
IDENTIFICATION PHASE
For every examination, the examiner should identify the following:
The legal authority to examine the phone
The goals of the examination
The make, model and identifying information for the cellular phone itself
Removable & external data storage
Other sources of potential evidence
Legal Authority:
Case law surrounding the search of data contained within cellular phones is in a nearly constant
state of flux. It is imperative that the examiner determines and documents what legal authority exists
for the search of the cellular phone, as well as what limitations are placed on the search of the phone
prior to the examination of the device:
If the cellular phone is being searched pursuant to a warrant, the examiner should be
mindful of confining the search to the limitations of the warrant.
If the cellular phone is being searched pursuant to consent, any possible limitations of the
consent (such as consent to examine the call history only) and should determine whether
consent is still valid prior to examining the phone.
In cases where the phone is being searched incident to arrest, the examiner needs to be
particularly cautious, as current case law in this area is particularly problematic and in a state
of constant change.
Particular questions as to the legal authority to search a cellular phone should be directed to a
knowledgeable prosecutor or legal advisor in the examiner’s local area. (Mislan, Casey & Kessler
2010)
The Goal of the Examination:
While the general process used to examine any given cellular phone should be as consistent as
possible, the goal of the examination for each phone may be significantly different. It is unlikely that
any given forensics lab has the capability nor the capacity to examine every cellular phone that
contains data of evidentiary value in every kind of case. For this reason, it can be useful to identify
what level of examination is appropriate for any given cellular phone.
The first of two main considerations is who will be responsible for the process of documenting
the data. The second main consideration is how in depth the examination needs to be. Of those
phones that are submitted to the lab for examination, there will be differences in the goals of each
examination based upon the facts and circumstances of the particular case.
In some cases evidence from cellular phones may be documented in the field either by hand or
photographically. For example, in the interest of returning a victim’s main communication lifeline
while still documenting information of evidentiary value, or in the case of documenting evidence in a
misdemeanor or minor offense, field documentation would be a reasonable alternative to seizing the
device. In other cases, it may be sufficient to have an officer or analyst with basic training in the
examination of cellular phones perform a quick dump of cellular phone data in the field, specifically
for intelligence purposes using commercially available tools designed for this purpose.
A smaller subset of cellular phones may be submitted for examination with the goal of targeted
data extraction of data that has evidentiary value. Specifically targeted data, such as pictures, videos,
call history, text messages, or other specific data may be significant to the investigation while other
stored data is irrelevant. . It also might be the case that only a certain subset of the data can be
examined due to legal restrictions. In any event, limiting the scope of the exam will likely make
extraction and documentation of the data less time consuming.
The goal of the exam may alternatively include an attempt to recover deleted data from the
memory of the phone. This is only possible if a tool is available for a particular phone that can
extract data at a physical level (See levels detailed at the end of this section). If such a tool is available,
then the examination will involve traditional computer forensic methods such as data carving and
hex decoding, and examination process may be a time consuming and technically involved endeavor,
as deeper levels of examination necessitate a more technically complex and time consuming process.
Submitted
for intensive
exam/data
recovery
Submitted
for targeted
data
extraction
Documented
on the
street/
intelligence
purposes
Figure 2: Goal of the Exam 1
The goal of the exam can make a significant difference in what tools and techniques are used to
examine the phone. Time and effort spent initially on identification of the goal of the exam with the
lead investigator in the case can lead to increased efficiency in the examination process. These types
of realities should be addressed in training, and the triage process related to the initial submission of
cellular phones for examination should based upon the individual circumstances and severity of the
case.
The Make, Model and Identifying Information for the Cellular Phone:
As part of the examination of any cellular phone, the identifying information for the phone itself
should be documented. This enables the examiner not only to identify a particular phone at a later
time, but also assists in the determination about what tools might work with the phone as most
cellular phone forensic tools provide lists of supported phones based on the make and model of the
phone. For all phones, the manufacturer, model number, carrier and the current phone number
associated with the cellular phone should be identified and documented.
Depending upon the cellular phone technology involved, additional identifying information
should be documented, if available, as follows:
CDMA cellular phones:
The Electronic Serial Number (ESN) is located under the battery of the cellular phone.
This is a unique 32 bit number assigned to each mobile phone on the network. The ESN may be
listed in decimal (11 digits) and/or hexadecimal (8 hex digits). The examiner should be aware
that the hex version of the ESN is not a direct numeric conversion of the decimal value. An
ESN converter can be found at http://www.elfqrin.com/esndhconv.html.
The Mobile Equipment ID (MEID), also found under the battery cover, is a 56 bit
number which replaced the ESN due to the limited number of 32 bit ESN numbers. The MEID
is listed in hex, where the first byte is a regional code, next three bytes are a manufacturer code,
and remaining three bytes are a manufacturer-assigned serial number. CDMA phones do not
generally contain a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card, but some newer hybrid phones
contain dual CDMA and GSM technology and can be used on either CDMA or GSM networks.
Inside these dual technology phones is located a slot for a SIM card. The identifying information
under the battery of these phones may list an IMEI number in addition to the ESN/MEID
number.
CDMA phones also have two other identifying numbers, namely, the Mobile Identification
Number (MIN) and Mobile Directory Number (MDN). The MIN is a carrier-assigned,
carrier-unique 24-bit (10-digit) telephone number. When a call is placed, the phone sends the
ESN and MIN to the local tower. The MDN is the globally-unique telephone number of the
phone. Prior to Wireless Number Portability, the MIN and MDN were the same but in today's
environment, the customer can keep their phone number (MDN) even if they change carriers.
GSM cellular phones:
The International Mobile Equipment Identifier (IMEI) is a unique 15-digit number that
identifies a GSM cellular phone handset on its network. This number is generally found under
the battery of the cellular phone. The first 8 digits are a Type Allocation Code (TAC) and the
next 6 digits are the Device Serial Number (DSN). The final digit is a check digit, usually set to 0.
On a GSM phone, there will be at least a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card slot which
is also generally located under the battery. The SIM card may be branded with the name of the
network to which the SIM is registered. Also located on the SIM card is the Integrated Circuit
Card Identification (ICCID), which is an 18 to 20 digit number (10 bytes) that uniquely identifies
each SIM card. The ICCID number is tied to the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
which is typically a 15-digit number (56 bits) consisting of three parts including the Mobile
Country Code (MCC; 3 digits), Mobile Network Code (MNC; 3 digits in the U.S. and Canada,
and 2 digits elsewhere), and Mobile Station Identification Number (MSIN; 9 digits in the U.S.
and Canada, and 10 digits elsewhere) which are stored electronically within the SIM. The IMSI
can be obtained either through analysis of the SIM or from the carrier.
The Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number (MSISDN) is the phone's
15-digit, globally unique number. The MSISDN follows the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) Recommendation E.164 telephone numbering plan, composed of a 1-3 digit
country code, followed by a country-specific number. In North America, the first digit is a 1,
followed by a 3-digit area code.
iDen cellular phones:
iDen cellular phones contain an International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) that
identifies an iDen cellular phone on its network. This number is generally found under the
battery of the cellular phone. iDen cellular phones also contain SIM cards, with the identifying
information described above, though they are based on different technology than GSM SIM
cards and are not compatible with GSM cellular phones.
Unique to iDen cellular phones is the Direct Connect Number (DCN) which is also known
as the MOTOTalk ID, Radio-Private ID or iDen Number. The DCN is the identifying number
used to communicate directly device-to-device with other iDen cellular phones. This number
consists of a series of numbers formatted as ###*###*##### where the first three digits are
the Area ID (region of the home carrier’s network), the next three digits are the Network ID
(specific iDen carrier) and the last five digits are a subscriber identification number which
sometimes corresponds to the last five of the cellular phone number. (Punja, & Mislan, 2008)
Removable /External Data Storage:
Many cellular phones currently on the market include the ability to store data to a removable
storage device such as a Trans Flash Micro SD memory expansion card. In the event that such a
card is installed in a cellular phone that is submitted for examination, the card should be removed by
the examiner and processed using traditional digital forensics techniques. The processing of data
storage cards using cellular phone forensic tools while the card remains installed within the phone
may result in the alteration of date and time stamp data for files located on the data card.
Additionally, cellular phones may allow for the external storage of data within network based
storage areas accessible to the phone’s user by computer. Accessing this data, which is stored on the
cellular phone service provider’s network, may require further legal authority and is generally beyond
the scope of the examination of a cellular phone handset. However, the potential existence of
network based data storage should be taken into account by the examiner.
Many feature phones and smart phones are also designed to sync with a user’s computer to
facilitate access to and transfer of data to and from the cellular phone. Full backups of the data from
a phone may be found on the phone owner’s computer. The potential for the existence of these
alternative storage areas should be considered by the examiner as additional sources of data
originating from cellular phones.
Other Potential Evidence Collection:
Prior to beginning examination of a cellular phone, consideration should be given to whether or
not other evidence collection issues exist. Cellular phones may be good sources of DNA, fingerprint
or other biological evidence. Collection of DNA, biological and fingerprint evidence should be
accomplished prior to the examination of the cellular phone to avoid contamination issues.
PREPARATION PHASE
Within the Identification phase of the process, the examiner has already engaged in significant
preparation for the examination of the phone. However, the preparation phase involves specific
research the regarding the particular phone to be examined, the appropriate tools to be used during
the examination and preparation of the examination machine to ensure that all of the necessary
equipment, cables, software and drivers are in place for the examination.
Once the make and model of the phone have been identified, the examiner can then research the
specific phone to determine what available tools are capable of extracting the desired data from the
phone. Resources such as phonescoop.com and mobileforensicscentral.com can be invaluable in
identifying information about cellular phones and what tools will work to extract and document the
data from specific phones. The SEARCH toolbar (available as a free download from www.search.org)
contains additional and regularly updated resources for cellular phone examinations.
Appropriate Tools:
The tools that are appropriate for the examination of a cellular phone will be determined by
factors such as the goal of the examination, the type of cellular phone to be examined and the
presence of any external storage capabilities.
A matrix such as the one shown below of the tools available to the examiner, and what general
technology of phones (GSM, CDMA, iDEN, SIM Card) they are compatible to be used with in an
examination may also be helpful.
CDMA GSM
BitPim
Data Pilot Secure View
2
Paraben Device Seizure
SIMCon
iDen Media Manager
Manufacturer / Other
Cellebrite
CellDEK
Oxygen Forensic Suite
XRY / XACT
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
iDen
X
X
X
X
X
SIM
Logical Physical
Dump Dump
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Figure 3: Cellular Phone tool matrix (Kessler, 2008)
Cellular Phone Tool Leveling System:
When identifying the appropriate tools for the analysis of cellular phones, a useful paradigm is
the Cell Phone Tool Leveling System. (Brothers, 2009) The tool leveling system is designed to
categorize mobile phone and GPS forensic analysis tools by the depth to which they are capable of
accessing data on a given device. As you move up the pyramid (generally):
Methods get more “forensically sound”
Tools get more expensive
Methods get more technical
Longer Analysis times
More training required
More invasive
Figure 4: Cellular Phone Tool Leveling Pyramid – (Brothers 2009)
1. Manual Analysis – physical analysis of the phone involving manual manipulation of the
keyboard and photographic documentation of data displayed on the screen.
2. Logical Analysis - Connect data cable to the handset and extract data using AT, BREW, etc.
commands in client/server architecture.
3. Physical Analysis (Hex Dump) - Push a boot loader into phone, dump the memory from
phone and analyze the resulting memory dump.
4. Physical Analysis (Chip-Off) - Remove memory from the device and read in either second
phone or EEprom reader.
5. Physical Analysis (Micro Read) - Use an electron microscope to view state of memory.
In general, examinations gather more detailed information and take more time as one advances
through the levels.
Other resources that should not be overlooked are cellular phone manufacturer’s and cellular
phone carrier’s websites. They can contain links to electronic versions of manuals for almost every
make and model of phone as well as cable and phone driver downloads. Manufacturers will also
sometimes provide free software designed for users to access and synchronize the data on their
phones with their computers. While these tools are not designed specifically for extraction and
documentation of evidence, they may be useful when other tools do not work. Caution should be
used when utilizing these tools, as they are generally designed to access and write data back to a
cellular phone.
ISOLATION PHASE
Cellular phones are by design intended to communicate via cellular phone networks. They are
also sometimes capable of connecting to each other and to other networks via Bluetooth, infrared
and wireless (WiFi) network capabilities. For this reason, isolation of the phone from these
communication sources is important prior to examination. Isolation of the phone prevents the
addition of new data to the phone through incoming calls and text messages as well as the potential
destruction of data through a kill signal or accidental overwriting of existing data as new calls and text
messages come in.
Isolation also prevents overreaching of the legal authority of warrant or consent that covers data
on the phone. If the phone is isolated from the network, the examiner cannot accidently access
voicemail, email, Internet browsing history or other data that may be stored on the service provider’s
network rather than on the phone itself.
Isolation of a cellular phone in the field can be accomplished through the use of Faraday bags or
radio frequency shielding cloths which are specifically designed for this purpose. Other available
items such as arson cans or several layers of tinfoil may also be used to isolate some cellular phones.
One problem with these isolation methods however is that once they’re employed, it is difficult or
impossible to work with the phone as you can’t see through them or work with the phone’s keypad
through them. Faraday tents, rooms, and enclosures exist, but are cost prohibitive.
Additionally, some laboratories within the US federal government may use signal jamming
devices to curtail radio signals from being sent or received for a given area. The use of such devices
is illegal for many organizations and their use should only be implemented after verifying the legality
of the use of such devices for a given organization. Additional information about the FCC
exceptions can be found at www.fcc.org.
Another viable option is to wrap the cellular phone in radio frequency shielding cloth and to
then place the phone into Airplane mode (Also known as Standalone, Radio Off, Standby or Phone
Off Mode). Instructions for how to place a phone into Airplane mode can be found in the
manufacturer’s user manual for the particular make and model of cellular phone.
Unfortunately, not all phones have an Airplane mode, and sometimes even the most seemingly
foolproof isolation methods can fail. Even if a cellular phone is successfully isolated from all
networks, user data can still be affected if automatic functions are set to occur, such as alarms or
appointment announcements. If these situations arise the examiner should document their attempts
to isolate the phone and whether any incoming calls, text messages or other data transmissions occur
during the course of the examination.
PROCESSING PHASE
Once the phone has been isolated from the cell phone and other communication networks, the
actual processing of the phone may begin. The appropriate tools to achieve the goal of the
examination have been identified in the steps described previously, and they can now ideally be used
to extract the desired data from the phone.
Accessing data stored on these cards through use or processing of the cellular phone may alter
data on the data storage card thus any installed data storage/memory cards should be removed from
the cellular phone and processed separately using traditional computer forensics methods to ensure
that date and time information for files stored on the data storage/memory card are not altered
during the examination. Similarly, SIM cards should be processed separately from the cellular phone
they are installed in to preserve the integrity of the data contained on the SIM card.
Consideration should be given to the order of the software and hardware tools used during the
examination of the cellular phone. There are advantages to consistency in order of tools used during
examination of a cellular phone. This consistency may help the examiner to remember the order of
tools used in the examination at a later time. Also, depending on the circumstances, it may make
sense to use more intrusive tools first or last during the course of the examination depending upon
the goals of the exam. For example, if the goal is to extract deleted information from the physical
memory of the phone, starting the examination with a physical dump of the memory (if tools for
this function are available) would make more sense than extracting individual files or the file system
of the phone.
VERIFICATION PHASE
After processing the phone, it is imperative that the examiner engages in some sort of
verification of the accuracy of the data extracted from the phone. Unfortunately, it is not unusual for
cellular phone tools to erroneously or incompletely report data or to have different tools report
conflicting information. Verification of extracted data can be accomplished in several ways.
Comparison of Extracted Data to the Handset
Comparison of the extracted data to the handset simply means checking to be sure the
data which was extracted from the cellular phone matches the data displayed by the phone
itself. This is the only authoritative way to ensure that the tools are reporting the phone
information correctly.
Use of More than One Tool, Compare Results
Another way to ensure the accuracy of extracted data is to use more than one tool to
extract data from the cellular phone and to cross verify the results by comparing the data
reported from tool to tool. If there are inconsistencies, the examiner should use other
means to verify the accuracy of the data extracted from the phone. Even if two tools report
information consistently, verification via manual inspection of the handset is authoritative.
Use of Hash Values
If file system extraction is supported, traditional forensic tools can be used for
verification of extracted data in several ways. The forensic examiner can extract the file
system of the cell phone initially, and then hash the extracted files. Any individually
extracted files can then be hashed and checked against the originals to verify the integrity of
individual files.
Alternatively, the examiner could extract the file system of the cell phone initially, perform the
examination and then extract the file system of the phone a second time. The two file system
extractions can then be hashed and the hash values compared to see what data on the phone, if any,
has been altered during the examination process. Any changed files should then be examined to
determine if they are system files or user files to potentially determine the reason for the changes to
the files. (Murphy, 2009) It should be noted that hashing only validates the data as it exists after it has
left the phone. Cases where the data extraction process actually modifies data have been
documented in other papers. (Dankar, Ayers & Mislan 2009)
In some cases, a combination of verification techniques may be employed to validate the
integrity of the data extracted from the phone.
DOCUMENTATION & REPO RTING PHASE
Documentation of the examination should occur throughout the process in the form of
contemporaneous notes regarding what was done during the examination. Examination worksheets
can be helpful in the examination process to ensure that basic information is recorded.
The examiner’s notes and documentation should include information such as:
The date and time the examination was started
The physical condition of the phone
Pictures of the phone and individual components (e.g., SIM card and memory expansion
card) and the label with identifying information
The status of the phone when received (off or on)
Make, model, and identifying information
Tools were used during the examination
What data was documented during the examination
Most cellular phone tools include reporting functions, but these may not be sufficient for
documentation needs. At times, the cellular phone tools may report inaccurate information such as
the wrong ESN, MIN / MDN numbers, model, or erroneous date and time data, and so care must
be taken to document the correct information after data verification. For law enforcement purposes,
the process used extract data from the phone, the kinds of data extracted and documented and any
pertinent findings should be accurately documented in reports. Even if the examiner is successful in
extracting the desired data using available tools, additional documentation of the information
through photographs may be useful, especially for court presentation purposes.
PRESENTATION P HASE
Consideration should be given throughout the examination as to how the information extracted
and documented can clearly be presented to another investigator, prosecutor and to a court. In many
cases, the receiver may prefer to have the extracted data in both paper and electronic format so that
call history or other data can be sorted or imported into other software for further analysis.
The investigator may also want to provide reference information regarding the source of date
and time information, EXIF data extracted from images or other data formats, in order that
recipients of the data are better able to understand the information.
For court purposes, pictures or video of the data as it existed on the cellular phone may be useful
or compelling as exhibits. Extracted text messages may be great evidence, but pictures of the same
text messages may be more familiar and visually compelling to a jury.
It is often very useful to present a series of pictures of text messages and call history logs in
chronological order via a simple PowerPoint® presentation so that the progression of
communications is shown clearly to the audience, whether the audience is an investigator,
prosecutor, or jury. This is especially effective if there are a number of cellular phones involved in a
case.
ARCH IVING PHASE
Preservation of the data extracted and documented from the cellular phone is an important part
of the overall process. It is necessary to retain the data in a useable format for the ongoing court
process, future reference, and for record keeping requirements. Some cases may endure for many
years before a final resolution, and most jurisdictions require that data be retained for varying lengths
of time for the purposes of appeals.
Due to the proprietary nature of the various tools on the market for the extraction and
documentation of cell phone data, consideration should be given to the ability to access saved data at
a later date. If possible, store data in both proprietary and non-proprietary formats on standard
media so that the data can be accessed later even in the event that the original software tool is no
longer available. It may also be a good practice to retain a copy of the tool itself to facilitate the
viewing of the data at a later date.
CONCLUSION
With the growing demand for examination of cellular phones and mobile devices, a need has also
developed for the development of process guidelines for the examination of these devices. While the
specific details of the examination of each device may differ, the adoption of consistent and well
documented examination processes will assist the examiner in ensuring that the evidence extracted
from each phone is well documented and that the results are repeatable and defensible in court. The
information in this document is intended to be used as a guide for forensic examiners and digital
investigators in the development of processes that fit the needs of their workplace.
The author wishes to thank the following individuals for their thoughtful and insightful additions
as well as their assistance in reviewing and editing the content of this document:
Richard Ayers –National Institute of Standards in Technology
Sam Brothers – US Customs and Border Protection
Richard Gilleland – Sacramento Police Department
Michael Harrington –
Eric Huber – A Fistful of Dongles
Gary Kessler – Gary Kessler Associates
Andrew Muir – Intern, Madison Police Department
Tim O’Shea – US Attorney’s Office, Western District of Wisconsin
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brothers, S. (2009). How Cell Phone "Forensic" Tools Actually Work - Proposed Leveling System.
Mobile Forensics World 2009. Chicago, Illinois
Ayers, R., Dankar, A. & Mislan, R. (2009). Hashing Techniques for Mobile Device Forensics. Small
Scale Digital Device Forensics Journal , 1-6.
Kessler, G. (2010). Cell Phone Analysis: Technology, Tools, and Processes. Mobile Forensics World.
Chicago: Purdue University.
Mislan, R.P., Casey, E., & Kessler, G.C. (2010). The Growing Need for On-Scene Triage of Mobile
Devices. Digital Investigation, 6(3-4), 112-124
Punja, S & Mislan, R. (2008). Mobile Device Analysis. Small Scale Digital Device Forensics Journal, Vol. 2,
No. 1 , 2-4.
Murphy, C. (2009). The Fraternal Clone Method for CDMA Cell Phones. Small Scale Digital Device
Forensics Journal , 4-5.