RESEARCH EXPERIENCE FOR UNDERGRADUATES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
PITTSBURGH DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL AND PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Mohammad M. Ataai*, Gerald D. Holder, and Robert F. Toplak
Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261
Summary
Introduction
We have served as a National Science Foundationsupported Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU)
site, which supports 15 summer interns, since the summer
of 1994. Each year, several additional students, supported
by other means including departmental support and REU
supplements, were also incorporated into the program. The
program has planned many social activities: group lunches,
picnics, visits to museums and entertainment parks, and
athletic activities. These activities were designed to permit
frequent, informal faculty-student and student-student
interactions, provide opportunities for leisure and
recreation, and, overall, help make the students' summer
experience a pleasant one. Since inception, the retention
has been 100%, as all the students who entered the program
completed their internship.
The program has maintained high academic standards
as well as a high representation of minorities (29%) and
females (47%) in the program. Student participants are
followed post-program to provide documentation of their
pursuit of advanced degrees, and career choices. A large
proportion (70%) of the students in our program who have
completed their undergraduate degree have entered
graduate programs and medical schools.
We have recruited heavily from a great number of
colleges and universities in and around the Western
Pennsylvania region, from Historically Black Colleges and
Universities (HBCUs), and enrolled a large number (46%)
of outstanding students from primarily undergraduate
institutions. The recruitment efforts have been extremely
successful. For example, for each year of the program, we
received well over 100 applications and were forced to
deny many excellent students with QPAs of 3.5/4.0 or
higher from major colleges and universities.
Our
acceptance rate was also very high.
Typically, 16-17
students were offered a position of which 15 accepted.
We feel that the high percentage of acceptance of the
positions can not only be due to our efforts in recruiting,
but it reflects the popularity of the REU programs among
the undergraduate students. Thus, national efforts should
be directed to fund more of these programs and thus
provide opportunities for a larger number of interested
students to participate.
Finally, the advisor selection
process proved very effective. Out of a total of about 75
students enrolled in the program thus far, only one student
was unsatisfied with the initial selection of a faculty
mentor, this issue was identified and resolved in the first
week by changing the advisor.
*Corresponding Author
Currently most undergraduates acquire their learning of a
particular field through structured courses and labs. While
these vehicles are essential, engaging in independent
research in key technical problems would be both
beneficial and motivational. The experience should help the
students to appreciate the need for a comprehensive
education with sufficient depth and breadth, and to make
more informed decisions about the remainder of their
undergraduate courses as well as graduate education and
career options.
An important issue is how to prepare students to begin
a new experiment or engage in examining the feasibility of
a new project. This is the key challenge the students will
actually encounter in essentially any working environment,
independent of their particular discipline (eg. law, finance,
sciences and engineering). Our philosophy is that a more
experiential exercise in the form of an undergraduate
research project, as opposed to relying solely on traditional
lectures and handouts, in research active laboratories
should facilitate the following.
(1)
Broad exposure to various aspects of a practical
problem. This will foster ‘Discovery’ and hypothesis
formulation activities and could increase satisfaction
students get from their education and stimulate them to
continue working on other related exploratory projects.
(2)
Increased exposure to modern instrumentation and
techniques useful in engineering, sciences, and medicine.
(3)
Emphasis on skills such as
motivation, and team work.
communication,
Aim 1 is facilitated by communicating to the faculty
members interested in supervising the undergraduate
students, that the intention of our program is to engage
students in somewhat independent and exploratory research
projects rather than assigning them routine and repetitious
applications of a particular technique for data collection.
The project should have components enabling the student to
take some intellectual ownership of the outcome of his/her
work. Faculty members are also asked to consider the level
of experience of the students as well as the relatively short
period of their residency (about 10 weeks) in defining their
project.
Aim 2 is easier to achieve. Most of our research
laboratories are well equipped. Students do get a broad
exposure to modern instrumentation through their own
projects and other on-going activities in the laboratories they
are working in, as well as the projects in other laboratories
where their fellow REU students conduct their research.
Our final goal (Aim 3) is to emphasize the importance
of oral and written communication skills. Although, we
sponsor a workshop on presentation and communication
skills, the goal is not to provide for extensive training in
these areas, but to highlight their importance to the student’s
future career. This aim is pursued through several venues
including writing a project summary, a full 10 page
description of their project (written in a manuscript form),
and poster and oral presentations. Based on these activities,
potential deficiencies in communication skills along with
suggestions for improvement are communicated to the
students.
Program
Our REU site has enrolled 15 undergraduate students for
ten weeks in each of the last four years. Special emphasis
has been placed on recruiting women and members of
underrepresented minority groups. In addition to hands-on
experimentation, the program incorporated workshops in
several topic areas including laboratory safety, library and
information resources, data analysis, research integrity,
presentation and communication skills, graduate education
opportunities, as well as tours of industrial laboratories.
Other components of the program include various informal
social activities, faculty mentoring, and a culminating
undergraduate research symposium. We are following
participants for a period of several years post-program to
document their pursuit of advanced degrees, and career
choices.
Next, various aspects of the program are
described in detail
Emphasis on Students from Primarily Undergraduate
Institutions
Generally, the students from primarily undergraduate
schools have fewer opportunities for conducting research
than those in major research universities. There are many
gifted students in primarily undergraduate colleges and
universities who will benefit enormously from the REU
program. Thus, we strongly feel that most REU sites in
major research universities should recruit from such
institutions. Our program has actively recruited from a
number of colleges and universities in and around the
Western Pennsylvania region. We are fortunate that,
because of historical reasons, there are dozens of colleges
and universities within a 100-mile radius of the University
of Pittsburgh. The majority of these institutions do not
have programs in engineering, but have strong programs
in chemistry and biology. Fortunately, many of the
projects offered by our faculty members are in the areas of
biotechnology and catalysis/reaction engineering both well-
suited to pursuit by undergraduates majoring in biological
sciences and chemistry, respectively.
Application and Selection Procedures
Each applicant is required to submit a completed
application form, a copy of their most recent academic
transcript, one letter of recommendation from a faculty
member at their institution, and a one-page statement of
their career goals and interests by March 15 of the program
year for which application is made. An application packet
containing these documents is assembled for each applicant
and reviewed by the PI and the Co-PI. Applicants are
accepted to the program based on their academic
credentials, strength of the recommendation letter,
congruence of their career goals and interests with the
content of the program, and their contribution to the desired
"mix" of participants in terms of male/female
representation, research university/small college or
university,
disabled/non-disabled,
underrepresented
minority/non-minority. Applicants are informed of the
acceptance decision no later than mid-April. To increase
our competitive position, some of the truly outstanding
applicants were made offers as we received their completed
applications.
Titles of Selected Research Projects
Below is a partial list of the projects that have been offered
to the REU students. A majority of the projects are in the
areas of Biochemical/Biomedical Engineering and
Catalysis; both are very strong areas of research in our
department.
x
Modeling the Interactions Between Free Polymers and
Tethered Polymers in Solution Using the Monte Carlo
Method (Anna Balazs, faculty advisor)
x
Physical Aging of Polyetherimide (Sindee Simon,
faculty advisor)
x
Adhesion of Ultrasound Contrast Media in Human
Endothelial Cells (William Wagner, faculty advisor)
x
Emission Testing and Evaluation of Natural Gas
Vehicles (James T. Cobb, Jr., faculty advisor)
x
Assessment of Self-heating Property of Powdered
Solids (George Klinzing, faculty advisor)
x
Modeling High Pressure Ammonia-Water Systems for
Kalina Cycle Design ( Robert Enick, faculty advisor)
x
Evaluation of Lewis Acid Strength of Catalyst (Dan
Farcasiu, faculty advisor)
x
Ultra-Violet Light Polymerization of Water-Soluble
Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) Molecules to Synthesize
Hydrogels (Alan Russell, faculty advisor)
x
Bleach Resistant Enzymes in Nerve Agent
Detoxification (Alan Russell, faculty advisor)
x
Effects of Pulsatility on the Pressure Drop Prediction
Across Aortopulmonary Shunts Using Modified
Bernoulli Equation (Edward Cape, faculty advisor)
x
Selection of 15mer Peptide Affinity Ligands for
Immobilized Metals (Mohammad Ataai, faculty
advisor)
x
Synthesis of CO2-Philic Affinity Ligands for the
Extraction of Proteins into Supercritical Carbon
Dioxide (E.J. Beckman, faculty advisor)
x
Reactive Mapping of Promoted Catalysts (James G.
Goodwin, Jr., faculty advisor)
x
Development of New Catalysts for Use in High
Temperatures: Applications to Catalytic Combustors
(George Marcelin, faculty advisor)
x
Reactions Of Organic Materials With Solid Superacids
(Irving Wender, advisor)
x
Thermodynamics of Gas Hydrates (Gerald Holder,
faculty advisor)
Recruitment Plans
Recruitment has focused on primarily undergraduate
institutions in Western Pennsylvania, Historically Black
Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), and to a lesser extent
Ph.D. granting institutions. Target schools, as well as
Chemical Engineering Departments throughout the country,
receive a poster with postage paid response cards which
provide a means for interested students to request
application materials and also for promotion of the REU
program.
Colleges and Universities visited by our faculty,
specifically for REU recruitment, include: Clark Atlanta
University, California University of Pennsylvania, Emory
University, Morehouse College, Syracuse University,
Lehman College, Long Island University, Brooklyn College
(CUNY), Morris Brown College, Spelman College,
Hampton University, North Carolina A&T State University,
and Norfolk State University. In some of these trips Dr.
Carla Gary, Associate Dean for Minority Affairs, has
accompanied our faculty members and helped us to more
effectively recruit from these institutions. In addition to the
specific REU recruitment trips, faculty who are invited to
make research presentations in other universities are
supplied with the REU program materials and asked to
meet with undergraduate coordinators, identify highly
qualified REU applicants, and if possible make an REU
presentation to undergraduates. This approach allows us to
take advantage of the faculty member’s time, and limits the
expense that would have been incurred if the PI had made
individual recruiting visits for the REU program.
Advisor Selection
Participants were asked to select their top three choices of
projects from descriptions provided to them with the
application form. The students' selections of research
projects in 1994 (the first year of our program) were made
prior to the student’s arrival. This was done to minimize the
time spent on this issue. While almost all students felt
comfortable/satisfied with the projects selected for them in
the 1994 program, they also felt that they would have
preferred to choose their individual projects.
The process of advisor selection was modified to
allow for the selection of advisor/project directly by the
students. It was modeled after the Department's graduate
student advisor selection process.
Students receive
background information on the faculty and available
research projects prior to their arrival. Upon arrival
students meet with faculty to discuss available projects and
then make their final selections at the end of the second
day. While the selection period is short and the PI and
Administrator have had to resolve a few conflicting
selections, the process was well received by 1995, 1996,
and 1997 REU participants. The process not only allowed
students to be involved with the selection process, but also
served to facilitate interaction among faculty and students
early in the program.
Student Activities
A variety of activities that were integral or supplemental to
the total program took place throughout the ten-week
program period. These activities were designed to provide
for additional faculty-student and student-student
interactions, impart useful information or new career vistas
to the students, and serve as social outlets for both faculty
and student participants. To permit students to take
advantage of the many academic, social, and recreational
resources offered at the University, each student participant
was issued a special University identification card that
allowed access to libraries, sports facilities and campus
transportation. Moreover, to facilitate communication
among students, faculty, and the PIs, each student was
assigned an Electronic Mail Address on the first day of the
program and the master Email list was then distributed to
every one associated with the program.
A seminar series (see Table 1) was scheduled over the
course of the program to enhance the participants research
experience while social activities, such as pizza lunches
(after each seminar) and departmental picnics, permitted
frequent informal faculty-student and student-student
interactions, provided opportunities for leisure and
recreation, and, overall, helped make the students' summer
experience a pleasant one. At the departmental picnic, held
twice each Summer, faculty members, students, and
department staff brought food reflective of their national or
ethnic origins.
Furthermore, a Summer Research Consortium Dinner
and Poster Session was organized. This event, attended by
many University officials including the Vice Provost for
Research and the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences,
provided the opportunity for students from all Summer
undergraduate research programs at the University to
become acquainted with their peers, faculty, and University
officials. Finally, the Research Symposium in which
participants presented the results of their research was
attended by graduate student mentors, faculty advisors, and
members of the local industrial community.
Table 1. REU Seminars/Workshops -1996
Date
June 1
June 7
June 14
June 21
June 30
July 11
July 12
July 19
July 26
August 2
Topic
Orientation and Laboratory Safety
Library and Computer Resources
ChE Process Simulators
Research Integrity
Health and Safety Regulations
Research Consortium Dinner
Industrial R&D Laboratory Tour
Presentation and Communication Skills
Graduate Education Opportunities
REU Student Research Symposium
Program Assessment
A questionnaire was developed to elicit feedback from the
participants at the midpoint of the program and one month
after the program's end (to allow time for students to reflect
on their experience). The students were queried on social
activities, housing, research project selection, seminars, and
the program's influence on their future career paths.
Responses were reviewed to identify student problems
(midpoint), overall program strengths and deficiencies
(program end), and to fine tune the program for the next
Summer. Overwhelmingly participants indicated the most
important aspects of the program were learning about
research oriented careers and graduate school opportunities.
Most students indicated that the program provided them
with the insight to enable them to make an informed
decision regarding graduate education.
The follow-up survey (sent to graduating seniors at the
end of April) provided information on the number of
students who opted to pursue advanced degrees on the way
to establishing careers in industry or academe. Currently
about 70% of students in our program who have completed
their undergraduate degree are attending Graduate or
Medical School.
Need For Increased Number of REU Sites
The Response to the REU program at University of
Pittsburgh has been enthusiastic. For example, requests for
application forms for the Summer 1996 program exceeded
260, while complete applications returned numbered 83.
Due to the high quality of applicants many students from
major research universities and the primarily undergraduate
institutions with high QPAs of 3.6/4.0 or somewhat higher
were not offered a position in our program. Typically, each
year 16-17 offers were made of which 15 were accepted.
The retention was 100% in all three years. The high
percentage of acceptance of the positions in the last several
years can not only be attributed to our efforts in recruiting,
but it demonstrates that the REU programs are popular
among undergraduate students.
Thus, we feel that
national efforts should be directed to expand the number of
these programs. Although we are not experts in the
economics of different undergraduate research programs,
we feel that the REU sites are extremely cost-efficient. An
entire REU site of 15 students often costs about the same
as training one graduate student on a research grant for one
year. One reason for this low cost could be that costs are
absorbed, directly or indirectly, by the universities and
departments, as well as individual faculty members. That
is, faculty members are not compensated specifically for
their efforts in training REU students and supply money is
typically not charged to the REU grant. Moreover,
universities absorb at least part of, and in some cases the
entire indirect costs associated with the program.
Publications and Presentations
A number of our students participated in the 1995 national
meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers
(AIChE) and presented their work in poster sessions.
Moreover, they have contributed to a large number of peer
reviewed manuscripts. Their publications and presentations
are listed below.
The following papers and presentations include REU
participants (in bold) from 1994, 1995, and 1996 as coauthors.
Cobb, J., Neufeld, R., Schreiber, E., Clifford, B., Pritts, J.,
Agostini, J., Spencer, S., Beeghly, J., Bender, C.,
Quarterly Technical Progress Report to U.S. Department of
Energy - Morgantown Energy Technology Center,
"Treatment of Metal-Laden Hazardous Wastes with
Advanced Clean Coal Technology By-Products", July,
1997.
Chaudhary, A., Lopez, J., Beckman, E.J. and Russell, A.J.
(1997) Biotechnol. Prog., 13 (3), 318-325. “Biocatalytic
and Solvent-free Polymerization to Produce High
Molecular Weight Polyesters.”
LeJeune, K.E., Mesiano, A., Bower, S., Grinsley, J.K.,
Wild, J.R. and Russell, A.J. (1997) Biotechnol. Bioengin.
54
(2),
105-114.
“Dramatically
Stabilized
Phosphotriesterase-polymers
for
Nerve
Agent
Degredation.”
Andreopoulos, F.M., Deible, C.R., Stauffer, M.T., Weber,
S.G., Wagner, W.R., Beckman, E.J. and Russell, A.J.
(1996) J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 118:26, 6235-6240.
“Photoscissable
Hydrogel
Synthesis
Via
Rapid
Photopolymerization of Novel PEG-based Polymers in the
Absence of Photoinitiators.”
Andreopoulos, F.M., Deible, C.R., Stauffer, M.T., Weber,
S.G., Wagner, W.R., Beckman, E.J. and Russell, A.J.
(1996) abstract from Tissue Engineering Society, Annual
Meeting (December), Orlando, FL.
“Photoscissable
Biocompatible Hydrogel Synthesis and Utilization for
Prevention of Platelet Deposition.”
Deible, C.R., Lydic, A.M., Beckman, E.J. and Russell, A.J.
(1996) abstract from AIChE, Annual Meeting (November),
Chicago, IL. 57i. “Reducing Platelet Deposition onto
Damaged Arteries with Covalently Attached Polyethylene
Glycol.”
Rilo, H.L.R., Diaf, A., Beckman, E., Deible, C., Russell,
A.J., Byrne, M.E., Rao, A.S. and Wagner, W.R.
“Microencapsulation of Isolated Pancreatic Islets with
Photocrosslinkable Polyethylene Glycol-based Polymers,”
Fifth IPITA Congress, Miami, FL, June 1995.
Yang, Z., Mesiano, A.J., Venkatasubramanian, S., Harris,
J.M., Gross, S.H. and Russell, A.J. (1995) J. Amer. Chem.
Soc., 117, 17, 4843-4850. "Activity and Stability of
Subtilisin Incorporated into Acrylic Polymers".
Kogelbauer, A., Reddick, J., and Farcasiu, D. (1995)
abstract from 14th North American Meeting of The
Catalysis Society, June 11-16, Snowbird, Utah,
"Mechanistic Study of the Acid Catalyzed Formation and
Hydrolysis of MTBE in Non-polar Media"
Yang, F., Ledenbach, L., and Russell, A.J. (1994) abstract
from Scientific Conference on Chemical and Biological
Defense Research (November), Edgewood, MD.
"Enzymatic Degradation of Pesticides in a Continuous Gas
Reactor".
Komives, C., Osborne, D. and Russell, A.J. (1994)
Biotechnol. Prog., 10,340-343, "Degredation of Pesticides
in a Continuous-flow Two-phase Microemulsion Reactor".
Komives, C., Lilley, E. and Russell, A.J. (1994)
Biotechnol. Bioengin., 43, 946-959, "Biodegredation of
Pesticides in Non-ionic Water-in-oil Microemulsions of
Tween 85: Relationship Between Micelle Structure and
Activity".
Komives, C., Osborne, D. and Russell, A.J. (1994) J. Phys.
Chem., 98;1,369-376, "Characterization of a non-ionic
surfactant reversed micellar system for enzyme catalysis".
Cobb, J., Neufeld, R., Schreiber, E., Clifford, B., Pritts, J.,
Agostini, J., Murray, C., Beeghly, J., Bender, C.,
Quarterly Technical Progress Report to U.S. Department of
Energy - Morgantown Energy Technology Center,
"Treatment of Metal-Laden Hazardous Wastes with
Advanced Clean Coal Technology By-Products",
November, 1995.
Kogelbauer, A, Weber, J, Goodwin, J., "The Formation of
Cobalt Silicates on Co/SiO2 Under Hydrothermal
Conditions", Catalysis Letters, 34, 259-267,1995.
A. Kogelbauer, J. Reddick, D. Farcasiu, "Mechanistic
Study of the Acid Catalyzed Formation and Hydrolysis of
MTBE in Nonpolar Media", J. Mol. Catal., 1995, 103,
31-41.
Altland, B.L., Cox, D., Enick, R.M., Beckman, E.J.,
"Optimization of the High Pressure, Near-Critical LiquidBased Microsortation of Recyclable Post-Consumer
Plastics", Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 15
(1995) 203-217.
Vierheller, C.Z., Goel, A., Peterson, M., Domach,
M.M., Ataai, M.M., "Sustained and Constitutive High
Levels of Protein Production in Continuous Cultures of
B. subtilis", Biotechnol. Bioeng., 47: 520-524 (1995).
Kralovic G, Vanauker MD, Cape EG (1995) "An Analysis
of Ventricular Septal Defects", Proceedings, National
Meeting of American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
November, paper 242.15as.
Vanauker MD, Kralovic G, del Nido PJ, Tacy TA,
Sigfusson G, Cape EG (1996) "Septal Shear Stress
Elevation in Pediatric Heart Disease: Implications for
Subaortic Stenosis. Proceedings, 15th Southern Biomedical
Engineering Conference.
Goel, A., Hanley, W., Domach, M.M., Ataai, M.M.,
"Elimination of Acid Formation in Fast Growing
Bacterial Cultures", Annals. NY Acad. Sci., 782: 1-16,
1996.
Ian Connor
S. L. Simon, D. J. Plazek, B. J. Harper, and T. Holden,
"Physical Aging of Polystyrene: Volume and Enthalpy
Recovery", Polymer Materials Science and Engineering,
76, 334 (1997).
"Interaction of albumin microbubbles with
endothelial cells and their matrix", American
Institute of Chemical Engineers Annual Meeting,
Chicago,
IL,
November
1996.
Talk
Acknowledged Ian Connor.
The following REU participants (in bold) received
acknowledgement for their contributions in the following
papers and presentations.
"The effect of retroviral transduction on human
endothelial cell phenotype", Inaugural Meeting of
the Tissue Engineering Society, Orlando, FL,
December 1996. Talk acknowledged Ian Connor.
Genea Lee
Hajdu, P.E., Tierney, J.W., Wender, I., paper
entitled "Effect of Modifying Host Oil on
Coprocessing" presented at ACS Division of Fuel
Chemistry, Symposium on Coprocessing of Coal
and Waste Materials in April 1995.
Hajdu, P., Tierney, J., Wender, I., "Effect of
Catalytic Hydropretreatment of Heavy Oil on
Coal/Heavy Oil Coprocessing", Energy and Fuels,
10 (2), 493-503, 1996.
Amand Lydic
Deible CR, Beckman EJ, Russell AJ, Wagner WR:
Covalently attached molecular barriers to
thrombosis on damaged arteries. (submitted to J
Biomat Res) acknowledges Amanda Lydic.
"Reducing platelet deposition onto damaged
arteries with covalently attached polyethylene
glycol", American Institute of Chemical Engineers
Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL, November 1996.
talk acknowledged Amanda Lydic.
"Covalent modification of damaged arterial tissue
to reduce thrombosis", Inaugural Meeting of the
Tissue Engineering Society, Orlando, FL,
December 1996. Talk acknowledged Amanda
Lydic.
"Reducing thrombosis in synthetic microconduits
by modifying surface proteins", Inaugural Meeting
of the Tissue Engineering Society, Orlando, FL,
December 1996. Talk acknowledged Amanda
Lydic.
Ryan Miller
"Measuring temporal platelet deposition on opaque
surfaces", American Institute of Chemical
Engineers Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL,
November 1996. Talk acknowledged Ryan Miller.
The
following
REU
Participants
presented
poster/papers at the AIChE 1995 Annual Meeting in Miami
Beach, Florida.
Alveda J. Finnell, Norfolk State University, Student
Paper/Poster Competition, 1995 AIChE Annual Meeting,
Miami Beach, Florida, Co-authored with Dr. James G.
Goodwin, Jr., "Supported Cobalt Catalysts for HighTemperature Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis".
Arthur D. Thomas, Bucknell University, Student
Paper/Poster Competition, 1995 AIChE Annual Meeting,
Miami Beach, Florida, Co-authored with Dr. William R.
Wagner, "Photopolymerization of Polyethylene Glycol".
Georgia Kralovic, University of Pittsburgh, Student
Paper/Poster Competition, 1995 AIChE Annual Meeting,
Miami Beach, Florida, Co-authored with Dr. Edward Cape,
"Fluid Dynamic Analysis of Ventricular Septal Defects".
The Following REU participants have submitted papers
in response to the call for papers of the Rohm and Haas
sponsored NOBCChE Undergraduate Research Paper
Competition 1996.
Chad Worth, North Carolina A&T State University, Coauthored with Dr. J. Karl Johnson, "Toward an Analytic
Expression for the Radial Distribution Function".
Alveda J. Finnell, Norfolk State University, Co-authored
with Dr. James G. Goodwin, Jr., "Supported Cobalt
Catalysts
for
High-Temperature
Fischer-Tropsch
Synthesis".