Individual, Society, & Culture
ANTH F100X
Three Credit Hours
Individual, Society, & Culture
ANTHROPOLOGY F100X
Study Guide
Developed and Instructed by:
Howard E. Maxwell
University of Alaska Fairbanks
Lesson email: ralesson@uaf.edu
Questions only email: hemaxwell@alaska.edu
The University of Alaska Fairbanks is an affirmative action/equal
opportunity employer and educational institution.
University of Alaska Fairbanks
Copyright ©2004 (updated 2011)
T
able of contents
Introduction Course Overview.............................................................................................................. v
Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
Lesson 4
Lesson 5
Lesson 6
Lesson 7
Lesson 8
Lesson 9
Introduction to the Course, the Instructor, and Anthropology.................................. 1
Video Reaction Paper “An Ecology of Mind”.............................................................. 11
Learning Culture............................................................................................................... 13
Video Reaction Paper “Mistaken Identity”................................................................... 17
Marriage and the Family................................................................................................. 19
Kinship and Descent......................................................................................................... 23
Video Reaction Paper “Strange Relations”................................................................... 31
Inequality: Stratification Based on Wealth, Ethnicity, and Gender............................ 33
World View & Ideology................................................................................................... 39
Mid-Term Examination Request Form
Lesson 10
Lesson 11
Lesson 12
Lesson 13
Lesson 14
Lesson 15
Lesson 16
What is an “American”?.................................................................................................. 51
Video Reaction Paper “A Poor Man Shames Us All”.................................................. 55
Culture of the Far North, A Look at the Inupiat........................................................... 57
Japanese Society and Culture.......................................................................................... 65
The Traditional Grand Valley Dani................................................................................ 73
Video Reaction Paper “Touching the Timeless”........................................................... 83
Culture Change................................................................................................................. 85
Project due before submission of Lesson 17
Lesson 17
Anthropology in Today’s World and Course Summary............................................. 91
Final Examination Request Form
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................. 99
I
Introduction
ntroduction
Types of assignments
For this course, the student will submit 17 different assignments, one project, and take two proctored exams,
for a total of 20 student submissions that will be evaluated by the instructor. These assignments are listed
briefly below and are described in greater detail in the first Lesson entitled “Introduction to the Course, the
Instructor, and the discipline of Anthropology.” Anth 100x consists of:
12 Regular Lessons- These will consist of student responses to a set of objective questions and two or more
short essay questions relating to the materials you have read.
5 Video Reaction Papers -These will consist of short writing assignments which you will write in response to
the questions posed for the specific video you watch.
1 Course Project A, B, or C. Over the length of the course, while you are reading and writing, each student
will be asked to complete a project based on one of three choices. The project requirements and specific project choices are described in greater detail shortly.
2 Exams (Midterm and Final): Exams will consist of a combination of objective questions, identifications, and
short answer/essay questions. Exams are closed-book and non-cumulative.
Required Texts
Readings
• Bohannan, Paul: 1992 We, the Alien: an Introduction to Cultural Anthropology
• Nelson, Richard: 1980
Shadow of the Hunter
• Heider, Karl: 1997
Grand Valley Dani: Peaceful Warriors
• Hendry, Joy 2003
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Understanding Japanese Society
page v
Introduction
Required Video Tape
5 episodes from the PBS Millennium series:
Viewings
Millennium; Tribal Wisdom and the Modern World
1. “An Ecology of Mind”
2. “Mistaken Identity”
3. “Strange Relations”
4. “A Poor man shames us all”
5. “Touching the Timeless”
Listening
Required Audio Tapes
Conversations with Barre Toelken, “American Folklore,” KUAC-FM
Conversations with Professor Harumi Befu, “ Hands Across the Rim,” KUAC-FM
Course Requirements & Student Evaluation
Assignment
Students must complete ALL 20 required submissions to receive a grade in the
course. Your course grade will be based on: 25% for the 12 regular lessons and
the 5 video reaction papers; 50% for the 2 exams (25% each); and 25% for the
Project.
Grades in this course are based on points accumulated and a grade scale.
Lessons and projects are graded with letter grades and exams are given point totals. The statements below
represent the qualitative “value” of a given letter grade:
A
B
C
D
F
An honor grade, indicates originality and independent work, a thorough mastery of the subject and the
satisfactory completion of more work than is regularly required.
Indicates outstanding ability above the average level of performance.
Indicates a satisfactory or average level of performance.
The lowest passing grade, indicates work of below-average quality and performance.
Indicates failure. All F grades, including those earned in pass/fail courses, are included in the GPA
calculations.
page vi
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Introduction
These letter grades may also include a “+” or “-” to indicate that a student’s level of performance is slightly
higher or lower than that of the letter grade alone.
The following percentage scale will be used to issue final grades for this course:
A+ 98% and above
A 92-97%
A- 90-91%
B+ 88-89%
B 82-87%
B- 80-81%
C+ 78-79%
C 72-77%
C- 70-71%
D+ 68-69%
D 62-67%
D- 59-61%
F
< 59%
Please consult the UAF catalog for how these letter grades are utilized for calculating a student’s GPA.
Grading System: Year-based course
Students must complete all coursework within one year from enrollment or they will receive a grade based on
work completed (could be an “F”) or a grade of “no basis” or “NB” meaning there was insignificant progress
made through the course material. No Incomplete grades or additional extensions will be given after one year
from enrollment.
Grading System: Semester-based course
If less than the entire course (including exams) has been submitted by the work completion date for that semester, then a grade will be determined on a case by case basis.
No INCOMPLETE grades will be issued unless 1) one-half of the course has been submitted by the end of the
work completion date, and 2) student has had an emergency situation arise that has prevented the student
from finishing the course.
If an INCOMPLETE is given, the instructor reserves the right to decide how long the student will be given to
complete the course (up to one year). This will be decided on an individual basis. If the course has not been
completed by the date specified by the instructor, a grade will be determined on a case by case basis.
SUBMITTAL BY E-MAIL IS ACCEPTABLE:
Please send completed lessons to ralesson@uaf.edu, request that each submission be printed and put into
Mr. Maxwell’s Box. Please also cc: lessons to instructor at hemaxwell@alaska.edu
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page vii
Introduction
Planning schedule
First, enter today’s date at the top of the schedule.
Second, if you have a certain deadline you must meet for course completion, put it at the bottom of the schedule. Otherwise, set a planned date for completion. If you are a graduating senior, check with your counselor
to find out the date all grades are due.
Third, opposite “final exam” enter a date at least two weeks before your planned date of course completion. If
you are a graduating senior, plan to take the final exam at least one month before graduation.
Fourth, enter planned dates for submitting each written assignment. Try to pace yourself. Unless otherwise
specified by your instructor, up to two lessons per week should be submitted. (You might want to enter your
plan in pencil, so it can be revised if necessary.)
If you are a graduating senior or have any other personal deadlines, it is imperative that you write to your
instructor on your first lesson and inform him/her of your needs. Although the staff and faculty will do
everything possible to help you, a lack of planning on your part does not constitute an emergency for the staff
and faculty! Please plan ahead!
YEAR-LONG: Remember, we assume you will take up to a year to finish this course. At a bare minimum, it
should take three months to complete a course. Instructor permission (in writing) must be obtained to finish
in an accelerated time frame.
SEMESTER-BASED: If you are a semester-based student, follow the semester time requirements provided
with your book purchase. Remember lessons cannot be accepted if turned in all (or several) at once.
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Introduction
START
I began this course on _________________________ .
Date to
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DEADLINE Grade must be received by _________________ .
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P
Introduction
ersonal Information Sheet
The following information will help your instructor make this educational experience more meaningful for
you. Please include this completed form with your first lesson.
Name: _________________________________________________________________________
Address: _______________________________________________________________________
E-mail: _________________________________________________________________________
Purpose of your Enrollment: ______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
FORMER EDUCATION
High School:
___________________________________________________________
College:
___________________________________________________________
Other:
___________________________________________________________
Occupation:___________________________________________________________
Comments: Use this space and back of this page to introduce yourself to the instructor. S/he will be interested
in anything you have to say about yourself. Thank you.
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page xi
L 1
Lesson 1
esson
Introduction to the Course, the
Instructor, and Anthropology
Readings
• We The Alien: Pages 1-23
• Familiarize yourself with terms in the Glossary—We The Alien: Pages 319-26.
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
• Understand the structure of the course and the student’s responsibilities.
• Understand the course project and the options from which to choose.
• Understand the basic foundations of the discipline of Anthropology.
Discussion
The Course
This course is concerned with things that unite and divide us as we go about the business of living in human
societies. We will examine variation in the individuals, societies and cultures of the world by exploring the
common concerns of people who live in different parts of the world. This course explores both the past and
the present, with a special emphasis on four different regions of the world: the Continental United States, the
Far North of North America, Japan, and Highland New Guinea. As we compare education, kinship, world
view, gender roles, and systems of privilege in these places, each student will have the opportunity to reflect
on his or her own personal assumptions and understandings of what it means to be a human being.
Throughout this course you should continue to ask yourself two basic questions: “To what extent are your
own life experiences and ways of thinking different or similar from those of the people we explore in this
class?” and, “given the great cultural diversity that you are exploring in this course, how do you think the
varied peoples of the world can learn to live well together?” Generally, this course should improve your
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Lesson 1
understanding of the many different ways people do things across the world enriching your knowledge of
the diversity among different cultures as well as the diversity within large pluralistic societies like the United
States.
It is hoped that this course will, in the end, help each student live better among peoples of differing backgrounds and perspectives and that it will spark your curiosity about different ways of life that exist in the
world. It may also help us understand how we can better learn to live together more harmoniously.
During this course, the student is asked to approach these issues from an anthropological perspective. The
importance of the anthropological perspective is suggested by the following excerpts from your text book,
We, the Alien by Paul Bohannan:
Today nobody can live in isolation. All of us must face all the major global problems: peace and war,
the world’s economy, the environment. There is no “away” to throw anything anymore — maybe there
never was and it is just becoming apparent. There is no outsider to blame — “we have met the enemy
and they are us.”
Anthropology will make you question your deepest values. But remember, anthropologists are not
missionaries trying to make converts to any specific belief. The point is not necessarily to change your
views, but rather to listen to other people’s views. You can then look clearly at your own views from
somebody else’s perspective. Your views probably appear as wrongheaded, even silly, to others as theirs
do to you. To them, you are the alien.
Course Goals and Student Outcomes
This core course serves as a valuable part of a student’s overall undergraduate education at UAF. It fits well
into the broader curriculum offered at UAF. The course serves as an introduction to the social/cultural aspects of the Anthropology curriculum. There are no specific prerequisites or expected proficiencies required
for this course. It is a goal of this course to convey to the student a better understanding of the complex social
arrangements present in the world. A second course goal is to provide insight into the great variety in the
social/cultural adaptations guiding individual behavior and human concerns in contrasting cultural contexts.
Students who complete this course will understand the basic foundations of the discipline of Anthropology.
Students completing this course will also better understand the concepts of: culture, marriage, kinship and
descent, worldview, and the variety in human economic adaptations. In addition, students will gain specific
detailed insight into the peoples and cultures of the arctic regions of North America, the continental United
States, Highland New Guinea, and Japan.
The discipline of Anthropology is described more explicitly a bit later in this lesson’s discussion. First, let’s examine what is expected of each student and the form and process by which these course requirements should
be met.
Required Submittals:
This course is a correspondence course and it therefore requires the student to work independently and to
submit written assignments and exams to the instructor for evaluation. This core course requires very intensive writing, and the student should be aware of this before embarking on his or her course of study. This
course is not less work than a “regular” classroom course, and in fact probably requires a greater time compage 2
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Lesson 1
mitment than many on-campus classes. There are several different kinds of written submittals required from
the student. These are described in detail below.
Regular Lessons- These will consist of student responses to a set of identifcations and definitions, and,
most importantly, some essay questions relating to the materials you have read.
For each lesson, the following subheadings will guide the student through the learning objectives at hand:
• The required reading assignment for the lesson.
• A list of learning objectives for the specific Unit.
• A discussion written by the instructor, that focuses the student on the issues at hand.
• A written assignment to be completed by the student and submitted for evaluation.
• A list of terms & concepts for review which are important for the student to understand before moving to the next section.
An Example of a Regular Lesson Submittal:
Page 1
Page 2
Page 3 +
Independent Learning Cover Sheet with relevant information completed (provided with materials.)
Your first page with any Identifications/Definitions you are asked for.
Begin your Essay responses.
ID’s & Definitions:
Archaeology:
Archaeology is the study of......etc.
Culture:
Culture is the learned, patterned and shared.....etc.
Primate:
Primate is a term the refers to a class of mammals....etc.
Essay Responses:
1) In the following essay, I will .....etc.
Attach as many extra pages as needed to adequately answer the essay questions posed (most essay questions
require 1-3 pages to answer). Please type or word process your essays if possible, and if not, please write legibly.
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Lesson 1
Video Reaction Lessons-These are to be written after you view the specified episode. Each video
reaction paper should briefly describe the video, address the question posed for you, and at the same time,
it should include your own thoughts, ideas, and reactions regarding what you have viewed. Use explicit
examples from the video to back up and support what you write. These responses should be approximately 2
to 3 pages (typed) in length.
An Example Video Reaction Lesson Submittal:
Page 1
Page 2
Independent Learning Cover Sheet with relevant Information completed (provided with materials.)
Begin your video review.
In the video “An Ecology of Mind,” we were presented with a ...... etc.
Attach as many extra pages as needed to adequately answer the essay questions posed.
(Type or word process your essays if at all possible. If not, please write legibly).
Course Project-A, B, or C.
Over the course of working on the assignments, each student will be asked
to complete a project based on one of three choices described below. Don’t forget to use a lesson cover sheet
as first page of the project.
Making Your Project Choice:
Each student must select one of the following three projects and complete it prior to submitting lesson 17.
Project Option A
Option A deals with a specific culture or group of people.
Select a specific culture or group of people (excluding the Japanese, the Dani, and the Inupiat) that is well
documented, and for which you can locate a thorough ethnographic description written by an anthropologist.
Begin to read everything you can find on that culture. Then, with every chapter of the We the Alien textbook,
find information about the people you are studying concerning the topic of that chapter. Minimally you should
describe the basic categories of anthropological concern for the group you have selected. Minimally, the final
product you submit should describe the people’s kinship and descent patterns, their marriage patterns, their
forms of leadership, and their ecological adaptations, any thing you can learn about their ideological perspectives, and anything you can learn about their forms of artistic expression. This project should be valuable to
you in that it gives you “your own people.” The idea is that you will get to know them well enough that you
can use them as a sounding board for ideas, just as you now use your own culture as a sounding board. Once
you have two sounding boards, you will be more likely to examine more sides of every issue. What this project
requires you to do is basically write a mini-case study on a culture you choose. Your data will not be from field
work, but instead from written materials which describe the culture you are concerned with.
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Lesson 1
Project Option B
Option B deals with Kinship.
This project consists of two parts: 1) creating your own family tree, and 2) gathering a genealogy from a person
who is a native speaker of a language other than English. Start the project by creating your own family tree, either
on ordinary writing paper or on posterboard. Include at least three generations and more if you know them or
if you can find out from your parents or other kinfolk. Use the standard symbols you learn about from reading
chapters 3, 4 and 5 in the textbook (We the Alien) and from the discussion in this syllabus (lesson 6). Use circles
for females, triangles for males, equal signs for marriage, hyphen if somebody’s parents were not married. Mark
divorces by putting a slash through the marriage sign. Mark deaths by a slash through the circle or the triangle.
Make notes on the chart about adopted and foster kin. Next you should add the given name and any nicknames
under each circle or triangle. Mark yourself, with your own name, clearly. You are Ego. Then add, for each person
on the chart, the kinship term by which you call that person. You should be able to see how your family fits into
the American kinship system or differs from it. It will help you immensely in trying to figure out other kinship
systems. It will also show how families are dynamic kinship units. What family situation did you have trouble
indicating on your chart? Why do or why don’t you know the names of some of your relatives?
After you have completed this first part of the project, turn your attention to somebody else’s kinship. Select
a person, either on your campus or among your acquaintances, who knows another language well, preferably
someone who is a native speaker of that language. Gather a genealogy from that person like the one you created
for yourself in the above project. That is, find the given names of his or her parents and siblings, spouse if there is
one (or, if they can imagine that there will be one), and other kinfolk whom your informant thinks are important.
Then, with your informant as Ego, put in the kinship terms for all those other persons. At this stage, do not ask
the informant anything else. What can you tell about that person’s original culture from the kinship terminology
alone? Now, go the library and find sources on that culture, particularly on kinship and family in that culture.
Check out whether your results agree with those of the book. Then go back to the person to ask whether your
assumptions are correct, and what they think about the statements you gathered from the books you referred to.
Submit both charts and your additional findings and observations summarized in a written synopsis.
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Lesson 1
Project Option C
Option C deals with what it is to be a Human Being.
What is a human being? The answer is, obviously, “us.” But who is “us”? This project requires you to address
four areas of concern that relate to the question of humanity. Complete the four sub-parts listed below.
1. Define human beings non-biologically. A lot of discussion and thought and disagreement have gone into
the question. Your thinking on this subject is not trivial you may need it even to vote intelligently. Here are
some ideas you might want to work with: The idea of intelligence is very important, but what is intelligence?
Are planning, forethought, memory, learning or adaptability, creativity, or pattern recognition parts of intelligence? We use our intelligence to perceive logical relationships, to respond appropriately to novel situations,
but appropriateness may be largely cultural, are cultural differences part of the definition? The concept of
humanity probably involves our awareness and use of the past (remembered relationships), present (experiencing relationships), and future (anticipated relationships). It involves values, self-consciousness, social
relationships. What do you think these things have to do with being human? Down deep, how you define
man is closely related to how you define yourself. Think about it. Write about it. It is one of the most difficult,
but most meaningful, of all topics.
2. Explore (in a brief essay) the concept of “equality.” Some people, in some situations, are not merely considered
unequal, but may be considered less than fully human, even though the idea may not be expressed precisely
that way. Slavery, racism, sexism or ethnocentrism all tend to label individuals as subhuman or non-human. For
example, before and during World War II, German Nazis coined the word Untermensch (literally, “under person,”
even “infrahuman”) that they applied to gypsies, Jews, and some others. People so defined were persecuted and
put into camps where hundreds of thousands of them were murdered. Also during World War II, the United States
interned Americans of Japanese descent (called “Japs” at the time) and put them into what they called relocation
camps in desolate areas; none were murdered, but their property was taken away without compensation. Only
in 1990 did the American government make formal apologies and pay token reimbursements. Collect stories
throughout your tenure in this course from your local papers (or any other news source) that exhibit racism,
sexism or any other forms of discrimination. Additionally, watch television and movies and record incidents in
which discrimination occurs. Remember, some forms of discrimination may be very subtle. Since the beginning
of the civil rights movement in the 1950s, much of the American population has been systematically trained not
to use labels as obvious as the ones that were used during World War II. That by itself does not mean, however,
that basic ideas have changed or that more subtle indications of such feelings have disappeared.
3. Take an historical perspective on actions which declared certain groups as subhuman, and answer the questions below. The Twentieth Century has presented many examples of people being labeled as less than human.
During World War I, Germany was so hated in the United States that all reminders of things German were erased:
dachshunds were renamed “liberty puppies” and sauerkraut was re-christened “liberty cabbage.” In the American
past, Jim Crow laws were common, public bathrooms were labeled “Men,” “Women,” and “Colored,”drinking
fountains, hospitals and buses were segregated. Examine historical sources for other examples, either in the
United States or elsewhere, in which one group of people were declared to be subhuman. What were the criteria
for the classification? What were the results in terms of social action? The era of civil rights in the United States
was marked by the fact that Females, Blacks, Asians, American Indians, Hispanics, and others became full human beings in our country, with full civil rights. However, the struggle to be recognized as fully human may
not yet be won. You should submit a short synopsis describing the example(s) you selected which explores the
questions posed.
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Lesson 1
4. There are other contexts in which it is profitable to discuss what a human being is. Today’s abortion debate
centers on the question, “When does human life begin?” Obviously, this is a moral question and not one that
can be answered by science, as the answer depends fully on ones definition of human. Figure out the definition of human beings used by people who are “pro-choice” and those who are “pro-life.” Indeed, those terms
themselves are treacherous, examine them carefully when you compute your definitions.
*Note: parts of these project ideas were taken from a workbook by Paul Bohannan, entitled Discovering the
Alien; A Workbook in Cultural Anthropology (after Bohannan, 1992). The course instructor has modified the text
and written additional requirements for some parts of these student projects.
Regardless of your choice, the final product you submit to the instructor should be well written and comprehensive. Be sure to include a bibliography listing ALL sources you consulted in completing your project.
Failure to do so will result in a reduced grade and may result in a plagiarism inquiry. You must inform the instructor of your project choice in writing by the time you submit Lesson 3. All three of these projects require
substantial work, you should therefore begin to think about them immediately, and continue to work on them
as you progress through the course.
Exams—a Midterm and a Final-Exams will consist of a combination of objective type questions
and short answer/essay questions. Exams are closed-book and non-cumulative. The midterm covers the
first half of the course and the final covers the second half of the course. The questions you answer for the
regular lessons will prepare you for the questions contained on the exams, but they will not necessarily be
directly duplicated on the exams.
The Instructor
This course was developed by and is currently instructed by Howard Maxwell. Mr. Maxwell has lived in
Alaska since 1983. He grew up in Minnesota and completed his undergraduate work there at the University
of Minnesota. While attending U of M, he became interested in Anthropology and generally interested in the
Indigenous Peoples of the world and their fascinating cultures and histories. Professor Maxwell completed
his graduate work at the University of Alaska, studying the prehistory and traditional cultures of Alaska’s
Native People. He worked for the Arctic Sivunmun Ilisagvik College in Barrow Alaska, with affiliate faculty
status at the University of Alaska Fairbanks from 1987-1997. He currently currently teaches for the Fairbanks
North Star Borough District. He is also the instructor for two other UAF eLearning & Distance Education
Anthropology Courses (ANTH 101 & ANTH 242), and he works intermittently as an instructor of Anthropology for the University of Alaska Fairbanks. The instructor encourages student interaction, so please feel free
to contact him via his Email address, his web page, or via his snail mail box at UAF eLearning & Distance
Education.
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Lesson 1
Anthropology: The Discipline
This is an anthropology course, so the question arises, what exactly is anthropology all about? Anthropology
is quite simply the study of people. Anthropology is a broad social science which focuses on many different
aspects of what it is to be human. Anthropology traditionally is made up of three or four different sub-disciplines. These sub-disciplines or sub-fields include: Archaeology, Social or Cultural Anthropology, Physical or
Biological Anthropology, and, at some universities, Linguistics. These sub-disciplines are described briefly
below.
ARCHAEOLOGY is the systematic and scientific study of past human behavior.
SOCIAL/CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY is the study of extant cultures. Cultural Anthropology normally
involves the analysis and description of cultures. Much of this course is grounded in the work of cultural
anthropologists.
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY is the study of all the physical and biological aspects of Homo Sapiens,
including their origins and the study of primates as well as biological variation among humans past and present.
LINGUISTICS is the comparative study of the structure, nature, and interrelationships of language.
Some other terms and concepts which will be of use to you as you begin this course are highlighted below.
CULTURE is the learned, patterned, and shared aspects of human thought and behavior which are characteristic of a given human group or society.
Culture is learned, that is we are not born with it but we learn it from our parents and from others in our immediate environment. Culture is patterned, that is we carry a mental template which guides us in our behavior, our behavior is not random, but patterned. Culture is shared, that is we have the same culture as others
in our group. One might ask, why do cultures exist? The answer might be that cultures exist so people can
survive in the world. Culture is an adaptive strategy that humans have developed through time. Culture is
a guide to dealing with the stuff of life as it arises. It helps us live in groups because culture strikes a balance
between the self interests of an individual and the interests of the members of a group or society.
CULTURAL RELATIVISIM is the idea that each culture is entirely unique and therefore can be evaluated
only according to its own cultural rules and standards, not those of other outside cultures. A culture should
be understood relative to itself. This is a principle Anthropologists carry with them as they work.
ETHNOCENTRISM is a tendency to judge cultures other than your own as inferior and it is the general attitude that your own culture does things the correct way, that your culture is the center of the universe. As
anthropologists we must try to avoid ethnocentric interpretations, that is we should keep an open mind as we
explore the lives and beliefs of others.
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Lesson 1
Throughout this course, you will be learning about peoples different than your own, and cultures which
view the world through very different lenses than those that you are used to. Learning about the diversity
in the world is going to allow each of you to compare yourselves with what you are not. As your primary
textbook, We the Alien, points out, learning what we are not helps us define what we are.
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• selfish gene
• symbol
• culture
• archaeology
• ethnography
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. What does Bohannan mean when he says that “knowing only one culture is a prison” and that “we are
ourselves the alien”?
2. What is the “anthropological attitude”? Evaluate the usefulness of this attitude in today’s world.
3. Name and discuss at least two of the principles of social relationships that Bohannan identifies as unique
to humans, and explain how they differ from at least two of the principles of social relationships that
humans and primates share.
Review
Key Terms & Concepts For Review:
archaeology
social/cultural anthropology
physical anthropology
linguistics
culture
cultural relativism
ethnocentrism
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the position of human beings in the taxonomic
classification
heritage
dyads and networks
triads
society
primate
page 9
L 2
Lesson 2
esson
Video Reaction Paper
View the Millennium Series video: “An Ecology of Mind”
Viewings
Discussion
Anthropologist like to examine humans’ ecological relationships to the world around them. This episode
of Millennium deals with the ways in which human groups survive through manipulation of nature. Tribal
cultures are often said to be seeking harmony with nature, while western societies are viewed as trying to
control nature. The Makuna of Colombia are explored regarding their use of complex myths and rituals
which are used to pass along their sophisticated ecological awareness. The video also looks at new attitudes
that westerners may have to adopt if humanity is to survive on Earth.
Assignment
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Very briefly describe the video, then compose an essay which details your reaction to the video by responding to the following question or questions:
Compare and contrast Tribal Peoples’ views and Western views regarding nature. How does Darwinian theory and
thinking in the Bible compare with the tribal views that are explored here?
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L 3
Lesson 3
esson
Learning Culture
Readings
We the Alien: Pages 25-42 & 193-213
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
• Make a choice as to which project option they are choosing.
• Understand the functions of culture.
• Understand the processes by which humans acquire culture.
• Understand how anthropological field work replicates learning a new culture.
Discussion
We learned in Lesson One that one of the most important parts of a definition of culture is that it is learned.
We are not born with culture but instead we learn it from our parents and from others in our immediate social
environment. As you do the readings for this lesson, and as you formulate your response to the written questions, I want you to think about why humans need to learn culture, and what the processes are for learning
culture. Do you think that the many cultural differences in child rearing practices effect the range of adult personalities we see in a given population? Anthropologists along with many other social scientists have always
been very interested in the process of enculturation. Enculturation is the process by which culture is passed
from one generation to the next.
We start to be a part of the enculturation process soon after birth. We start to perceive ourselves as an object
which we understand within a temporal and spatial context. We begin to acquire ability to judge our own
actions. Anthropologists call this self awareness. For each of us to have meaning in our lives, we must understand ourselves within some kind of framework. We can think of this framework in terms of a behavioral
environment that is comprised of objects which we perceive in terms which are specified explicitly by our
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Lesson 3
culture. As we acquire our culture then, we obtain the spatial, temporal, and normative orientations that we
need to survive in the world.
How do people actually learn their culture? How does that mental template that guides us actually get up
in there in our heads? There are basically two ways that people seem to learn their culture. First we learn
the subject matter of culture by listening and observing. Secondly, we experience culture. As we experience
it through explicit behavior, we see it as part of the natural world. Therefore because we obtain culture by
learning-through-experience, it is natural to view our own culture as the best way or the “natural” way.
We said in an earlier lesson that this tendency to judge cultures other than your own as inferior is called
ethnocentrism, and that as anthropologists we must try to avoid ethnocentric interpretations. As students in
this class, each of you should take pride in your culture, but understand that you should try as human beings
to keep an open mind as you explore the lives and beliefs of others.
Your text states that...“we learn culture from the moment we are born until we die.” Unless we give up on the
learning process, we continue to absorb information that is useful to us and which helps us survive as groups
and as individuals. In every culture, people go through stages in their lives from birth till death. We make a
series of transitions, and these transitions vary across cultures. Later in the course, you will learn more about
the special “rites” (rites of passage) that different cultures practice as people move from one stage to another
(eg. from childhood to adolescence).
As you complete your reading and writing for this lesson realize that by understanding how people in a
given group learn their culture, anthropologists are getting a better picture of that culture as a whole. As
anthropologists conduct field work, they are in a very real sense learning a new culture, and at the same time
they are experiencing a new culture. When anthropologists then describe and interpret that culture for other
people, they are exposing a new set of people, who can learn, but not experience it, to a different culture from
their own. If you broaden your horizons and learn more about a second or third culture, you are likely to see
with greater depth, and because of this, you are likely to be better at understanding and utilizing any situation you encounter.
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• enculturation
• morphemes
• participant observation
• Edward Sapir
• fieldwork
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Lesson 3
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. Which Project option are you choosing (A, B, or C)? Please list and describe your project choice (if you
need guidance, refer back to the descriptions of your project options in Lesson 1).
2. What do you call your culture? Describe aspects of your culture which you consider most important and
reflect on how you learned these aspects?
3. Describe how an anthropologist learns a culture other than his or her own. What methods have anthropologists developed for understanding cultures?
4. Describe how the concept of meaning lets humans go beyond animal behavior. Detail the different ways
in which humans express meaning.
Review
Key Terms & Concepts For Review:
enculturation
participant observation
fieldwork
Edward Sapir
language
communication
ethno-science
schemata
animal communication
art
aesthetics
the power of symbols
qualities of art
phoneme
morphemes
syntax
Don’t forget to use a lesson cover sheet with each lesson. This is used as
a return mailing label and is necessary for proper recording of grades.
Print your name and mailing address clearly in ink.
Even if you are faxing in your lesson, please use the cover sheet!
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L
esson
4
Lesson 4
Video Reaction Paper
View the Millennium Series video: “Mistaken Identity”
Viewings
Discussion
“Mistaken Identity” explores contrasting views of life, death, and identity through several different cultural
perspectives in the world. The episode looks at the family life of an abortion counselor in Canada, a boy’s
initiation into manhood in a Brazilian Xavante tribe, a high school girl’s attempted suicide, and an Indonesian
Sumbanese tribesman’s relationship to his dead relatives.
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
Very briefly describe the video, then compose an essay which details your reaction to the video by responding to the following question or questions:
How do we know who and what we are? Where does your individual identity begin and end? Compare and contrast
Westerners’ answers to these two questions with those of Tribal Cultures in general. Use specific examples from the
video to support your assertions.
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L 5
Lesson 5
esson
Marriage and the Family
Readings
We The Alien: Pages 43-84
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
• Understand the cross-cultural variation in the institutions of marriage and the family.
• Understand the different types of marriage rules.
• Be able to explain the difference between marriage and mating.
• Understand how marriage can be a means of creating alliance between groups.
• Understand the variation in rules governing post-marriage residence patterns.
Discussion
In this lesson, you should think about institutions such as marriage, the family, and the household and how
these institutions vary cross-culturally. What is marriage? What is mating? What is the difference between the
two concepts? Is marriage universal? What about “love?” As you read and write for this lesson, ponder these
issues and explore the rich variation in these institutions that exists in the world.
Let’s begin with marriage. We all have an idea of what marriage is, but can we come up with an operational
definition of the institution that works for all groups of people? In such a definition, it is probably best to
think of marriage as a transaction—a contract of sorts whereby a woman and man (or in some cases two
people of the same gender) are recognized by society as having a continuing claim to the right of sexual access to each other, and in which the woman involved is eligible to bear children. While married individuals
often live together, this is not a requirement under our working definition. Each culture defines marriage in
its own way. For example most of the students taking this class probably conceive of marriage as an institution that involves a couple, that is two individuals, but this is not a requirement under this definition either.
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Lesson 5
A marriage involves at least two people, but can directly involve many more than two people in the contract.
Marriage is said to be either monogamous, or polygamous. Monogamy is a form of marriage which involves
a single husband and a single wife. Polygamy is a form of marriage that involves multiple spouses. There are
several different kinds of polygamy, these include: polygyny: a husband with multiple wives, polyandry:
a wife with multiple husbands, and group marriage: multiple husbands and multiple wives. Polyandry and
group marriage are quite rare in the world but are practiced. Polygyny is a more common form of marriage.
Some of these different forms of marriage are explored in your text, and they are also addressed in Lesson #7
and in the video “Strange Relations.”
Despite worldwide variation in marriage patterns, marriage as an institution is universal to all cultures. Why
do you suppose some form of marriage transaction is present among all people? One apparent reason, is that
humans throughout the world have to deal with potential strife surrounding access to sexual relations. It is
clear that this issue causes people anxiety—competition for access to sexual relations is itself universal. It is
therefore logical to assume we should see a universal need for cultures to have specific transactions/contracts
which clarify and define these sexual issues so as to smooth the way for our group existence. Each culture
provides rules which explicitly define which individuals have access to which others. These explicit rules
reduce strife and anxiety and tend to channel sexual energy as well as legitimize child bearing.
The question now arises, what is the difference between marriage and mating? All animals mate, and mating is biological. In contrast, marriage is strictly cultural. It provides a sanctioned, legal, economic, and social
framework for the biological phenomena called mating. Another interesting area of anthropological inquiry
involves the rules about who people in a given group can and can not marry, as well as who are the preferred
marriage candidates. Here again great variation exists across cultures. Despite this variation, there is one
cultural universal relating to these issues—every group has some form of incest taboo which forbids sexual
relations among certain specified relatives (e.g., parent/child or brother/sister). Anthropologists and psychologists have suggested many different explanations for why this universal taboo exists, suggesting such
explanations as there is an instinctive abhorrence among close relatives to prevent the deleterious effects of
inbreeding. There have also been several different psychoanalytic theories offered in explanation for the incest
taboo, but scholars have yet to come to a consensus on the issue. It is important to remember that each culture defines their “relatives” in different ways. For example, an individual who is termed a “cousin” in one
culture might be called a “brother” or “sister” in another. In one group you might be precluded from marrying a certain related individual, while in another he or she might be your preferred marriage partner. Suffice
to say that it is very important you understand the specific kinship terminology and marriage rules of a given
culture, if you are trying to truly understand how a people’s culture operates. We will look more closely at
kinship terminology and patterns of kinship and descent in the following lesson.
In addition to the specific rules governing people’s marriage partners, most groups also have general rules
that specify groups that your marriage partners must come from (or must not come from). These rules are
called rules of endogamy and exogamy. Endogamy is a rule that states you must marry within some group.
For example if your culture required that you marry within your village, you would be said to practice village
endogamy. Exogamy is a rule that states you must marry outside of some group. For example if your culture
require that you must marry outside of your clan, you would be said to practice clan exogamy.
Certain cultures around the world have also developed rules designed to protect individuals, households,
and descent groups from social or economic problems if a spouse in a marriage dies at a young age or unexpectedly. Two of the most common of these are the practices of the levirate and the sororate. The Levirate is
a custom where by a man is obliged to marry his brother’s widow (or your deceased husband’s brother [from
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Lesson 5
the woman’s view]). The Sororate is a custom whereby a woman is obliged to marry her deceased sister’s
husband (or your deceased wife’s sister [man’s view]).
For most groups, marriage is a means of creating alliance between families, regions, or clans, and marriage
often involves the transfer of rights or goods between these groups—property rights, rights over children
[and their labor], as well as sexual rights. This is why in many places, marriage decisions are made for the
economic and political advantage of the group rather than the judgment of the young people involved.
Romantic love, as many of us think of it, does not always motivate the marriage decision. The Lesson #7
video “Strange Relations” examines this issue more closely. Many cultures have formal gifts or exchanges
of goods and/or services as part of the actual marriage process. These include institutions like “bride price,”
the compensation paid by the groom’s family to the bride’s family upon marriage; “bride service,” where the
groom lives with and works for the brides’ family for some period of time (often one year); and, a “dowry,”
where the bride’s family pays the groom or the groom’s family ( in practice this is essentially her share of
her inheritance from her family). A dowry is the property that a woman brings with her to a marriage.
This lesson also asks you to consider what family and household are, and how this varies cross culturally.
What is the difference between the family and the household? Can they be the same thing? What are the
function of these two institutions? Most anthropologists would argue that it is the household that is universally present in all societies. In some societies, married men and women do not live together and they are part
of different households, thus some would argue that in a case like this, true “families” do not exist. A household is considered the basic residential unit in which economic production and consumption are organized,
and through which shelter is provided. Remember that a house and a household are two different things, a
household might be comprised of several different actual houses. In most households, the family is the central core. There are several different kinds of families anthropologists talk about. These include conjugal families, nuclear families, and extended families. Conjugal families are families which are formed on the basis of
marital ties; nuclear families (see Fig. 1) are families which are made up of only two generations consisting of
a mother, father, and their sons and daughters; and, extended families are families which consist of multiple
nuclear families that are related by ties of blood, that reside in a single household. Extended families usually
contain three or more generations, and often times relatives (brothers and/or sisters) of one or both sides.
Extended families are thus “extended” both laterally, and lineally.
=
Wife/
Mother
Husband/
Father
Daughter/
Sister
EGO
Son/
Brother
Figure 1
A schematic depiction of a nuclear family.
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Lesson 5
Anthropologists talk about something called residence patterns, that is, where and with whom do husbands,
wives, children, and parents reside after marriage. Sometimes a husband and wife move in with one side’s
parents, or sometimes, they set out and form a new household. There are specific cultural rules which govern
where people live and these rules vary greatly. Some examples of different kinds of residence patterns include: Neolocal, where a married couple lives separately and often at quite some distance from their parents;
Matrilocal or Uxorilocal, where a married couple moves in with the wife’s parents; Patrilocal or Virilocal :
where a married couple moves in with the husband’s parents; Avunculocal: where a married couple moves
in with the groom’s maternal uncle (his mother’s brother); and, Ambilocal: where a married couple moves
in with either with the groom’s parents or with the mother’s parents. The readings for the next lesson explain
how kinship and descent rules often dictate or influence residence rules.
Assignment
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• marriage
• polygamy
• matrilocal residence patterns
• nuclear family
• levirate
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. Briefly describe different kinds of marriage. Explain why marriage is considered a human universal and
how marriage is often integrated with sexual access, offspring, and residence rights.
2. Describe the different ways in which marriage is used to create alliances between groups. Be sure to discuss institutions like bridewealth, dowry, groom service, groom wealth, etc.
3. In your own view, what are the advantages and disadvantages of an extended family versus a nuclear
family in various kinds of environments?
Review
Key Terms & Concepts For Review:
polygyny
marriage
family
household
monogamy
polygamy
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polyandry
group marriage
endogamy
exogamy
levirate
sororate
conjugal families
nuclear families
extended families
residence patterns
neolocal
matrilocal or uxorilocal
patrilocal or virilocal
avunculocal
ambilocal
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L 6
Lesson 6
esson
Kinship and Descent
Readings
We The Alien: Pages 85-106
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
•
•
•
•
•
Understand the variation in kinship systems.
Be able to distinguish between bilateral and unilineal kinship systems.
Be able to distinguish among different forms of unilineal kinship.
Understand the basic functions that descent groups serve.
Be able to explain the basic principals of the different kin terminological systems.
Discussion
Anthropologists usually assert that kinship relationships are the most basic, yet the most significant social
relationships that humans enter into. Kinship has meaning from both cultural and biological contexts. From
a biological standpoint kinship recognizes shared genetics, while cultural meaning is derived from issues
surrounding cooperation and inheritance. Introductory students in anthropology sometimes struggle with
kinship and descent principles, describing them as complex, but, keep in mind that this area of concern is
important to master as these concepts relate directly to some of the most fundamental aspects of humanity—
gender, parenthood, trust, brotherhood, sisterhood, and sexual reproduction. An understanding of the principles of kinship and descent for a given culture usually provides a great deal of insight into that culture as
a whole. Kinship terminology and kinship roles vary dramatically throughout the world. As you read over
the assignments for this lesson, you will begin to see that there is great diversity in the methods that different cultures use to determine who is a relative and how a given relative is supposed to interact with another.
Since most of us have learned only a single kin terminological system (through our enculturation process),
we often find it difficult to comprehend drastically different systems. As you try to understand kinship and
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Lesson 6
descent, keep in mind that your own framework and preconceptions must be cast aside temporarily in order
for you to begin to comprehend systems different than your own.
Anthropologists look at three different general categories of kin—1) descent (lineal kin), 2) shared descent
(collateral kin), and 3) affinity (kin related through marriage). Kinship is a very important organizing principle in most societies. The term descent refers to common heritage and the cultural rules for that heritage.
Because we live in social groups, it is important that we define our roles and obligations as they relate to other
members of our group. People tend to either reckon kinship bilaterally (both sides), or unilaterally (one side).
Bilateral kinship is easy for most western students to understand because it is the form of kinship most
commonly practiced in the United States. Many societies operate under an umbrella of lineal descent groups
which are based on the principal of unilineal kinship. Unilineal descent [sometimes called unilateral or
unisexual] is descent that establishes group membership exclusively through either the mothers or the fathers
line. Quite literally “one line.” Two of the most common forms of unilineal descent are patrilineal and matrilineal descent. Patrilineal descent is descent (see figure 3) traced exclusively through the male line for the
purposes of group membership. In contrast, matrilineal descent is descent (see figure 2) traced exclusively
through the female line for the purposes of group membership. By now you’re probably thinking, what
exactly is a descent group? A descent group is any publicly recognized social entity such that being a lineal
descendant of a particular real or mythical ancestor is a criterion of membership. So why do descent groups
exist? What is the purpose of different types of descent groups? How did different descent groups form? To
explore these issues, read over your readings and reflect on the kinds of functions that descent groups perform.
Some of the general functions of descent groups include the following:
• Descent groups may organize behavior and relationships.
• Descent groups may help identify one’s kin and who or who not is a marriageable.
• Descent groups may help generate appropriate behavior in specific situations.
• Descent groups may define power.
• Descent groups may define household.
• Descent groups may define individual and group rights to land, material goods, and other resources.
As you read over the material for this lesson, see if you can come up with a few more specific functions of
descent groups. Look at some of the specific examples of descent groups provided in your readings and your
videos, and examine how they operate to organize behavior and define power. There are several specific
KEY for KINSHIP CHARTS
= male
= female
=
= married
= descendent
= siblings
B
Z
M
F
H
W
S
D
= brother
= sister
= mother
= father
= husband
= wife
= son
= daughter
All abbreviations are in reference to EGO
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ANTH 100x
Lesson 6
=
MF
MM
=
=
MB
MZH
MZ
=
MBW
M
F
=
MZD
MZS
MBD
MBS
PARALLEL COUSINS
Z
EGO
W
WB
CROSS-COUSINS
Figure 2 A schematic depiction of a matrilineal descent
group. Shaded individuals are in the matrilineage.
D
S
=
FF
FM
=
FZ
=
FZH
FB
=
FBW
F
M
=
FZS
FZD
CROSS-COUSINS
FBS
FBD
Z
EGO
W
WB
PARALLEL COUSINS
Figure 3 A schematic depiction of a patrilineal descent
group. Shaded individuals are in the patrilineage.
S
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D
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Lesson 6
types of descent groups that exist in the world, some of these are described in your text in detail. Some of
these include:
THE LINEAGE: a corporate descent group whose members claim descent from a common human ancestor
and who can trace their genealogical links directly to that ancestor.
THE CLAN OR SIB: a non-corporate descent group with each member claiming descent from a common
ancestor without actually knowing the genealogical links to that ancestor. Sometimes the ancestor is a nonhuman (anthropologists call this totemism). Totemism is the belief that people are descended from animals,
plants, or other natural objects.
THE PHRATRY: is a group of two or more clans who share unilineal descent traced to a common ancestor without actually knowing the genealogical links to that ancestor. The perceived genealogical links are far
more distant and weak than in the clan or sib.
THE MOIETY: is each group that results when society is divided into two halves on the basis of descent.
Moieties combine two or more clans or two Phraties. If moieties are present, there are always two. Moities
are normally exogamous, that is you must marry someone in your opposite moiety. While genealogical links
are quite nebulous and weak here, none-the-less, people of the same moiety do share unilineal descent traced
to an, albeit distant, common ancestor.
If you notice in figures 2 and 3, “parallel cousins” and “cross cousins” are referenced. In many societies different types of cousins are designated for the purposes of marriage rules (who you can or can’t marry) and/
or descent group membership. Your parallel cousins are your father’s brother’s offspring (FBD and FBS ) and
your mother’s sister’s offspring (MZD and MZS). Your cross-cousins are your father’s sister’s offspring (FZD
and FZS) and your mother’s brother’s offspring (MBD and MBS). Often times cross cousins are preferred
marriage partners in societies practicing unilineal descent, and conversely you are prohibited from marrying
your parallel cousins (as if they were brothers or sisters).
As mentioned earlier, different societies have different terminologies for referring to their relatives. Anthropologists have established that at least six different types of kinship terminological systems exist in the
world, 1) Eskimos or lineal, 2) Hawaiian or generational, 3) Iroquois, 4) Crow, 5) Omaha, 6) descriptive. The
Eskimo, Hawaiian and Iroquois are depicted in figures 4, 5, and 6. While there are certainly local variations
and modifications, these six systems basically explain and account for most of the worldwide variation in
kinship terminology. As you examine these different systems, you will see that the terminological system of
a given group tends to correlate with and emphasize the kinds of kinship groups that exist in that group. For
example, westerners tend to use a lineal or Eskimo system. This kind of terminology emphasizes the nuclear
family and bilateral kinfolk. One of the best ways to try to understand what a specific system emphasizes, is
to look at how cousins in the ego’s generation are treated. Are cousins all lumped together under the single
term cousin (as in the Eskimo system), are they lumped with brothers and sisters (as in the Hawaiian system) or are some specific cousins refered to by the same term as brothers and sisters, while other cousins are
refered to by a unique cousin term (as in the Iroquois system). In addition to descent groups, kin terminological systems also emphasize factors such as gender, generation, and genealogical differences. Examining how
people classify and refer to different constituent members, allows an understanding of which of these aspects
(descent group, generation, gender, genealogy, etc.) are most or least important. Terminology, of course,
relates to the roles that we expect from a person. For example, you expect a different set of behaviors from
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Lesson 6
your cousin than you do from your brother. So kinship terminologies help people classify particular kinds of
persons into specific categories. When two or more people are merged under the same term, we can assume
that their status and role expectations are quite similar.
ESKIMO SYSTEM: is a system of kinship terminology which is also called the lineal system or the Yankee
system. This system emphasizes the nuclear family by specifically identifying mother, father, brother, sister,
while merging together all other relatives. If you use this system, when someone refers to brother you know
exactly what relationship (who) they are referring to. In contrast, when someone says cousin, what do you
know? You know the cousin is either a descendant of your mother’s siblings or your father’s siblings but not
much else. You don’t know which side the cousin is on, you don’t even know gender do you? Eskimo kinship
is normally found in societies where the dominant kin group is the bilateral kindred in which only the closest
members of the family are important in day to day affairs. This form of terminology often times is accompanied by a neolocal residence pattern.
HAWAIIAN SYSTEM: is a mode of kinship reckoning in which all relatives of the same sex and generation
are referred to by a single term. This system is fairly easy to comprehend. A brother could be your sibling, or
any of your cousins in your own generation, be they maternal or paternal doesn’t matter. Also in your parents
generation, a single term is used to refer to all females (e.g. your aunts and your biological mother would all
be called mother). A single term (father) would be used to refer to your biological father as well as any of
his brothers and any of your mother’s brothers as well. This system is common in some parts of Polynesia,
Malaysia, and Micronesia. This system is also sometimes called the generational system. This type of kinship
terminology, when apparent, usually reflects the absence of strong unilineal decent and usually is associated
with ambilineal descent, that is descent that allows descent to be traced through either the mothers or the
fathers line. Both sides as it were are looked upon as being more or less equal. Cousin marriage may be allowed in this type of system.
=
=
UNCLE
COUSINS
=
F
AUNT
COUSINS
B
=
AUNT
M
EGO
Z
COUSINS
=
UNCLE
COUSINS
Figure 4 Eskimo kinship terminological system: EGO’s mother and father are distinguished from his uncles
and aunts and his siblings from his cousins. Note that this system emphasizes the nuclear family (enclosed in
circle).
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Lesson 6
=
=
=
F
F
M
B
Z
B
Z
=
M
M
EGO
B
=
Z
F
B
Z
Z
Figure 5 Hawaiian kinship terminological system: EGO’s father, father’s brother and mother’s brother are all
referred to by the same term (Father). EGO’s mother, mother’s sister, and father’s sister are also referred to by
a single term (Mother). All of EGO’s siblings and cousins are referred to as brothers and sisters.
=
=
FZ
COUSINS
=
F
F
B
Z
B
=
M
M
EGO
=
Z
B
MB
Z
COUSINS
Figure 6 Iroquois kinship terminological system: EGO’s father’s brother is referred to by the same term as his
father and his mother’s sister by the same term as mother. But, his father’s sister and his mother’s brother are
referred to by unique terms. EGO’s siblings and parallel cousins are referred to as brothers and sisters, while
his cross cousins as cousins.
IROQUOIS SYSTEM: is a system of kinship terminology wherein one’s father and father’s brother are
referred to by a single term (father), and one’s mother and mother’s sister are referred to by a single term
(mother). But, one’s father’s sister and mother’s brother are given separate kin terms. In ego’s generation, this pattern holds as well. Parallel cousins are classified with brothers and sisters, but cross-cousins are
referred to by a differentiating term. In the Iroquois system, a cross cousin is a permitted marriage partner
(and in many societies the preferred spouse), but a parallel cousin (called the same as brother or sister) is
taboo as a spouse. The Iroquoian system is quite widespread. It is usually associated with unilineal descent
groups. Frequent cross-cousin marriages tend to re-affirm alliances between lineages. Several different Alaska Native groups traditionally practiced (and some still use) variations of an Iroquois kin terminology system.
CROW SYSTEM: is a mode of kinship classification usually associated with strong matrilineal descent in
which the father’s sister and father’s sister’s daughter are called by the same term, mother and mother’s sister are merged under the same term, and father and father’s brother are merged under a single term Parallel
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Lesson 6
cousins are equated with brothers and sisters. What’s somewhat unique here is that the distinction between
generations is ignored among certain kin. It is used by the Crow and Hopi Indians, and in several other parts
of the world. Denaina Athabaskans who surround Lake Iliamna traditionally used a variant of a Crow kin
terminological system. Crow terminology is associated with very strong matrilineal descent where by cross
cousins on the fathers side are equated with the parental generation, while cross-cousins on the mothers side
are equated with the egos children. From a westerner’s point of view the Crow system seems terribly complex and illogical, but in fact when matrilineality is so strong that the lineage is the most important thing, then
it, makes great sense. When your identity is so dependent on descent group affiliation and descent is matrilineal, it makes sense to merge father’s sister, her daughter, and even her mother together under a single term
regardless of generation.
OMAHA SYSTEM: is a mode of kinship classification usually associated with very strong patrilineal descent
and is basically the mirror image of the crow system on the paternal side.
DESCRIPTIVE SYSTEM: is a rare form of kin terminology that is practiced only in a few areas of the world.
This system is called descriptive because it is the most precise and descriptive of all the systems we’ve examined. In the Descriptive system, one’s father, one’s father’s brother, and mother’s brother are each distinguished from each other as are one’s mother, mother’s sister and father’s sister. In addition, cousins all are
distinguished from one another as well as from siblings. The system is probably so rare because one’s aunts,
uncles, cousins, and siblings, are all itemized and treated differently from one another. The Sudanese system
is essentially Descriptive, and such a system appears to have replaced Iroquois terminology in rural China.
In summary, keep in mind that there are many different principles of organization in different societies. The
three most important aspects for which there are rules in different cultures are kinship, descent, and marriage.
As students with anthropologists’ hats on, as you try to understand different groups of people and their
perspectives, you can begin to look for specific rules or governing principles as important indicators. As you
dig deeper, you’ll notice that there are often times explicit rules, but these rules or principles are often bent or
stretched to make certain kinds of conditions acceptable. If for example the pool of marriageables for a certain
lineage is too small, there may be some kind of a kinship re-classification as it were so as to define someone
in a certain way. As you read, you may come across the term classificatory cross-cousins. This is an example
of this kind of re-classification whereby individuals may be defined as a cross-cousins through some kind of
innovative understanding of a set of relationships “creating” as it were an appropriate marriage partner.
Remember that kinship terms of a given system are important not because of the mere differences in terms,
but because terms normally carry associated roles. There are certain specific kinds of behavior that are
expected out of certain kinship positions (terms) and these behaviors, or roles, are often times quite stringent.
Kinship roles may be informal, but they are commonly very formalized. As you read the materials for this
lesson, open your eyes and your minds to the complex variety in the way people reckon descent and the terminology people use to differentiate the different relationships within a family or descent group. Remember
that a peoples perspective and overall view of the world is often tied intimately to their patterns of kinship
and descent.
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Lesson 6
Assignment
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• descent group
• Eskimo kin terminology
• clan or sib
• bilateral vs. unilineal descent
• ego
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. Explain why unilineal descent groups are important in horticultural and herding societies. List some different kinds of descent groups and explain the functions they serve.
2. Explain why kinship terminology is important to people worldwide, and why you think so much variation exists. What general functions do kin terminology serve? Are relationships among different kin
clarified by these systems, and if so how?
3. Draw a small kinship chart of your extended family (siblings, children, parents, parents siblings, cousins,
parents’ parents) using standard symbols. Label yourself as ego and give names to your other relatives
(real or fictional). Now imagine you are part of a group who reckons kinship matrilineally, and shade in
those individuals who you know would be in your matrilineal clan. Remember that all siblings, regardless of gender, are in the same matrilineal clan.
Review
Key Terms & Concepts For Review:
bilateral kinship
unilineal kinship
patrilineal descent
matrilineal descent
descent group
general functions of descent groups
the lineage
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the clan or sib
the phratry
the moiety
parallel cousins
cross cousins
Eskimo system
Hawaiian system
Iroquois system
Crow system
Omaha system
Descriptive system
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L 7
Lesson 7
esson
Video Reaction Paper
View the Millennium Series video: “Strange Relations”
Viewings
Discussion
“Strange Relations” explores love, romance, and marriage across cultures. How do we balance our personal
desires for romance with our societal need for stable marriages? This episode explores how individuals can
balance personal desires and social needs in the context of a loving and nurturing family. This exploration
takes us to the valleys of Nepal and the plains of Niger, where Western morals and sensibilities are questioned. The viewer travels to France to explore the evolution of the concepts of love and marriage. The uncertainty of Western marriages is also explored through a view of a Toronto couple’s marriage.
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
Very briefly describe the video, then compose an essay which details your reaction to the video by responding to the following question or questions:
Take a cross-cultural look at what “love” is and what “marriage” is in different societies. How has your own understanding of “love” and “marriage” changed after viewing this video?
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L 8
Lesson 8
esson
Inequality: Stratification Based on Wealth,
Ethnicity, and Gender
Readings
We The Alien: Pages 107-132 & 171-190
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
• Be able to explain why inequalities exist in the world, and how they have developed.
• Understand that wealth equates to power and that the translation between economic and social
power varies dramatically across cultures.
• Understand that gender is often a fundamental determinant of division of labor.
• Be able to explain why and how people categorize and rank roles, social groups, and social categories.
• Understand that the term race and ethnicity are cultural classifications.
• Be able to explain what prejudice is and further explain the terms racism and sexism.
Discussion
In previous lessons you have seen that kinship, family and community are significant human forces in organizing peoples lives. In this lesson, you should contemplate another important social force, “power.” Power
has always been, and continues to be, a very significant factor in human social groups. Power relates to one’s
control over one’s immediate physical, social, and cultural environments. Power is basically the capacity to
alter one’s own environment or someone else’s behavior. If you have personal power, you can effect change,
or conversely maintain the status quo. This lesson asks you to read chapters six and nine of your text. Both
chapters deal in one way or another with inequality. Chapter six deals with wealth, economics, and systems
of distribution and survival. In stratified societies (many would argue that all groups are stratified in some
ways) resources are distributed unequally. The very nature of the concept of power described above implies
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Lesson 8
itly with inequality and stratification. The chapter reviews how populations are often sorted into categories
of various kinds and how these categories are then often ranked hierarchically, with different privileges
being extended to these different ranks. As you read these chapters, you should ask yourself how resources
are produced, exchanged, and distributed (or redistributed) in different parts of the world, and in different
cultures. In addition to market systems which you may be familiar with, how else are goods and services
distributed? Also, ponder how work is related to status, and how the kinds of work and the relative status of
different work varies with a people’s ecological base and economic organization. As you read, you should
think about the concept of inequality. How do inequalities arise, and how are they perpetuated? Ask yourself how we as humans might avoid some of the pitfalls of inequality, and what systems might help humans
utilize the talents of all people, regardless of the category they may find themselves labeled into.
Anthropology has traditionally tried to explain the different types of political organization across the world
and through time by placing them into the broad classifications of egalitarian societies or stratified societies.
Egalitarian societies are often times small scale hunting and gathering societies in which there are few status
differences except those that are based on gender or age. The status that exists in egalitarian systems is normally achieved during one’s lifetime, and leadership that emerges is based on skill, strength in personality,
and general prowess in terms of survival in the environment. In an egalitarian society, you are not born into
any certain status (despite your life skills), but instead you demonstrate to the other members of your group
that you possess the skills and talents necessary for survival. In contrast, stratified societies tend to have
well defined status positions which may be achieved but most often are ascribed (i.e. they are assigned to
you based on some birth status). Most societies in the world today are somehow stratified. People in stratified societies have often developed formal systems of status that are hereditary. Certain positions of status
in these societies may command high prestige and power, and they may or may not control scarce access
to resources. While there is great variation in the manifestation of these societies, they all demonstrate one
common theme, social stratification is present. Social stratification exists when people in a society experience
unequal access to prestige, and unequal access to valued economic resources. Certain individuals in society have a much greater chance at having direct access to prestige and to the important resources. Certain
members conversely are not permitted easy access to prestige and resources. Socially stratified societies tend
to be large and complex with definite “property” ownership and a high division of labor. Whereas egalitarian
societies tend to be smaller in scale, with little or no “property” or division of labor.
Pluralistic societies like ours are often said to have a class system, where there are clearly stratified groups
(classes) within society which are ranked on the basis of socio-economic status. You may have heard the
terms class systems and caste systems. A class system is a system of social stratification that exhibits unequal access to economic resources and prestige, normally allowing for mobility—both upward and downward changes in rank are theoretically possible. In contrast, caste systems are characterized by hierarchically ranked groups or units of ordered prestige. Recruitment to these groups (castes) occurs only by birth
right, and there is a permanence in membership in each group or “caste.” The traditional caste system in
India was a very formal system which was rigidly stratified. The Indian caste system traditionally exhibited
characteristics like attributional rank, ritual pollution and purity (the degree a given caste “approached god”);
interactional rank (the rules of social interaction, ie. what castes you could interact with); commensality (who
may dine with whom); and proximity (refers to physical separations of castes at certain kinds of settings).
While some vestiges of the caste system are still present in India today, they have generally moved away from
the rigidity of the system in the past.
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Lesson 8
One question that arises is, why do socially and economically stratified class systems like the one in the U.S.
and in many other places in the world exist in the first place? It’s obvious that those who have a greater
access to resources and prestige prefer the system that protects their privileges, but clearly there are large
numbers of people whose standard of living is far below that of the upper class members. Does it all come
back to power and maintenance of that power, or are there other explanations for the inequalities we see in
the world? As you read the readings for this unit, and as you do your written work, think about the economic inequalities that are present in the world today, and why such disparities exist? Is it possible for a greater
proportion of people in a large scale society to share in the group’s wealth more equally? If so, what kind of
economic system do you envision establishing a more equitable distribution of a society’s resources?
Different cultural systems have through time utilized a variety of economic systems, and it is within the context of these different systems that we can begin to understand the relative inequalities that exits in a given
group. When anthropologists look at cross cultural variation in economy, what they are looking at are differences in systems of distribution and exchange, that is how goods and services are “produced” and subsequently dispersed. Every society has a production system and distribution system. The question of production focuses on what a people produce (collect, grow, raise, make, produce, etc.). The production system of a
group might be pasturalists or nomadic herders; hunters and gatherers; horticulturists; agriculturists; industrialists; etc. A peoples’ system of distribution focuses on how goods are distributed and exchanged. Every
society has some system of distribution through which goods and services are distributed (equally or, in most
cases unequally).
Anthropologists look at systems of economic exchange. Economic exchange systems are basically a peoples’
cultural rules for the transfer of goods and services among peoples. Economic exchange systems can be classified under three general types:
•Market exchange: distribution based on price supply and demand;
•Reciprocal exchange: exchange based on role obligations; and,
•Redistributive exchange: exchange based on a central collecting source and role obligations.
Modern industrial societies often utilize all three forms of exchange. Most students understand what market exchange is—prices are determined by the relative abundance or scarcity of a good or service. Reciprocal exchange includes different forms of reciprocity: generalized reciprocity, a mode of exchange in which
neither the value of the gift is calculated, nor the time of repayment is specified; balanced reciprocity, a
mode of exchange in which the giving and the receiving are specified for the value of the goods and the time
of their delivery (barter and trade are considered “balanced”); and negative reciprocity, a form of exchange
in which the giver tries to get the better of the exchange. The third form of economic exchange, redistributive
exchange, is a form of distribution where goods flow into some central place and then they are redistributed
back out to the hinterlands. Redistributive exchange requires two things, a centralized government, and
economic surplus (above immediate needs for survival). In this form of exchange, goods flow into the public
coffers in the form of tribute, tax, gifts, spoils of war, etc., then they are subsequently redistributed. Early
state level civilizations (e.g. Egypt, Mesoamerica, Peru, etc.) were known for this kind of economic exchange,
tribute in the form of food and crafts flow into the ruling elite who then skim off the cream but also provide
a form of support and stability for the commoners. We are all quite familiar with this sort of system where a
centralized government collects taxes from us and then redistributes goods and services for its citizens.
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Lesson 8
In addition to inequalities based on relative wealth, people are also commonly stratified on the basis of other
variables. Gender and ethnicity are two additional variables that are commonly “used” by some individuals
to order or rank people within a given society. In many societies, gender is a major criteria for the division of
labor. In most societies, gender status is directly reflected in the kinds of work associated with one gender or
another. The relative status of women for example, varies directly with the mode of production associated
with a given culture. In a pluralistic society, a person’s ethnicity can also come to be associated with a certain
type of work or a certain status. The variation in ethnic status in a society is often times directly correlated
with wealth and the power associated with that wealth. If a certain class is viewed as being comprised of a
majority of people of a certain ethnicity, the status of that class is often (either subconsciously or consciously)
linked to the status of that ethnicity. The take home message for students in this class is that outward differences among the “haves” and “have nots” are often used by those wielding the most power to emphasize
and perpetuate their own status. For example if we survey the board rooms of corporate America today, we
still find a predominantly white male population. It is in the self interest of these individuals to perpetuate
a system that selectively favors their gender and ethnicity, thus it is not surprising that inequality in wealth,
gender, and ethnic origin exists in the United States. The fact that it exists does not make it right from an ethical stand point, and most of us would argue that it is morally wrong. As students we should be able to see
that breaking down or changing the system is a formidable tasks since many of those with privileged status
also have the power and influence to make the political decisions required for change. Your text discusses
racism and sexism in greater detail. As you read over that material think about what kinds of changes would
be needed to reduce or eliminate discrimination based on gender and ethnic background.
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• class systems
• egalitarian
• redistribution
• pariah
• ethnicity
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. Discuss the concept of “race” as viewed by anthropologists. Why do such classifications exist? Is there a
need for such classifications in the science of genetics, or is race a purely culturally bound concept? What
is racism, and why is it fairly prevalent in many pluralistic societies?
2. What are “systems of economic exchange,” and what do anthropologists focus on in economic anthropology? What are the differences between market and reciprocal exchange systems? Also describe three
different kinds of reciprocity?
3. Why do you think systems of inequality exist? Why do people classify and categorize people? Do you
agree that power, prestige, property, and pleasure are in short supply and that no matter what people do
there will never be enough? Why or why not?
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Lesson 8
Review
Key Terms & Concepts For Review:
egalitarian societies
stratified societies
social stratification
class system
caste systems
pariah
race
ethnicity
racism
sexism
power
prestige
property
pleasure
economic exchange
market exchange
reciprocal exchange
generalized reciprocity
balanced reciprocity
negative reciprocity
redistributive exchange
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L 9
Lesson 9
esson
Readings
World View & Ideology
We The Alien: Pages 215-254
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
•
•
•
•
•
Understand the importance of world view and ideology to a people’s identity.
Be able to explain how religion represents a recontexting of cultural ideas.
Be able to distinguish among the concepts of doctrine, ideology, science, and religion.
Understand how people convey and receive information to and from the divine.
Be able to distinguish between the concepts of religion and magic.
Discussion
A people’s world view and ideology are an important part of their collective identity. In a sense, this is
because we are what we think we are. When anthropologists talk about world view, what are they referring to? All people have a perspective of sorts for interpreting the universe, a way of viewing the world, an
outlook for understanding human experience and placing themselves in some kind of context. World view
is this very perspective. Whether it is couched in the doctrine of a formal religion, or whether it can be found
in a people’s relationship with nature, world view is clearly a significant part of culture. In this lesson,
you should think about the implications of the terms “world view,” “religion,” “ideology,” and “magic.”
How are these terms similar and/or different from each other. As you read chapters eleven and twelve in
your text think about the themes of meaning and creed. How do people in a given group create meaning,
and how is culture itself maintained, created, and changed. In chapter eleven, you are asked to explore the
very ways in which culture is “created” and “performed.” You should understand the process of cultural
creativity. The basic premise being that culture is “not merely accepted,” but also performed and created. It
is through the processes of creation and performance that people arrive at some kind of meaning in their
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Lesson 9
lives. Humans throughout time have always searched for order. In pursuing order, people are dealing with
the universal problem of disorder. One of the ways that people solve the problem of disorder in the world is
through stories. The importance of stories is explored for you in chapter eleven of your text. Stories include:
tales, myths, legends, aphorisms, jokes, poetry, and really any form of creative expression of culture through
language.
Stories of all kinds are an important part of what makes up one’s world view. Remember that world view
is a way of explaining the previously unknown. Anthropologists suggest that a people’s religion is often a
“recontexting” of cultural ideas found in other aspects of society. This is one reason why a group’s world
view is often correlated with a group’s ecological adaptation. For example, hunters and gathers often have
religious beliefs which are different from those of a pastoral group or of an industrial society. As you would
probably predict, having completed the previous lessons, world view is but one part of the greater whole we
call culture. Adaptation, kinship, access to power, and world view all play significant roles in shaping one’s
culture, and they are clearly inter-related.
Let’s examine the specific concept of religion—what exactly is religion, and what purposes does it serve?
Religion has been defined by the anthropologist Anthony Wallace as a set of rituals, rationalized by myth,
which mobilize supernatural powers for the purposes of achieving or preventing transformations of state in
people and nature. This definition is different from world view only in the fact that it refers directly to a “set
of rituals.” In addition to the rituals themselves, religion and world view also deal with cultural knowledge
of the supernatural that people use to cope with the ultimate problems of human existence. When you step
back and think about it, much of religion deals with the unknown, and presents answers to questions that
can not easily be answered with the application of known technology. Humans are generally uncomfortable
with uncertainty. Uncertainty seems to breed anxiety. Culture serves as a lens through which we interpret
the world around us, and for the most part, humans deal with reality pretty well, but when something is not
easily explained, or when there is a contradiction or a flaw in our lens, we frequently use religion to help account for the vagaries of our experience.
Religion also provides people with transcendent values, i.e. values which override any differences in the
group, and that unify the group. Religion deals with questions and problems that are universal to all groups,
these include:
The problem of meaning: what is the purpose of life, and is there any central meaning to life? Where do we
come from, etc.
The problem of death: where death is a biological certainty, but, is death the end of existence? When will I die,
how should we interpret it? How do we “correctly” mourn the deaths of others? Religion provides for humans a kind of ritual management of grief.
The problem of evil: illness, misfortune, disaster, inequality, and unfairness all exist, why? Religion helps
people deal with these inequities.
The problem of transcendent values: conflict between personal self interest and group values exists, and religion
provides a set of values that enable people to give allegiance to that certain way of life.
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Lesson 9
As you read over the material for this lesson, and as you think about religion in ways which may be different than how you’ve thought about religion in other contexts of your life (for example religion as a cultural
manifestation), contemplate what purposes and functions religions may serve. Some functions of religion
that have been identified by anthropologists include:
• Religion reduces anxiety by explaining the unknown—making it understandable.
• Religion provides relief—in times of crisis the supernatural is available.
• Religion sanctions behavior by suggesting what’s right and wrong.
• Religion transfers the burden of decision making from the individual to the supernatural.
• Religion enhances learning cultural traditions.
• Religion reduces the potential for class struggle by implying that there’s a better world in the afterlife so putting up with a difficult existence will be rewarded after death.
Can you think of other functions that religion serves? What about the individual, are there different functions that you can identify that religion serves for the individual? Keep these questions in mind as you read
through your assignment and as you write your written responses for this lesson.
Much of the anthropological approach to religious beliefs and practices has been dedicated to understanding
ritual. Most anthropologists argue that no matter how unusual or seemingly “bizarre” a ritual might appear
to someone from a different culture, it can be shown that it does serve some basic social and psychological
function within the context of the culture it is being performed in. You’ll recall that Wallace defined religion
as “ritual” in action. To better understand religion, we should think a bit about what ritual is.
Much of ritual is dedicated in one way or another to attempting to influence or manipulate the supernatural. For many of us, the concept of “prayer” comes to mind when we think about religion as it is practiced
by different people in different parts of the world. In the broadest sense of the word, prayer is a request for
help, a petition to the supernatural, if you will. The personal request often stresses the individual’s needs and
prayers often measure one’s faith. For most of the formalized western religions, prayer and righteous life are
said to demonstrate to the deity or deities that one is a believer and that one deserves eternity in a pleasant
place (e.g. a heaven). Prayer is basically a ritual practiced by an individual. Sacrifice, is another form of ritual
practiced by some cultures. Sacrifice is an act of giving up something of value to influence the supernatural
(either to obligate supernatural beings or to demonstrate faith). As we know from reading and watching material for this course, ritual takes many different forms among different peoples of the world. Ritual tends to
be more of a group behavior or activity. As an exercise, try listing as many different group rituals as you can
think of based on what you’ve read and watched thus far. Make a note for yourself, and repeat this exercise
at the end of the course after you have examined the three different culture areas (Far North, Highland New
Guinea, and Japan) that we’ll examine in greater depth.
It should be clear to you that the world views, religions, and perspectives of people throughout the world
vary immensely. One area of general commonalty though is that most cultures have certain individuals who
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Lesson 9
have special abilities, and who are recognized by the group as religious practitioners or specialists. These individuals are the priests, ministers, rabbi’s, priestesses, and shamans of the world. In most societies there exists individuals whose job it is to guide and supplement the religious practices of others in the society. These
individuals are often responsible for a wide variety of tasks and roles. Ask yourself what kinds of special
tasks do these individuals perform? Some of the activities religious practitioners are asked to perform include
weddings, funerals, counseling, sermons, grief monitoring, healings, etc. Have you observed religious
practitioners perform any of these tasks or others? Have you participated in any rituals in which one of the
individuals was involved? Most likely you have.
Most of us are familiar with one of the western religions like Christianity or Judaism, and many indigenous
people throughout the world have embraced one form or another of these formal religions, or one of the Islamic
denominations, or one of the eastern religions such as Hinduism or Buddhism, but before these formal religious institutions were wide spread among most people of the world, many groups had (or continue to have)
specialists called shamans. The spiritual specialist in Native Alaska before Christianity appeared on the scene
was the shaman. Most Native American cultures had shamans. Just as the Priest or the Rabbi provides some
form of intermediary between a deity and a common man, the shaman too provided a tangible link with the
supernatural world for the average person in a group.
The shaman was most often a male, but in some cultures females too could be shaman. They would be called upon
for a variety of reasons and to perform a variety of tasks including, mediation, healing, prediction of weather
or hunting conditions, searching for lost persons, releasing spirits, and presiding over various rites of passage
or other ceremonies. Shaman practiced their craft in a variety of ways. A shaman sometimes had a “familiar” or
special spirit whom he or she relied on; used songs, (compulsive magic songs which they “owned”); used special
charms or amulets; went into trances; were temporarily possessed by another soul; used various forms of out
of body experiences; many may have used mechanical devices or props, and predicted future outcomes using
forms of divination and or seances. Shaman often played central roles in festivals and ceremonies. While many
of us would highlight the stark contrasts among western religious practitioners and the shaman, some general
parallels can clearly be drawn—both lead people in cyclical rites and rituals, both assist and guide people, and
both help people petition the supernatural (pray). Regardless of their name or specific techniques, nearly all
religious practitioners in the great majority of cultures are performing a common basic function, that is they are
in one way or another, communicating with the supernatural.
We have been throwing around the term supernatural quite a bit, let’s explore this concept a little further.
The supernatural world is some realm beyond normal experience. We can talk about supernatural powers or
spirits or beings. The concept of the supernatural is in itself a bit problematic as many groups do not really
distinguish between so called “natural” and “supernatural” worlds. For example some groups believe that
the spirits of animals are part of the natural world. Despite this caveat, it is worthwhile to explore the different kinds of powers and beings that comprise different people’s perspectives and world views. Anthropologists normally distinguish between two broad categories of supernatural power, personified and impersonal.
Personified supernatural powers reside inside deities, ghosts, ancestors, souls, etc. Here we’re dealing with
some supernatural control or power that is seen in the “person.” For example, gods and goddesses are personified. They are remote beings of super power that control aspects of the universe.
Many people in the world have some concept of the ancestral spirit. This belief, which is very widespread,
holds that humans are made up of two parts—a body and a vital spirit or soul. The belief that this spirit or
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Lesson 9
soul is released from the body at death is normally associated with this form of belief system. Often times the
spirits of your ancestors then are said to hang around or inhabit things or persons. Sometimes these ancestral
spirits maintain an active membership in the society and in some cases are said to have the ability to provide
or withhold certain resources based on the behavior of their living human descendants. A belief in ancestral
spirits seems to be a way of providing a sense of continuity with the past, the present, and the future. As you
might have predicted, those groups with the most highly developed descent groups and unilineal kinship,
often place a strong emphasis on their belief in ancestral spirits.
In addition to humans’ having souls, many groups believe (or believed) that most other constituents of nature
also have souls. Sir Edward Tylor, a famous British anthropologists called this form of belief system Animism. Animism is a belief in spirit beings which “animate” nature. Animals, and sometimes plants, are said
to be animated by individual spirits or souls. A belief in animism is often times associated with non-western
peoples who see themselves as part of nature rather than superior to it, or apart from it. Groups who are
animistic often place very little emphasis, if any, on gods or goddesses. Most of the traditional Native Alaskan belief systems were animistic, in that spirits were said to reside in people, animals, and other elements of
nature.
In the realm of the impersonal power we’re dealing with supernatural power that is not vested in any one
being or person, but instead generalized power which resides in all things or in some specific set of persons
or things. The concept of Mana is a good example of impersonal power. Mana is a belief held among some
Melanesian and Polynesian people where by some parts of nature have a form of impersonal power. In
Melanesia, Mana is a sort of a free floating force that resides in things and people. It’s like a electricity of
sorts, certain places and objects have power, and this power can bring good luck. Things can lose power
too. A warrior’s success might be attributed to an amulet (charged with Mana) that hangs around his neck.
Traditional Melanesians built altars which incorporated Mana as a way of bringing success to the upcoming
harvests.
Mana in Polynesia is viewed somewhat differently. Chiefs have Mana and some are so powerful, that average
people can’t even touch them or walk on the same ground they have walked on (thus chiefs were carried).
Certain individuals by birth right (namely chiefs) have more mana than others, and average folks must be
careful or they might be harmed by an “overdose” of sorts. A chief had the ability to imbue an object or place
with mana thereby effecting some positive or negative result. Impersonal power is a belief seen in many
different people across the world (eg. the Iroquois concept of orenda and the Sioux Indians Wakonda and the
Algonkian manita, etc.). Tylor used the term animatism to refer to this form of belief system. Animatism is
a belief that the world is inhabited by impersonal supernatural power. Keep in mind that animatism and
animism are not necessarily mutually exclusive—groups can practice both belief systems.
As a final note in this lesson, we should look briefly at what “magic” is and what the general distinction
between religion and magic is. Let’s start by posing the question: what’s the difference between magic and
religion? Religion is praying or ritual directed towards deities, spirits, or powers, which are believed to have
control over the supernatural, whereas magic is the actual taking into your own hands acts which are meant
to directly manipulate the supernatural, that is to compel certain acts by applying certain specific rituals
directed at specific results. With magic, we are dealing with a set of well-defined procedures and behaviors
that, when implemented, have specific ends. Sorcery is evil magic. When people use acts, incantations, or
spells to attempt to accomplish evil ends, they are said to be performing sorcery. An anthropologist named
James Frazer has defined two fundamental principals of magic, sympathetic magic, and contagious magic.
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Lesson 9
The principal of sympathetic magic is magic based on the principal that “like produces like.” The best
example of this principal is the well known voodoo doll where an image of an individual is used to effect the
individual. The individual suffers the same fate as the doll (eg. a pin poking the doll causes the individual a
stabbing pain in the same area of the body as the area being poked on the doll). The principal of contagious
magic is based on the principle that things, once in contact, can influence one another after separation. Many
cultures keep track of things that came from their body (eg. hair, nails, etc.) so that magic can not be worked
on them. Fraser cites as an example of contagious magic, the Basutos of South Africa who hide their teeth that
fall out so that people do not get a hold of them and work magic on them. The western practice of treasuring
things that have been touched by famous people is a form of contagious magic as is the practice of using a
piece of someone’s hair or clothing to help find them, etc.
Some anthropologists have suggested that people who use magic often times use it as a way to exert some
direct control over something—a means by which people can effect some control over the uncontrollable.
Magic is often times used (blamed) as an explanation for misfortune and therebyserves as a kind of anxiety
reducing mechanism in that their is some explicit cause and potentially some explicit counteractive magic act
which can be used to ameliorate the misfortune. Time and space do not allow a thorough examination of the
voluminous studies on witchcraft and sorcery among different peoples of the world, but take time to look at
the discussion in your text regarding witchcraft and specifically the Navajo explanations for misfortune. You
will see that among the Navajo, and many other peoples worldwide, witchcraft is a logical set of beliefs which
is based on the premise that the ill will of others can cause misfortune. Most anthropologists argue that for
any given set of beliefs, if one accepts the premises as true, the respective belief system can be seen as logical
and rational.
In summary, this lesson should make it clear that religion and world view are an integral part of all cultures,
and that all people have a set of beliefs and behaviors which deal in some way with that part of the universe
which they feel is out of their control. Most peoples of the world believe in some set of supernatural beings
or powers, and these beings or powers can be appealed to for aide. All human groups have specialists who
can serve as intermediaries between the average person and the supernatural. Humans use ritual (religion in
action) for many reasons, but one of the most important is the reinforcement of social bonds within society.
Times of life crisis or change are especially important times for ritual. A variety of aspects of world view, religion, and magic are present to differing degrees in different societies, but there is a common thread in that
there is some cultural purpose served by each of these religious institutions. Religion, in the broadest sense
of the term then, serves important social functions: it sanctions conduct by telling the group what is right and
wrong; it sets precedents for acceptable behavior, and it perpetuates and reinforces the existing social order;
it lifts the decision making burden from individual and places it on the supernatural; and, it enhances group
identity and solidarity through the rituals people perform.
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Lesson 9
Assignment
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• prayer
• animism
• shamanism
• magic
• totemism
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. Discuss the similarities and differences among the terms: “world view,” “religion,” “ideology,” and
“magic.”
2. Compare and contrast the concepts of religion and science in reference to this course. What kinds of
questions are asked and answered by each? How are the questions and answers formulated?
3. In what different ways do people communicate with the divine?
4. Discuss Navajo world view with particular focus on witchcraft.
Review
Key Terms & Concepts For Review:
religion
meaning
creed
prayer
sacrifice
shaman
totemism
nihilism
voodoo
personified supernatural powers
animism
impersonal power
mana
animatism
sorcery
witchcraft
sympathetic magic
contagious magic
Get ready for Exam 1!
See the introduction and lesson 1
for information on taking the exam.
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ANTH F100X Section No: ________
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L 10
Lesson 10
esson
What is an “American”?
Readings
• Independent reading (your choice) and the discussion below.
• Go through We The Alien and find instances where “American” and/or “Eroamercan” culture is highlighted and described. Select a magazine article, journal article,
or book, which you believe sheds insight on what an “American” is. Read your
selection.
• Listen to the Barre Toelken interview audio tape.
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
• Arrive at a personalized anthropological understanding of American culture.
• Understand the contributions folklore can lend to understanding a people.
Discussion
This lesson marks the beginning of the second half of the course. During this half, we shift gears a bit and
focus intensely on four specific groups of people (Americans, Inupiat, Japanese, and the Dani). These lessons
require you to read extensively and to write thoughtfully about what you’ve read. You will also need to take
what you learned in the first half of the course and put it to work. You will need to synthesize information to
arrive at a comprehensive understanding of these four specific groups. We start this second half of the course
with a look at the United States. You should begin this lesson by turning a ahead a few pages and looking at
what your written assignment for this lesson is. Then read the following discussion, listen to the audio-taped
interview of Barre Toelken, and read your personal reading selection. This will help you think about the topic
at hand as you read through this material. As you have progressed through the course thus far, you have explored a broad set of cultures. These have
mainly been cultures of non-western, non-European peoples. As you’ve read and watched materials thus far, you have likely begun to intuitively attempt your own personal ethnography of American culture (assuming
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Lesson 10
you are American, if not you probably are comparing what you’ve learned to your own cultural background). One of the main principles behind this course, is that as we learn, we are comparing this new information
with what we already know of ourselves. As you’ve read over the preceding chapters, you have learned
about other peoples, and surely this has allowed you to compare yourself with what you are not. One of the
principals we laid out at the beginning of this course is that learning what we are not helps us define what we
are. The task at hand here is to think a little more explicitly about what we are, or what Americans are as it were. There are no other assigned readings for this lesson, other than the text here in the syllabus. Your primary
task for this lesson is putting together a little mini-ethnography of what “American” culture is all about. The
first problem of course is that “America,” or maybe a better term is the United States, is made up of people
from many different backgrounds and cultures. Many individuals in this country live as members of ethnic
enclaves, and a very wide diversity of lifestyles and beliefs are expressed in the U.S. Despite this diversity,
we probably can identify a few basic core values that are stressed by most citizens of the United States. The
United States seemingly has some national character that separates her citizens from those of other countries. Are people from Mexico or Canada different than people in the U.S.? If so, how are they different? If not, why
are they similar? Think about these issues as you observe Americans of all kinds in action, and attempt to
identify some core values which you think are present in most, if not all, of the people you observe. It has been said that every people strives to instill in their children a set of core values. This set of values
often represents the ideal that most individuals would like to see in their children. As we all know, the ideal
is usually not in perfect alignment with the real, so that is another area you should explore in your writing for
this lesson. Listen to the audio tape interview by Barre Toelkin, the American Folklorist. He has some interesting insights on what is important to Americans as he’s seen it through a look at American folklore.
A recent brain-storming session from a class I was teaching produced the following list of things that some
students thought represent the values, customs, and behaviors of most people in the United States: honesty, freedoms, independence, autonomy, very verbal, narrow world view, monotheistic, spiritual, accommodating, tolerant, intolerant, materialistic, nuclear family oriented, job oriented, healthy, unhealthy, health conscious, obsessed with outward appearance, generous, selfish, idealistic, transient, open class system, wealthy,
etc. Do you agree with or disagree with any of the terms in this list. Why might different people have different ideas about what being an American is? You will notice that several of the terms on this list contradict
each other. Why do you suppose a brain-storming session might produce some contradictory results? As you
go back through the textbook, and as you read the material you have chosen, make your own list as it were. Compare and contrast your list with the one above and reflect on the similarities and differences you note.
As you think about what the culture of the typical American is, you must ask yourself a series of questions. These questions are some of the same questions that you have asked for other cultures we have examined,
read about, and observed. You’ll ask questions like: what stages of transition do children go through as they
grow from babies to adults, and are there any special ceremonies associated with transition among the stages
(the answer to this question sheds light on what categories have meaning to Americans)? What does family
look like in the United States? What about the household? Is the household different than the family? What
are U.S. marriage patterns? What are U.S. post-marriage residence patterns? Are Americans socially and
economically stratified, and if so is there mobility across classes? What is the kinship and descent system
in the United States, and what kind of a kin terminological system is used? What are the sexual attitudes of
Americans? How do people in the United States resolve problems? How is leadership and decision making
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Lesson 10
manifest? What about laws? How are they set up, and how are they enforced? Is status inherited (ascribed) or
is it earned during one’s lifetime (achieved)? Are Americans religious? If so, what forms does their religious
expression take? How do United States citizens view the supernatural? The answers to these questions are not simple, and for most there is not a single answer, but instead a complex response that probably depends on a series of assumptions or qualifiers. Figuring out who we are within
the framework of a pluralistic society is not easy, but it is certainly worthwhile to ask yourself the question,
and in a sense, you should always be asking yourself the question as you move through this class. You’ll find
that the questions above will guide you as you write your mini-ethnography required for this lesson. A brief
run through of some basic anthropological analysis on Americans might yield a description something like: Nuclear family is important to Americans and their residence pattern tends to reflect this in that they
are neolocal. Marriage patterns tend to be monogamous although some might label what Americans
do as serial monogamy, as half of all marriages end in divorce. Kinship reckoning tends to be bilateral
and terminology follows the Eskimo system most closely. ....
Keep some of these aspects in your mind and compare and contrast them with the family/kinship/residence
patterns/marriage/conflict resolution/ mores and customs/ social and economic stratification/ economic
patterns/ etc. of the many other groups that you’ve learned about, and specifically with the three groups you
are about to examine in greater detail (Inupiat, Japanese, Dani). Keep posing yourself the question: “what’s
similar and different about this group from other groups that we have studied thus far.”
As you complete this lesson on Americans remember that there are not necessarily wrong or right interpretations, but instead many different angles or perspectives you can approach this question from. Is the United
States a melting pot as some have said, or is it a salad bowl? Which ever perspective you take, clearly one of
the difficulties of understanding what you are is that, as we’ve pointed out, the United States citizens are a
combination of peoples from many different places and practicing many different cultures. Most pluralistic
societies borrow extensively from others and in the end represent a complex hybrid of many different views,
values, and customs. Americans are especially indicative of such a hybrid, in that we’ve borrowed an awful
lot from other places in the world. The following excerpt has a little fun with this aspect of America:
Modern Man—An Example of Diffusion
Our solid American citizen awakens in a bed built on a pattern which originated in the Near
East but which was modified in northern Europe before it was transmitted to America. He
throws back covers made from cotton, domesticated in India, or linen, domesticated in the
Near East, or wool from sheep, also domesticated in the Near East, or silk, the use of which
was discovered in China. All of these materials have been spun and woven by processes
invented in the Near East. He slips into his moccasins, invented by the Indians of the Eastern
Woodlands, and goes to the bathroom, whose fixtures are a mixture of European and American inventions, both of recent date. He takes off his pajamas, a garment invented in India,
and washes with soap invented by the ancient Gauls. He then shaves, a masochistic rite
which seems to have been derived from either Sumer or ancient Egypt.
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Lesson 10
When our friend has finished eating he settles back to smoke, an American Indian habit, consuming a plant domesticated in Brazil in either a pipe, derived from the Indians of Virginia,
or a cigarette derived from Mexico. If he is hardy enough he may even attempt a cigar, transmitted to us from the Antilles by way of Spain. While smoking he reads the news of the day,
imprinted in characters invented by the ancient Semites upon a material invented in China by
a process invented in Germany. As he absorbs the accounts of foreign troubles he will, if he is
a good conservative citizen, thank a Hebrew deity in an Indo-European language that he is
100 percent American (Linton 1936: pp 326-327).
We are living in a global multicultural world in which the diffusion process has contributed extensively to
what we are and who we’ll become. Still, there are differences in people from one nation to the next. We
as humans can clearly celebrate these differences and at the same time be proud of our own group identity,
whatever that might be. Given these caveats, see what you can come up with as an anthropological description of the America you live in, give it your best shot, have some fun with it and learn something about who
you are and who you are not.
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• folklore
• Barre Toelken
• diffusion
• nuclear family
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. What article or book did you choose as one which sheds light on what an American is, and why did you
choose this specific piece of writing? Do you agree with the premises and/or central thesis of the piece
you chose? Why or why not?
2. Assume you are an anthropologist from a non-western background who is trying to understand what
American Culture is all about. Write an anthropological description (you might think of it as a kind of
mini-ethnography) of what “American” culture is all about. You may choose a specific sub-set of the
population, or look at the national “culture” as a whole.
3. After listening to this interview with Dr. Toelken, what is your concept of the term folklore? Has your
concept of the term changed after listening to this tape? Do you think of yourself as a person with “folklore”? What light does Toelken shed on “American” culture vis-a-vis his review of American folklore?
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L 11
Lesson 11
esson
Video Reaction Paper
Viewings
View the Millennium Series video: “A Poor Man Shames Us All” Discussion
“A Poor Man Shames Us All” explores the alternative views of wealth and society that Tribal Peoples exhibit. Viewers travel to a New York ad agency, the jungles of Indonesia, and the plains of Kenya. This episode looks
at a wide spectrum of issues relating to economies and how different societies measure wealth. The free market economies of the world are contrasted with various tribal conceptions of wealth.
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
Very briefly describe the video, then compose an essay which details your reaction to the video by responding to the following question or questions:
Compare and contrast Western views of wealth and economic needs with the specific views of several different Tribal
Cultures explored in this video. How do these different perspectives view possessions? Are human relationships viewed
differently from the perspective of these contrasting understandings of what’s “rich” and what’s “poor”?
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L 12
Lesson 12
esson
Culture of the Far North,
A Look at the Inupiat
Readings
Nelson: Shadow of the Hunter (the whole book)
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
• Understand the features of the Arctic environment which have effected human adaptation.
• Be able to outline the traditional culture of the Inupiat people.
• Understand the significance of the relationship between animals and humans within the context of
traditional Inupiat world view.
Discussion
This lesson focuses on Arctic people, and especially on the Inupiat of the North Slope of Alaska. Natives of
Alaska and Northern Canada include a wide variety of “Eskimo” and “Indian” people who have lived in the
arctic and subarctic for thousands of years, long before Europeans came to this land. All of these indigenous
people developed adaptations that relied extensively on hunting and fishing the resources of the north, and
that emphasized acute awareness of the physical environment, the Inupiat (the real people) are no exception. The reading for this lesson is a collection of stories written by an anthropologist, Richard Nelson, who lived
among the Inupiat of Alaska in and around the North Slope village of Wainwright. The book, Shadow of the
Hunter, Stories of Eskimo Life, focuses sharply on hunting life to the extent that it may exclude numerous other
aspects of Inupiat life, but I have chosen it because it takes an approach that is very different than many of the
other more scientific descriptions of culture which you are becoming familiar with. Much of the material you
have read for the course thus far provides extensive analysis and interpretation. In contrast, Nelson’s book is
short on analysis and long on description of events as they might have occurred. In addition, since hunting continues to be an extremely important part of Inupiat life, this focus is most appropriate—it clearly provides
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Lesson 12
insight into the importance of the physical environment in the lives of Arctic peoples. Nelson has intended
this book as an ethnography of sorts, but one that uses stories to provide the reader with insight into the lives
and culture of the Inupiat. While Nelson’s narratives have been fictionalized, clearly all events he describes
have, or could have, happened exactly as he describes. One short coming of the book is that it focuses most
heavily on males and provides little insight into female roles, although there are a few instances where information on female life is included. This slant is primarily the result of Nelson’s focus on hunting, which is
primarily the domain of men. Because of this bias, you should pay extra special attention to any information
you can glean from Nelson’s stories regarding Inupiat women. The Inupiat Eskimos of Northern Alaska speak a dialect of the Inupiaq (the language as a whole is called Inuit
in Canada) language. Speakers of Inupiaq (also called Inuit) are dispersed from eastern Greenland to northwestern Alaska. The Inupiat are distantly related to the Yupik peoples of western Alaska and Siberia, but this
relationship is quite remote and is recognized and discussed more by outside linguists and anthropologists
than by the Inupiat or Yupik peoples themselves. Quite different from the Inupiat, are the Athabaskan Indians of the Interior of Alaska and Canada. While Athabaskans and Inuit share some environmental similarities, they are culturally, linguistically, and genetically distinct from each other. Even within the Athabaskan
language group, there is great diversity of language and culture. For example, within Alaska there are eleven
different Athabaskan languages spoken across a wide geographic area. The focus in this lesson is the Inupiat of northern Alaska, but it is important to remember that there is rich
diversity of cultural heritage in Arctic and Subarctic North America. Some of what you learn regarding the
Inupiat may apply to other groups of Arctic people, but most will be unique to the Inupiat. It is also extremely important to remember that while Nelson’s focus is on more traditional than contemporary hunting styles
and life, the Inupiat, and for that matter, all of the indigenous peoples of the far north are living, working, and
surviving today just as any other group of people in the U.S. That is, they are not members of the past but
people who have lived, learned, and adapted to the world around them, just as all other people of the world.
They have accepted new technologies and innovations just as other people, and they are just as “advanced”
as anybody else in the world. None of the people we are learning about are to be viewed as exhibits in a museum, but instead as living people who have histories and futures like anyone else. The Inupiat have survived
as well as, or better than, any indigenous group in North America, and they have survived despite major
setbacks caused by outsiders, and despite ignorant stereotypes held by many westerners. Students should
celebrate the resilience, vitality and richness of the Inupiat culture, and for that matter all of the surviving cultures of the far north. I personally have great respect for the Inupiat, and I hope that what’s written here and
Nelson’s narratives help teach you the student greater respect and understanding for the Inupiat’s way of life.
Nelson’s book takes the reader through a typical year of traditional subsistence along the north coast of Alaska. It might be instructive to highlight some of the most important features of Arctic hunting and survival,
and of Inupiat Culture. Most of these features are addressed explicitly (or can be inferred) in one of Nelson’s
chapters. As you read Shadow of the Hunter, you should look for, and note themes that emerge which might
shed light on Inupiat culture. Look for the importance of family and kinship, the significance of cooperation
in hunting and survival, the importance of mobility and flexibility. How are elders treated? Is their advice
valued, and if so, how is it used? How are children enculturated, educated, and socialized? Can you begin to
describe the relationship between humans and the natural world after reading Nelson’s work? Do you have a
glimpse of traditional world view among the Inupiat? How are decisions made in cooperative settings? Who
has power or control, and how is leadership vested? Clues to the answers for all of these questions are imbedpage 66
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Lesson 12
ded within the narratives Nelson provides for you, keep your eyes open and you will learn about the Inupiat
culture and way and life.
Let’s start with the land and the sea. The land and sea are important because that is where one’s sustenance
comes from. Animals come from the land and sea, and it is animals that allow humans to survive. The
Inupiat territory is treeless, comprised of tundra vegetation, rich in moss and lichens. The coastal margins
and the rivers are important transportation corridors and important subsistence hunting locations. Sea ice is
very important, as it provides shelter for and access to sea mammals. Human population density is low, and
people traditionally lived highly mobile lifestyles, or settled in small kin-based clusters of semi-subterranean
sod houses (driftwood and whalebone were used as structural members).
Animals of all kinds are important elements in Inupiat life. As with the great majority of northern peoples, the
Inupiat relied almost entirely on meat for survival. All parts of animals are used, not just the flesh for food, but
also the skins, the fat and blubber, and the bones and sinew. Meat is boiled or fried, sometimes it is eaten raw,
frozen or dried and on occasion, dipped in seal oil. Caribou are the main land mammal utilized by the Inupiat. Muskox and moose are available in some areas, but caribou are clearly the most important land mammal to the
Inupiat as a whole. Caribou are usually ambushed using blinds or snow machines. Other important land mammals include a series of fur bearing animals, fox, rabbit, wolf, wolverine, brown bear, black bear, lynx, martin. Ground squirrels are also available to differing degrees in different Inupiat regions. The furs of all these animals
are used extensively in the local clothing to keep the cold and wind out.
Sea mammals are far more significant than land animals in terms of total caloric intake. The most important sea mammals include whales (bowhead, beluga, and grays), seals (bearded, spotted, ring, and ribbon),
walrus, and the polar bear (polar bears spend about 35% of their time on shore). Whales are taken from boats
and hunted cooperatively, as are walrus and some larger seals. Some seals are taken through breathing holes
or along open leads by solitary hunters. Fish are also an important source of food for the Inupiat. Pacific
salmon become less and less important as you move north and east out of the Bering Sea, although there are a
few around. The rivers and lakes throughout the North Slope are filled with many different species of white
fish, grayling, Arctic char, pike, and lake trout. Tom cod, flounder, crabs, and various other invertebrates
are taken from the salt water. Fishing is most often conducted through the ice using nets or jigs. In addition
to fish, waterfowl are very important to the Inupiat. Numerous species of geese, ducks, and other sea birds
are available in the spring, summer, and fall. Also other birds, for example snowy owls and ptarmigan, are
hunted on occasion by the Inupiat people.
The ferocity of arctic winters, and the intensity of the cold is often highlighted and romanticized by outside
writers. Writers describe how difficult survival is, and how no one in their right mind would possibly choose
to live in the Arctic, etc. One of the most fascinating aspects of Arctic adaptation is that northern peoples
do not live in spite of the cold, but instead they take advantage of it and utilize the winter variables to their
own ends. The Inupiat are no exception. They have several excellent examples of using winter and cold to
their advantage. Ice cellars are excavated into the ground and used to store food for months on end free from
decay. Ice surfaces are used for hunting (eg. breathing holes) and fishing (fishing through the ice is the most
productive fishing method). The natural insulating features of snow and animal fur are used and incorporated into their clothing, tools, and shelters. After a close look at northern peoples like the Inupiat with a different perspective, what emerges is a picture of the Arctic as a kind of user friendly environment rather than the
inhospitable horrific environment that is sometimes painted and described by outsiders.
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Lesson 12
Shadow of the Hunter is organized in a manner which reflects on the traditional seasonal round. The Inupiat
today are far more sedentary than their pre-contact ancestors, yet even from central bases, Inupiat hunters still
travel great distances and spend a fair amount of time away from their home villages. A well defined seasonal
round was followed in the past because the animals they relied on were in different places at different times of
the year. This was the most effective and logical way to survive in this environment. This mobility is one of the
reasons that indigenous peoples attitudes about land are quite different than the views of westerners. Constant
movement doesn’t create attachment to a specific plot, but instead, to the overall territory within which one’s
people live throughout the year.
One of the fundamental characteristic of traditional Inupiat culture is flexibility—flexibility in all aspects of life. Adaptability to changing circumstances is very significant in the Arctic—an environment that can vary radically
from season to season. If we were to try and list some fundamental social values of most northern hunting peoples
in general, and the Inupiat specifically, we would likely list aspects like, sharing, courtesy, emotional control,
forbearance, honesty, obedience to elders, fidelity to kin, and faithful adherence to the rules of respect for the
natural environment. All of these cultural elements are manifest in flexible ways. They are not rigid mandates but
instead a package of flexible behaviors that as a whole represent a system which has evolved through time into
one of the most long lived and successful patterns of human adaptation in the world. This flexibility carries over
to child rearing as well. Children learn their culture through observation and imitation. Children are allowed
to make mistakes, they’re not lectured or scolded much. Inupiat parents use patience, humor, consistency, and
example in raising their children. Children are treated with love and respect and parents trust that rationality
will develop in their children and that their culture will be passed along through the generations.
As you read Nelson’s stories, you will come again and again to the significance of knowledge—knowledge of
the environment and of animals’ behavior in particular is very important, and this knowledge is often vested in
the elders. Elders are therefore treated with utmost respect. Look in Nelson’s chapters for information which
helps explain the traditional Inupiat beliefs about animals and the relationships between the human world and
the animal world. I have already alluded to the fact that knowledge of animal behavior is very intimate and detailed among the
Inupiat. If you are to survive in this environment, you better know it extremely well, and the Inupiat do. In the
traditional Inupiat world view, an animal “gives itself” to the hunter if the hunter has behaved properly and
has not broken taboos or treated the animal with disrespect. A survey of many of the northern hunting peoples
would reveal that most were animistic, believing that all humans and animals have souls and that there is a
strong bond between humans and animals. The theme that animals allow themselves to be taken is one which
appears in the world view of many Alaskan and Canadian natives. Specifically, the Inupiat believe that animals
must be treated respectfully as they will either “allow or not allow” themselves to be taken. Thus in the past
there were an incredible number of taboos and rules in place which were there to placate the souls of animals.
If taboos were followed, animals would allow themselves to be taken and the hunter and his family would be
happy. In addition to taboos, there were proactive things to do to help enhance your possibility of success in
hunting (eg. carrying charms or amulets).
Within the pre-contact Inupiat world view, while animals and humans are imbued with souls, humans have
names, and names add power. Traditionally, Inupiat names were very sacred. An infant was not considered a
true human until it had been named. Infants were not regarded as unique individuals, but as fresh embodiments
of deceased persons’ souls. A kind of reincarnation process was believed to occur whereby an assignment of a
deceased person’s name completed a cycle and returned the soul to the world in a new body as it were. This
process was a never-ending cycle which was part of life, and it was not something that people wanted to tranpage 68
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scend. It went on and on and on. The nearly universal acceptance of Christianity among the Inupiat has clearly
altered views about life and death, yet close examination reveals continuity with past beliefs among many of
the contemporary beliefs and customs. For example, whalers might say a Christian prayer after a successful
whaling trip, thanking a Christian god, yet it is still said that the whale gave itself to the hunters and that its soul
will return to the sea to be covered with flesh again and to return one day to be taken again. One final area I would like to explore is that of decision making, leadership, authority, and political control among
the Inupiat. Most small scale mobile hunting societies across the globe were, or are egalitarian, and essentially that
is how anthropologists would describe pre-contact Inupiat political organization. We might best view traditional
Inupiat political organization as egalitarian individualism. In such a system, the individual decision maker is
significant. Leaders emerge based on their expertise and skill. If people follow, they choose to follow. A leader
maintains people’s allegiance through continued demonstration that he is a good hunter, leader, and provider. Inupiat experts have valuable knowledge and know valuable skills, but their knowledge does not result in
control or power per se. Any person’s advice can be ignored, the individual is important and the individual is
ultimately responsible for his or her own decisions. In general no leader can order or command, instead people
choose allegiance. If some one follows advice it is because people have watched closely and have seen successes
grow out of advice from this person before. While leaders may emerge, Inupiat leaders do not have the right to
speak for others. People understand that in order to learn, one must listen, and decisions are most often arrived
at through consensus. Elders command ultimate respect, their advice is sought, they don’t order or command,
they offer advice. Allegiance to one’s kin is generally the most important form of commitment, then to one’s
own people as a whole (hence the general attitude “we’re related to everyone in the group”).
The traditional forms of political organization and social control have deep roots, and are still present in
many aspects of Inupiat life. Western political institutions stand in contrast to many of their traditional
systems. How have people survived in light of the stark contrasts that exist between these traditional forms
of authority, leadership, social control, and ownership, and the forms recognized by the non-native European
institutions that have been thrust on the scene? Westerners are uncomfortable with pure egalitarian systems, desiring instead systems with well defined rigid institutions of leadership and authority. The Inupiat
have adapted and adopted the formal legal and political institutions of the west, yet the Inupiat like many
other Native Alaskans and Native Canadians are pushing for political reforms which will allow them more
autonomy. People of the far north want more say in how their people govern themselves and what kinds of
laws get put on the books. Generally, the Inupiat are pushing for more and more self-regulation, some are
arguing for complete sovereignty and self government. Space here does not permit a thorough evaluation of
all the specifics of the various political movements and proposals effecting Native Alaskans, of which there
are many. What we can do is review some of the basic concerns that northern indigenous peoples (including
the Inupiat) have in today’s society. Some of these include the right to recognition and the right to self determination; the right to continue to live as modern peoples; a chance to live their own way and to raise their
children according to their own ideas of human and natural life; the right to speak their own language; and,
finally the right to determine the course of their own future. In Shadow of the Hunter, Nelson has provided stories for you which will help you gain insight into the traditional and contemporary ways of life. Today among the Inupiat there are oil wells, modern buildings, frame
houses, two-way radios, cell phones, cable television stations, jets, outboard motors, and basically all the
modern conveniences of contemporary life, yet people still hunt, fish and trap on their land and their sea,
and they still hold strongly many of the beliefs and perspectives Nelson and I have highlighted. People still
find deep pleasure in sharing. People still cooperate in hunting, and people still share their knowledge of
environment with each other. For many, this knowledge and their culture as a whole is still passed along in
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the same Inupiaq language used by their ancestors, for others it is a new language, yet there is still continuity
with the past. Much of people’s instruction, world view, personality, and social interaction remains essentially the same as it has been for many hundreds of years. The technology and trappings are different but below
the surface people remain Inupiat, the real people. Keep some of the things you’ve learned about northern
hunting peoples in mind as we move along to examine the Japanese, and the Dani of New Guinea. You will
see stark differences, and maybe some similarities. You should think about these similarities and differences
as you finish this course and as you prepare for your final exam.
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• location and environmental context of Ulurunik
•Tanik
•Uguruk (bearded seal)
•Umealik
• Unaaq
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. Draw a seasonal round of subsistence activities as described by Nelson for the Ulgunigmuit of the early
1960’s (use a pie chart or table or some kind of graphic to depict the activities during different parts of
the year). Remember to be as detailed and specific as possible. For example, what species are hunted and
what technologies are used in the pursuit of these species?
2. Using what you’ve learned in this lesson and what Nelson writes, describe the division of labor along
gender lines in Ulgunigmuit society.
3. Compare and contrast “The Moon for Bleaching Skins” (March) and “The Moon When Birds Molt”
(August). Focus on the differences and similarities among the general ecology, the hunting and gathering activities, and the human interactions among the characters in these chapters. Try to understand and
explain any cultural elements regarding Inupiat life which are relevant here.
4. Examine closely Nelson’s chapter on: “The Moon When Birds Fly South” (September). In addition to
the actual subsistence activities he describes, Nelson is exploring more contemporary questions regarding the contrasts between old ways and new, between western culture and Inupiat culture, and in terms
of growing up, sexuality, and the choices contemporary Inupiat young adults must make. In your own
words, summarize the elements and dilemmas encompassed in this chapter. How do the older actors in
this chapter enable learning? Do any of the issues Nelson writes of in this chapter cross-cut cultures? If so
which ones and why?
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Review
Key Terms & Concepts For Review:
location and environment context of Ulurunik
tanik uguruk (bearded seal)
umealik
unaaq
grub box
floe
landfast ice
hummock
umiaq
ulu
traditional Inupiat sunglasses
bowhead whale
beluga or white whale
trading partnerships
breathing hole hunting
lead hunting
Inupiat adaptability
methods of taking fall freshwater fish (netting, jigging)
Don’t forget to use a lesson cover sheet with each lesson. This is used as
a return mailing label and is necessary for proper recording of grades.
Print your name and mailing address clearly in ink.
Even if you are faxing in your lesson, please use the cover sheet!
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L 13
Lesson 13
esson
Japanese Society and Culture
Readings
•Hendry: Understanding Japanese Society (the whole book)
•Listen to the audio tape: “Conversations: Hands across the Rim”
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
• Better understand Japanese society and Japanese culture as a whole.
• Be able to identify key differences and similarities among the Japanese and other cultures we have
studied thus far.
• Better understand the Japanese system of education and child rearing practices.
• Be able to explain the systems of ranking and stratification in Japan.
• Be able to describe the importance of “group” in Japan (and the role of the individual).
Discussion
Japan is a very different place than where most of you were brought up, and likely very different than where
you are today. Japan represents a different environment, and a different people, and of course a very different
way of viewing the world than that of most of the groups we have tried to understand thus far. The reading
for this lesson is the entire book by Joy Hendry entitled, Understanding Japanese Society. You are also asked
to listen to the audio tape: “Conversations: Hands across the Rim,” a Susan Mcginnus conversation with
Professor Befu. This book and the one-hour audio tape provide fairly comprehensive coverage of the Japanese and their society. Accordingly, my comments here are rather brief. Taken together, the book and the
tape should provide you with a clearer understanding of the historical factors effecting the Japanese as well
as some insight into the changing political and social arena in Japan of late. We look at Japan in this course
for several different reasons. The most important being that the Japanese represent a fascinating people with
a rich and colorful history. In addition, contacts between Japan and the rest of the world have been steadily
increasing with no slow down in sight. Because of this, it is critical that students understand Japanese people
and their way of life. Your reading and comprehension of this text should serve to clarify a society that has
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plained in clear terms by Dr. Hendry. The book describes the Japanese home, family life, the importance of
the group, as well as government, business, and legal aspects of Japanese society. I’m quite certain you will
find it both interesting and instructive.
It is my hope that this lesson will provide an opportunity for students to increase their awareness of Japanese
culture by breaking through stereotypes and by exploring the diversity of Japanese society. To understand Japan today, we must comprehend the almost constant blending and adapting of the old and the new aspects of
Japanese life. After reading my brief remarks here, reading the Hendry text, and listening to the tape, students
should be able to identify most of the significant core values and beliefs associated with Japanese culture, and
should be able to compare those with their own values and beliefs (as well as those of others we’ve studied thus far). It is hoped that ultimately this exercise will lead the student to a greater understanding of the
people who are Japan.
Although Japan is a small country geographically, it is the seventh largest country in the world from a population standpoint. There are approximately 130 million people living in the country, resulting in a very high
population density (especially since much of the area is mountainous and unoccupied), clearly one of the
highest in the world on a per habitable square mile basis. Japan has a deep rooted and influential history, yet
it is a modern post-industrial country which is third in the world in GNP. The country side consists of numerous mountains, forested hillsides and valleys containing populations and the agricultural land. The Japanese
Islands are techtonically active, with frequent earth quakes and several active volcanoes. There is plenty
of rainfall in Japan and it is warm. Because of these favorable climatic conditions, there is a fair amount of
agricultural production in Japan, and taken in combination with accessibility to the products of the sea, the
Japanese food base allows it to support its big time human populations.
Japan is comprised of four main Islands, Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. If these islands were laid
along the east coast of the U.S., they would stretch from northern Maine to the Gulf of Mexico. Tokyo would
be approximately at the latitude of North Carolina. As you might imagine, these islands are influenced by
ocean currents and are therefore quite moderate with the exception of the mountainous backbone of Honshu and the northwest coast of that Island, where there is very heavy seasonal snowfall. On the other side
of the mountains it is usually pretty sunny and dry. Japan experiences a regular typhoon season during late
summer and early fall. These typhoons are fairly regular and often quite severe. Typhoons along with the
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, have sort of conditioned the Japanese to expect natural disasters, and
some have noted that the Japanese have a rather fatalistic respect for mother nature. This respect for nature’s
power is combined with a reputation for digging themselves out and getting on with life.
Given their geographic setting, it should be clear that the Japanese are an isolated people. They live more
separately because of their island setting but also by their own design. You will see that the Japanese are a
very distinct people when compared with others in the world, yet their within-group variation is smaller. There are not a lot of sharp ethnic, linguistic, or cultural distinctions like those we see in say the United States
or other large pluralistic countries. As noted, the Japanese have a strong historical heritage, which is continually referenced, yet it is important to remember that the Japanese are not bound by their past. There has been
enormous change through time in Japan. Keep this in mind when you come across someone who is stereotyping the Japanese in a certain manner. Just because the Japanese are somewhat homogeneous and quite
distinctive, this does not mean that there is no diversity in Japan. There is diversity in the country, and there
is change—nearly constant of late. Try to see through and ignore stereotypes as you come across them. The
Japanese are not all gentle Zen artists or militaristic rule-bound people or single-minded economic individupage 74
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als. The Japanese have evolved and changed as much or more than anyone else in the world. The Japanese
are no more bound by their feudal past than the Swedes are bound by the Vikings’ history or Americans by
the Puritan witch trial era. Japan is not simple but extremely complex. By nature, your attempt to understand the Japanese people will
be comparative. This is perfectly normal, but keep in mind that in making comparisons with what you know,
you should not over simplify. For example, much has been made of the fact that Americans are extremely individualistic and Japanese quite group oriented. This does not mean that everyone in the United States is the
Lone Ranger, and everyone from Japan is a selfless group merger with no individuality. There are of course
differences, and as we try to understand a people, we will discover these differences for ourselves. These
differences are complex and we should be cautious as we work to understand them. We might for example
re-phrase the Lone Ranger statement above to something like: “one of the biggest differences between American society and Japanese society is the tendency to emphasize the group at the expense of the individual in
Japan. ”
As I said, the audio tape and the Hendry text cover Japanese culture in enough depth that I need not dedicate
much more space to the topic here. In the following paragraphs I briefly address a few of the seminal areas
of concern which are of particular interest to us in this course. These areas include: the importance of group
and the role of the individual; relativism; the significance of hierarchy; child rearing practices; education;
and, the business world. Hendry discusses all of these issues and many others in greater depth, and these
comments are meant as supplemental to her work.
Importance of group and the role of the individual
The importance of the group has already been mentioned briefly. What kind of groups are important? Well,
really all kinds, factional alignments in politics, university provenience, your place of business, hobby
groups, etc. In many ways extrafamiliar groups such as these seem to be more important than the family
group itself in Japan. Family terms are often interchanged for various roles within certain groups. For example, a term like “father” is used for boss. In Japan a boss is much more involved in peoples personal lives
than what most of us might be used to. He is certainly far more responsible. People “belong to” their work
group, their agricultural cooperative, their village group etc. It does seem that the firm where one works is
the most important group in one’s life. An individual is not a replaceable cog in the great machine like in
west, but instead people gain identity and pride from the firm they “belong” to.
There are hundreds of different hobby groups, “circles,” and “interest groups” that people belong to in Japan, and these are very important parts of their lives. Students often develop the bulk of their social contacts
within the groups they choose to join. Not only do Japanese people join numerous groups, people do things
in groups. For example, the Japanese might be seen on a major trip or tour with a large group of some kind. Many Japanese vacation with their work mates or the members of a group they belong to, rather than going
alone or on a family vacation. A group player is appreciated and valued absolutely in Japan. Most decisions
are made based on consensus, and group harmony and consensus are truly valued in Japan. With all this emphasis on the group, the question usually arises, how do individuals express themselves and
what gives a person his or her individual identity? Japanese people do have identity and they clearly find
ways to express themselves as individuals. This self expression is often manifest in artistic endeavors, gardens, poetry, or some other personal hobby. Ironically there is pressure to conform, and at the same time to
express oneself. This clash between personal self-expression and social conformity is sharp in Japan. People
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in Japan are not just human ants working towards some universal purpose, they do strive to cultivate their
own individuality in socially accepted ways such as literature, art, flower arranging, dancing, and music. One’s hobbies or tastes help establish identity, and people cherish their hobbies. Mastery of a skill is seen as
a development of one’s inner self, and inner self control is all important in Japanese society. There is a view
that any obstacle can be overcome, if you work hard enough and use one’s will power and inner self to tackle
the problem.
Relativism:
It has been said that the Japanese have particularistic rather than universal ethics. Particularistic ethics might
be viewed as particular rules and values for each situation, and for each relationship. In a sense one’s ethics
are relative to the situation one finds oneself in at a given moment or place. All of the ethics, values, and rules
one must follow or conceive of are precisely graded in Japan according to the nature of the specific relationship. This is quite different in the west where we tend to focus on universal ethics which guide our behavior and thoughts at all times regardless of the situation. In the U.S., something is viewed as sin or as wrong
based on some moral code—the situation or relationship we are in at any given moment is nearly a moot
point when it comes to gauging how ethical some behavior is. Related to this relativism is the importance Japanese people put on balance. Rarely is anything boiled down
to an “either or” issue, but instead people strive for some kind of balance and harmony. In Japan it is more
often a balance between different forces—between day and night; ying and yang; male and female that is
important. Japanese culture is not filled with the “thou shalt nots” of the western Judeo-Christian world.
Moderation is the key, not prohibition. Drinking and drunks are tolerated not chastised, yet interestingly,
there is not much of a problem with alcohol abuse in Japan (in contrast to some of the severe problems that
arise in situations in the west where on the books alcohol is prohibited or strictly regulated). The significance of hierarchy
While Japan is a fairly open society in terms of socio-economic movement and status, everyones’ place at any
given moment and in any given situation tends to be very well defined. In Japan it is preferable if your relationship to whomever you are talking to is known and acknowledged by both (or all) of you. Knowing where
you are in the hierarchical scheme of things, and how other individuals in a specific situation are “ranked,”
is very important to a Japanese person. One’s status in a group is usually measured by such variables as age
and seniority (length of membership). One’s status is acknowledged through several different social mediums, the most important being the custom of bowing (depth of bow and number of bows indicates status). The importance of defined hierarchy is integrated into nearly every aspect of social life in Japan. This is
especially interesting because Japan is a very egalitarian society in which most people have access to a position based on achievement—there is not much of an underprivileged class in Japan, only a small number of
Burakumin (untouchables) and the resident Koreans can really be said to be limited or repressed in any way. While there are these aforementioned exceptions, as a whole it can be said that there is a very high degree of
social mobility in Japan, whereby people can “move” vis-a-vis their educational achievements (eg. one’s score
on qualifying entrance exams) and/or other pragmatic achievements in one’s life, especially at one’s work
place.
One of the more important status indicators is the university one attended. The higher prestige universities
are those which are the most difficult to get into from an academic standpoint. Ones “alma mater” essentially determines or tracks what one’s employment path will be. This academic genealogy is highly defined into
hierarchical groups perfectly organized and pyramided into national associations. The emphasis on hierarchy
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is mirrored in most aspects of Japanese society. In business it is seen and reflected in the whole scale of pay. Every employee is on an elevator of sorts. There are different elevators in a company, but everyone is on one.
Once one has risen to a higher rung on the latter, people are vary conscious of behaving in a manner which
is consistent with their status. Basically, people try to live up to their status, and do whatever is expected of
a person of their position in whatever hierarchy they find themselves in at any given moment. Interestingly,
there is not really much resentment of people of higher status by those of relatively lower status. It is accepted that they performed better, or that they have greater seniority—they got on the elevator earlier as it were.
Because the hierarchical scheme is so important, the Japanese try to avoid not knowing one’s relative status in
a situation. People do not like status ambiguity. The ubiquitous calling cards or business cards in Japan have
been noted as a way in which two strangers can determine their relative status. An exchange of cards allows
each individual to define and order one’s specific position in a situation, and people then know how to act—
the relationship is defined, and there is less awkwardness.
The emphasis on knowing one’s place so to speak has resulted in a great number of specific rules of conduct
for specific status combinations that might occur. Rather than a few all important ethical signposts like we
tend to see in the west, there are literally hundreds of rules, all to be meticulously observed. There are
seemingly endless gradations of politeness to be observed in Japan. The Japanese have a clear system of gift
giving to indicate one’s relative position, and this system of reciprocity is a complex and onerous art which is
quite difficult for an outsider master. It should not be surprising to students of Japan that cross-cultural communication can sometimes be a problem, nor should it be a shock to us that misunderstandings often occur
among westerners and the Japanese. As a result of the detailed codes of conduct that exist, Japanese people
often worry that they are not doing the “right thing,” fretting that they may be opening themselves up to
criticism or ridicule. Some scholars have argued that this may be another reason why the familiar group is
all the more dear to the Japanese citizen, as their position and their expectations are known and concisely
defined leaving no room for a social faux paux.
Child rearing practices
Japanese children are brought up in a nurturing environment filled with love and almost constant attention. Children are rarely left alone, and are treated quite permissively from a western point of view. Parents do not
try to establish a strict regiment of sleeping and eating habits, where bedtime and dinner time are always at
some precise moment, but instead parents operate under a rather loose environment. Most children sleep
with their parents and with the other children. Japanese children are not given their own rooms at early ages
like in many places in the west. As one might imagine given our discussions thus far, the individual child is
not emphasized as he or she is in the west, but instead it is the group that is the focus. Young children are fed
when they are hungry and are held and fondled almost continuously. Japanese parents would never leave
their child with an unknown baby-sitter. Conformity is stressed to the child. Discipline is based on peer pressure, and it is not harsh—children are told to be good “or people will laugh at you.” Some scholars have observed that in the west, children are treated like little incipient adults, given their own
rooms, encouraged to make their own decisions, and asked to take care of themselves. In contrast, Japanese
children are said to be pampered more and catered to more. The result of this up-bringing seems to develop
a sense of dependence (especially on mother). Out of childhood emerges an adult who is used to basking in
the affection of others, and this then may grow into a kind of psychic dependence for gratification from the
warmth and approval of the group.
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Education
Much has been written about the Japanese school system and stark contrasts have been drawn between the
western and Japanese educational systems. Japanese children start compulsory education at a younger age
than children in the U.S., and once it commences, it runs for over 10 months a year and for five and one half
days each week. The school day is longer and the work load more intense than in the U.S. Both primary and
secondary schools are very well funded in Japan. Many of the socialization issues discussed above regarding
conformity, dependence on the group, and the importance of peer pressure, etc., are evident within the school
system in Japan. Succeeding in school is very important and parents pour money into extra academic support such as private tutoring to help their children succeed. Much of the secondary school system is geared
towards tracking students based on their abilities and desires. After high school, many students attend special prep schools that are geared towards doing well on the standardized entrance exams which are used for entry into various colleges and universities. Entrance into the
prestigious universities require excellent test scores. The prep schools place an emphasis on strict discipline
and memorization. Achieving success on the exam is often far more difficult than succeeding in the universities once a student is accepted. Within the universities themselves differences are minimized and failure is
nearly non-existence. Competition to get into the universities is intense, while the university schooling itself
focuses on actual learning of content. Achieving a position after college is dependent more on what college
you came out of than your grades in college.
Whether or not the system as a whole sounds appealing to you, it is clear that the Japanese educational methods are effective. Japan has one of the highest literacy rates in the world. Japan’s education standards and
educational system have been credited with Japan’s success in the world. Their dominance in the technological fields, chemicals, engineering, and many other areas of research is linked by many to their overall system
which places extremely high priority on academic achievement. Traditionally, males have dominated the university populations, where they receive training most often in the
sciences, business, and law. While this division of education and labor along gender lines is changing, most
women are still regulated to a different class of post-secondary education where they tend to enroll in shorterterm universities (kind of like junior colleges but not called that) that stress liberal arts. Only about 13-30 %
of the students studying science in Japan are women. Clearly these male/female differences are starting to
change as they are in many places in the world, but there are still sharp distinctions between women’s and
men’s roles in Japan.
Business world
Much has been written of businesses and the business world in Japan. While Japan is currently in a nearly
decade long recession, the Japanese business and corporate world have been and will continue to be some of
the most successful from both an economic and human stand point. Since the end of WW II, only a tiny fraction of the economy has been dedicated to military expenditures. This may have helped stimulate the economy in some ways, and stagnated it in others. After the war, trade was encouraged, and the tariff barriers were let down, and for quite some time, “made in Japan” came to mean a quality product to Americans and
other people of the world. Corporate executives from around the world began to ask questions like: why had
the Japanese been able to rise above, in a sense, the quality of products produced in other parts of the world, and, how were they accomplishing these feats of manufacturing excellence? What people discovered when
they looked (several different anthropological studies have looked at the Japanese workplace) was that there
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were some stark difference between how business was operating in Japan and in the other industrial nations. First and foremost what stood out was a system of lifetime employment. That is individuals once hired could
depend on their company to retain them and most likely promote them several times throughout their life. They were to be taken care of for the rest of their lives. Often in the West, people learn a profession and then
take several different jobs with several different firms throughout their life. In contrast in Japan, a person
would normally stay with the same firm taking several different positions as he moves up the latter within the firm. The employees are thus said to be very loyal to their employer. Rather than an adversarial relationship such as the management versus worker contest we see in the West, in Japan there is a sense of cooperation within the firm and a pride instilled in all employees, bottom to top of the pay scale. Employees tend
to be very loyal, decisions are made cooperatively with the workers opinions being consulted and respected
by the management. What emerges in the Japanese firm is a sense of solidarity wherein all employees are
members of the same club.
Corporate ownership is not vested and focused on the top executives as it often is in the U.S., but instead in
the stockholders, always with an eye towards long term growth. The CEO’s of Japan are not paid the exorbitant salaries like their counter parts in the West, instead they are committed and motivated to perform for the
same reasons as the workers on the assembly line—dedication and loyalty to the firm and its shareholders.
Listen carefully to the insights provided by Professor Befu on the audio tape. His take is some what different
than that of the popular media. As you go forward from this class, it is imperative that you think critically
about what you read and hear regarding Japan, keeping in mind that Japan is a very different place with a
distinctive poorly understood people. The Japanese have been misunderstood by their business counter parts
throughout the world. Japanese strive for consensus, a meeting of the minds so to speak. Their negotiations
are therefore not adversarial, but instead attempt to arrive at some solution. Many in the West are uncomfortable with the lack of definitive yes or no. This ambiguity has been wrongly viewed as sneaky attempts
at getting what they want but instead this goes back to what we were discussing earlier, the idea that the
Japanese do not have some ultimate sense of wrong or right but instead ethics that are to be judged for each
individual situation. Japanese business men use lots of go-betweens in an attempt to avoid confrontations. In turn, to the Japanese, Americans often seem blunt and threatening in the ways that they negotiate and
this has also led to distrust and misunderstanding of Americans on the Japanese part. Much of the current
“Japan-bashing” prevalent in the public press of late may find its origins in these misunderstanding and
in resentment among those in the West over the Japanese success in the international trade arena. It should
also be noted that the Japanese recession and the rise in the value of the Yen has caused major impact to her
economy resulting in changes in many of these basic premises reviewed above. For example, it is clear that
certain Japanese firms are down-sizing and the need for lay-offs is necessitating an end to the universal policy
of lifetime employment. With a gradual breakdown in this philosophy, it will be interesting to see if other
changes occur in the generally supportive and loyal employee infra-structure that Japan has become noted
for. Only time will tell.
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Lesson 13
Assignment
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• particularistic vs. universal ethics
•Shinto
• significance of extrafamiliar groups
• Japanese crime rate
•Uchi and Soto
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. Write a short summary article (as if for a newspaper) [2 page maximum] describing the information conveyed in the Befu interview.
2. Describe what you believe to be the most significant values and beliefs associated with Japanese culture,
and compare and contrast those with your own values and beliefs.
3). Discuss the importance of stratification and hierarchy in Japanese society. Provide some explicit examples of institutions or individuals that are stratified by the Japanese. Explain how it is that hierarchical
ranking runs through Japanese life, despite their emphasis on fairness, reciprocity, cooperation, and at
some levels equality. Explain this paradox as best you can.
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L 14
Lesson 14
esson
The Traditional Grand Valley Dani
Readings
• Heider: Grand Valley Dani: Peaceful Warriors (the whole book) Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
• Better understand the culture and lifeways of the traditional Grand Valley Dani.
• Be able to describe the significance of Dani warfare.
• Better understand the patrilineal descent groups of the Dani.
• Understand the basic principles of the Big Man system.
• Describe the significance of ghosts within Dani traditional world view.
Discussion
This lesson focuses on the Grand Valley Dani (dah-nee) people of Highland New Guinea. Your primary
source for information on this group is the book by Karl Heider entitled: The Grand Valley Dani, Peaceful Warriors. This book is a case study in cultural anthropology. Also, if you can obtain a copy of the film Dead Birds,
I strongly recommend viewing it before or after reading this book. Karl Heider began his field work for this
monograph in 1961 working with the Harvard-Peabody Expedition, among the Dugum Dani of the Grand
Valley of the Balim River. After his initial work among the Dani in the 1960’s, Dr. Heider returned to visit
the Dani in 1968 and 1970, with a final return trip in 1988. This case study is succinct (some say oversimplified) and it does a good job of providing the reader with insight into the culture and lives of the Dani. Heider
himself admits that some of the behaviors he has observed are not satisfactorily explained in this study. This
in itself is refreshing, he is keeping open the possibilities for further study and re-examination of his interpretations which are presented for the reader. As you begin the case study, you should pay attention to his initial sections on how the field work was conducted and how the write-up process proceeded. Also think about the ethical dilemmas he reviews in the
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first chapter of the book. The study you are reading is the second edition. Heider returned in 1988 and used
his new observations to edit parts of his earlier work. He also added a final chapter reviewing recent change
(as well as continuity with their past) among the Dani since his initial field work more than 20 years earlier.
Begin this lesson by familiarizing yourself with the Grand Valley Dani. Where is New Guinea? How is the
Island divided politically? What does Papuan mean? Who are the Dani, the Jale’, the Western Dani, the
Southern Dani, and finally the Grand Valley Dani? As you read, feel free to consult other resources on the
environment, climate, and people of this huge island. If you do so, you will find that there is a great deal of
environmental and cultural diversity on this Island called New Guinea. The Grand Valley Dani are the main focus of Heider’s study—a group of related peoples who live in the
so called Grand Valley of the Balim River, and more specifically, he is studying a group of people living in
the Dugum Neighborhood, where about 350 Dani lived in 1960. This area is currently under the political
control of the Indonesian Government. The Grand Valley Dani are well known for their horticultural lifestyle (breeding and raising pigs and raising sweet potatoes) in the temperate valley of the Balim River. The
Dani were very isolated from outside influences until the 1950’s, living a traditional horticulturalist lifestyle
isolated from the coastal populations by huge swamps and densely forested mountains. They used basic but
efficient stone tool (axes and adzes) technologies that supported them very adequately well into the Twentieth
Century. These Dani live in a very fertile environment with only minimal seasonal variation. Their environment requires very little clothing, minimal shelter, and allows for year-round harvests, planting, and pig
husbandry. Because of the relatively benign environment they live in, and the potential for nearly year round
harvests, fairly large populations are supported with little or no formal need for storage.
The Dani were traditionally a pork and sweet potato people, their diet consisting of more than 90% sweet
potatoes and pork. Pigs are everywhere in Dani life. Every household has pigs, and pigs are exchanged
and eaten at various ceremonies and festivals throughout the year. As you will see reading Heider’s study,
a series of mutual obligations are developed through exchanges of pigs as they are killed and fed to people
at these feasts and ceremonies. When there are conflicts or social dilemmas, often times they involve pigs in
one way or another. The Dani of the Grand Valley developed a very sophisticated knowledge of pigs and pig
breeding through their years of practicing this adaptation, these people operated with a clear understanding
of various advantageous breeding techniques and they had a keen understanding of selective breeding and
manipulation, resulting in large healthy populations of pigs. The Dani traditionally used every part of the pig
for food and/or tools. They also exchange pigs with groups such as the Eastern Jale’ for forest products. As
for sweet potatoes, the Dani cultivated numerous varieties as well as more than 15 other species of plants
(but the sweet potato was by far the most important food species).
Territorial Organization
Social relationships are molded by several different variables, two of the most important being territorialbased memberships and descent-based memberships. Let’s start with the territorial units which each Dani
individual is a part of. Each Dani person is associated with a compound, a confederation, and an alliance. In
addition to these units, Heider describes a so-called “cluster” of compounds and a “neighborhood” consisting
of multiple clusters. These two later units seem to be classificatory units of Heider’s rather than the Dani’s. They vary and fluctuate widely and have no real significance to the Dani. In contrast, the compound, the confederation, and the alliance do have significant geographic and political meaning to the Dani. A compound
is similar to a household. It is composed of four main structures—a round men’s house, a smaller women’s
house, a square cook-house, and a pig sty (usually square). The structures are grouped together, facing an
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open common court yard which is used for daily life as well as some rituals. The compound is surrounded
by an outer perimeter fence, and the buildings are linked by inter-connecting fence as well, thus the unit is
enclosed. At least one nuclear family lives in a compound, and most often there are several different families
grouped with friends living within one of these compounds. Heider notes that one’s compound (place you
call home) could change and often did through time—there was no hard and fast rule dictating exactly who
comprised one of these units (which have economic meaning). Some might contain a single family and others, groups of 25 or more people, some of whom were directly related, and others who were merely affiliated
with the compound by choice. Most compounds had an elderly male leader, or Big Man, who had a set of followers or friends aligned with him. Many anthropologists have noted the high degree of flexibility in Dani
social relationships, and the variation in the compound constituents is a prime example of this social plasticity.
Above the compound level, the next unit with true meaning to the Dani is the confederation. Confederations
are territorial units which have a recognized boundary and which have a designated Big Man as a leader. As
with the compound, membership is flexible, and the structure and composition of these confederations clearly
evolves through time. The confederations are made up of compounds grouped together over a small subregion within the Dani territory. These units are not economic units as the compounds are, but instead territorial. Membership in a confederation is not necessarily permanent—as in other aspects of the Dani social
realm, territorial boundaries and membership are very flexible. This unit is small enough so that everyone
in the confederation knows everyone else and small enough that conflicts within this unit are usually solved
peacefully using discussion and consensus. The confederation (in contrast to the larger “alliance”) is not usually split by warfare or combat.
One final step up the territorial organizational chart among the Dani brings us to the “alliances.” Alliances are
the largest recognized political and social unit in Dani society. Alliances are made up of multiple confederations which occupy a defined piece of land. Thus the alliances have recognized boundaries and the bordering alliances are separated from one another by small strips of neutral territory described by Heider as “no
mans land.” Before pacification (the end of ritual and secular warfare instituted by the Indonesian Government), wars were fought between alliances. The Dani wars described in your text and portrayed in several
ethnographic films (the most famous being “Dead Birds,”) were fought between Dani Alliances. Alliances
were named after the alliance big man (the highest ranking big man of all the confederation big men). You
will read in detail about the so-called “pig feast.” This major event was also celebrated by an entire alliance,
sponsored and organized by the alliance big man every five years. Thus the periodic pig feast and warfare
were the two primary functions of the alliance level of organization. The Heider text discusses all of these
territorial units in greater detail. Examine the maps and figures Heider has included which demonstrate diagramatically some of the territorial relationships he describes.
Kinship and Marriage
The other general realm of social relationships that Dani people recognize is the descent-based level of organization. The Dani recognize several different levels of descent groups which they are apart of. The Dani
reckon kinship patrilineally. Each person belongs to a lineage, a sib (like clans), and a moiety, and one’s membership in these groups is traced patrilineally. Each Dani person belongs to a patrilineal sib, and each sib belongs to one of the two moieties. When Heider conducted his study there were about 50 different sibs among
the Grand Valley, but most of the Dugum neighborhood belonged to one of five major sibs (although there
were 24 different sibs represented in the Neighborhood when he was studying this area). You should have a
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Lesson 14
ing of these various descent groups, or if any of the terminology is causing you difficulties. Remember that
these descent groups are non-territorial, they cross-cut confederations and even alliances. The individual sibs
are associated with a fictional ancestor of sorts, usually a bird or mammal (a totem of sorts). The Dani sibs
serve to regulate marriage (sibs are exogamous) and they serve to hold sacred objects which are held in common by sib members and which are used in localized ceremonies by big men and/or other sib leaders.
There are two exogamous patrilineal moieties among the Dani, the Wida & Waija. You’ll remember from our
earlier studies that there are always only two moieties, and when present they divide society basically in-half,
and they define who you can and can not marry. The moiety exogamy rule is very rarely violated among
the Dani. One unique variation in the moiety system among the Dani is their practice whereby all children
are born into Wida moiety regardless of their father’s moiety, then later the boys whose fathers are Waija go
through a special initiation into the Waija just before they reach puberty—a kind of delayed action patrilineal
principle. This practice is interesting for several different reasons. See if you can come up with a few questions about this issue prior to reading Heider, and then see how well he explores and answers your areas of
greatest interest. By the time marriage roles around, this anomaly is not really a factor, as all people of marriageable age are split nearly 50/50 into the two moieties.
Marriage among the Dani is polygamous. Men can and do marry multiple females. Read over Heider’s
discussions of marriage and focus on the questions he has regarding potential imbalance in the number of
bachelor males versus married males. How does it work? How come there are not a bunch of permanent
bachelors around? In general Heider argues that because women can marry about five years before men can,
and because the number of eligible males is reduced by deaths from war and raiding, there are not the major
imbalances one might predict. There seems to be no consistent post-marriage residence pattern among the
Dani. Most often people marry within the same confederation, but not always. Often newly-weds join their
parents compound for a while and then move a bit latter and start a new compound or align themselves with
another. The pattern is truly quite variable. In addition to the issue of marriage, Heider struggles with the apparent lack of sexual competition among the people he was studying. In the end he suggests that the Dani do
not show much concern for sexuality. They traditionally practiced postpartum sexual abstinence for a period
of five years. This abstinence was enforced by ghosts, and according to Heider, was adhered to fairly consistently.
Leadership and Decision Making
We’ve talked a bit already about the so called big men. What are these guys? How is their power and influence manifest? Do big men have ultimate authority to lead people, or do people choose to follow these
leaders? As you explore these issues, you will discover that the big man leads by influence not power, that
is his leadership is, in a sense, informal—he has no power to coerce his followers, and his leadership status
must be constantly validated. Status among the Dani is achieved rather than ascribed. Big men are not chiefs
or kings who inherit their positions, but instead individuals who achieve their positions. Dani society is very
egalitarian—almost any body can be a big man. Only a few individuals, the so-called Gepu or rubbish men,
can’t potentially achieve bigmanship.
The relative rank of a big man is measured by one’s wealth, skill, and generosity. Most Dani men have some
degree of wealth and therefore have some influence at some level of society. Lesser big men can organize
smaller work groups and gradually work to improve their status. As a man becomes more and more influential, he can organize bigger and bigger actions. These “actions” range across a spectrum from planting a
sweet potato garden, to hosting a funeral, to organizing a guard group, to leading a raid.
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The Dani system of leadership is very fluid. A man could move from being relatively low rank all the way
to an alliance big man in a matter of 10 or 15 years. Your status as a big man increased as you were able to
kill enemies, acquire and support wives, and build up your stocks of pigs. Aggressiveness is not an important trait in males, but cleverness and extreme competence are key to enhanced status. The most successful
big men are skilled in manipulating exchange systems, and have enhanced their ties that were established
through strategic exchanges (e.g. giving and receiving pigs and shell goods at funerals). In general these
guidelines are the informal criteria by which ones status as a big man is judged.
Conflict and Warfare
Most intra-confederation conflict resolution is approached through informal meetings of big men who
discuss a given problem or accusation and who then propose some form of resolution to the problem often
recommending some form of restitution to be paid to the aggrieved party. Heider points out that outward
conflict within the confederation is rare, and that the Dani tend to withdraw from problems rather than make
a big scene. There is clearly a big difference between intra- and inter- alliance and confederation conflicts within confederations there can occasionally be brawls and even death but such conflicts are quite rare. Usually these are
disagreements between individuals which escalate into “just fighting” feuds, which never really blow up
into anything major. In stark contrast, conflict among alliances can escalate to full scale warfare as described
in detail by Heider.
Heider describes Dani warfare as being comprised of two phases, the so-called secular phase, and the ritual
phase. During the early 1960’s, every Dani alliance was constantly at war with one of its neighboring alliances. What is certain is that every one in Dani society was touched by war in one way or another. People were
always alert for surprise attacks and enemy raids. Heider points out that most people witnessed spearing
deaths sometime during their lives, and it was fairly common for a man to have killed (or have helped kill) a
man during his lifetime. Warfare among the Dani was cyclical. At some point there would be a brief outburst of violence (secular phase), followed by multiple year long involvement in formal battle (ritual phase of
warfare).
Most of Heider’s attention is focused on the so-called ritual phase of warfare. Battles are described as formal events whereby alliances “battle” in well defined places at well defined times. These battles are choreographed in a sense, in that they are planned out, and that there is well defined and agreed upon stage on
which the battles are conducted. These ritual battles involve hundreds of men, usually occur at midday, and
are fought at one of the “no mans lands” between alliance territorial boundaries. Battles are sponsored by an
alliance Big Man. First he would call a battle. The night before he holds a special rediness ceremony where
weapons are sharpened and the men are mentally prepared. A pig would normally be killed and men are
fed while the aid of ghosts is enlisted. The sponsor sends a message up towards the front with a challenge to
the enemy, and when the challenge is accepted by the big man in the opposite alliance, a battlefield is agreed
upon. This information spreads quickly across the alliance, and the details of where and when the battle will
be are known quite quickly. Soldiers were armed with either spears (spearmen) or bow & arrows (bowmen), with the arrows being
tipped with a nasty goop to help cause infection if they hit their mark. Although most men in the alliances attend these ritual battles, not every Dani man went, and Heider points out that there was not really any social
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Lesson 14
pressure to go. Young boys (8-10 years old) go along to carry supplies and weapons for men, and to learn the
ways of the warrior, they do not fight until they are older. On the day of the battle, most men are at the battle field by 10 A.M. (they assemble out of site then make a
noisy colorful entrance en mass). The actual battle commences about noon with lots of taunting, whooping,
and verbal intimidation leading up to the first physical combat. Battles usually last about two or three hours
on and off, with lines of attack getting closer and closer. Lots of arrows were shot but very few ever hit anyone. The spearmen and bowmen work in concert, a bowman tries to bring a man down so that the spearman
can move in and finish him off. During these battles there are not really many folks injured or killed. They
were definitely dangerous to be a part of, but statistically you were not at much risk. Mainly these battles
were exhilarating and exciting. Heider points out that even though guns were available, they were not used
in these ritual battles, nor did the bowmen shoot in volleys, for example, to maximize their effectiveness. Another words, the primary purpose of these battles was not so much to kill a large number of people (killing is
only one tiny function), but instead to communicate with ancestors and to placate ghosts.
In contrast to these highly ritualized battles, the secular raids that occurred were quite different. These were
rare, short-lived and often caused a kind of scrambling up of the confederation and alliance boundaries. During these violent secular battles, women and children could theoretically be killed, pigs were often stolen,
and sometimes compounds were burned. Raiding was not common, but occurred enough that people were
clearly aware of the threat. Raids usually involved small groups of men hiking into enemy territory to kill by
surprise attack. Because of this threat, most compounds were alert and everyone was on the lookout for such
raids. Usually these raids were thwarted, but on occasion, a lone man in a garden was killed. Raids were not
conducted at night. Defense from raids was implemented using scouts, and guard towers. The support of
ghosts was also solicited. The Dani defensive strategy can be viewed as a kind of combination of technological accomplishments and magical devices used to protect people. As noted, ghosts were always solicited for
defensive and offensive support.
The Role of Ghosts in Dani Warfare
If you’ve read Heider’s work, you know that when Dani people die, their ghosts remain in the vicinity and
are a potential cause of trouble for survivors. In contrast, in warfare ghosts can be induced to assist in battle
against the enemy. Ghosts can be “sent” over to the enemy side, and they pick out a person that is to be
killed. Dani weapons are helped by the ghosts in a sense. One of the reasons Dani warfare was cyclical
related to ghosts. When someone was killed in war, his ghost hangs around until a counterpart enemy has
been killed. This belief creates a kind of a snowball retaliation effect, where by energy builds in war as it
progresses. Thus the main goal was not necessarily a one for one retribution for deaths, but instead, an effort
at placating ghosts. Heider is describing warfare as ritual because, in a sense, it is a kind of communication with the ghosts rather than a true effort at killing people, or wiping out the enemy. As a matter of fact,
if a single enemy death was caused, this represented a kind of ritualized victory for which a two day victory
dance was held.
Dani wars never really came to an official end, they seemed to just evolve through time. Often the dynamics,
composition, and territorial boundaries of the alliance evolved enough to make the parties less clearly defined, and this resulted in a re-contexting of the ritual battles. There were always ghosts to be placated, thus
the “need” for battle was always there. There really were not that many people killed in warfare as a total
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As you discover by reading Heider’s epilogue, since pacification has been implemented by the Indonesian
government, the ritual phase of Dani warfare is over. On occasion tempers still flare and the secular activities appear briefly, but for the most part the warrior part of Dani identity is changed. As one might imagine,
this has had and is having a major effect on the Dani people and their culture. Heider discusses some of the
implications of this and other changes he observed during his return to the central highlands of New Guinea
in his chapter entitled “Return to the Dani, 1988.” You should read this section carefully and think about the
impact these changes are having on the Dani culture and way of life.
Religion and Ritual
Pay close attention to Heider’s section on religion and ritual, as this is an important focus of his work. It is
critical that you understand the Dani conception of ghosts, what Mogat is and how it leaves the body. As we
have already intimated, ghosts do both good and evil things. Ghosts lurk around at night, they don’t hurt
children or pigs because they “feel sorry for them,” and they need to constantly be placated. Special ghost
houses are built around the perimeter of the clusters to lure ghosts away from people. In a sense both war
fare and funerals are aimed at the placation of ghosts.
In addition to Mogat, you should understand the importance of the concept of Edai-egen within the realm of
Dani world view. Edai-egen is everyone’s essence or soul matter, and it is critical that is be protected from
ghosts. One’s well being lies in the state of one’s Edai-eden. If it is small or twisted, there is a problem and
such problems are usually said to be caused by ghosts. Healing often involves attempting to improve one’s
Edai-egen by driving away the ghosts. Wusa is another important spiritual concept which students should
be familiarized with. Wusa is power, and it is dangerous if not handled properly. Corpses have wusa, war
trophies have wusa, and it is important that people wash themselves after they have handled such things so
that they can “cut the wusa.”
Funerals are described in great detail in Heider’s work as well, and the entire process of funeral ritual is
clearly tied intimately to many of the concepts of religion and warfare we have reviewed thus far. Read over
this material carefully and be able to answer the following questions: What are the stages of Dani funerals
and how do different stages function? How long do Dani funerals last? What is a fresh blood funeral? Who
handles the corpse and how is it cremated? How do pigs, shell bands, steam bundles, and ghosts come
into play at funerals? What was the extraordinary practice of “finger mutilation,” and what was its function
within the context of a Dani funeral? What is the “carrying of the Je Stones”, and how does this ritual fit into
the funeral process? What part of the funeral occurs at the major alliance-wide pig feast which is held every
five or so years, and what are the functions of this final phase of Dani funerals?
Pig Feasts
You should also read carefully Heider’s description of the great Pig Feasts. These fascinating feasts which
occur approximately every five years, included several different complex ceremonies packed into one major
celebration. The pig feasts represent a intensified ritual/ceremonial period during which weddings, initiations (to the Waija moiety), and the final phase of funerals are implemented. These alliance-wide festivities are planned for years in advance. Organized by the alliance big man, these feasts culminate in a great slaughtering of pigs (hundreds and sometimes thousands!). As you read over this material, focus on the intricate series of gift exchanges which occur at the pig feasts and which are mapped out well in advance of
the festivities. You will see that these gift exchanges help cement the initiations and marriages, and are an
important part of these rituals. The “cutting of the pig skins,” the final phase of all funerals also is described
in great detail for you. As you read over Heider’s discussion of this aspect of the pig feast, keep in mind that
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Lesson 14
this terminal phase of the funerals represents a final placation of the ghosts. Remember that customs must be
understood within the context that they are practiced. When this is done, you will see a kind of coherent logic
that helps fit these rituals to the Dani world view that they are a part of.
The Dani Today
As you read over Heider’s final thoughts after his return in 1988, focus on what’s changed since the 1960’s,
and, most importantly, what the implications of these changes are for the Dani people and their culture. A
few of the changes to think about include the changes in leadership as a result of the influence of Indonesian government; why men have even more leisure time now and the effect of that change; the pacification process and the virtual end of warfare; the implications for male roles given pacification; the impact of modernization; the changes in crops grown; the economic implications of their traditional economy versus
a wage labor and cash economy; the missionary efforts and the impacts of Christianity; and finally, changes
in sexual division of labor and the roles of women and men. Keep these thoughts in mind as you watch the
next video which deals some with modernization, and as you read over and think about lesson 16 which
deals with the very issue of culture change.
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
REMINDER
You will have to submit your completed
project before submitting Lesson 17 !!
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
•Wida & Waija moieties
• Finger mutilation
• Edai-egen • confederation & alliance
• Mogat
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. Discuss leadership, decision making, and rank among the Grand Valley Dani with a special focus on the
Big Men as leaders. 2. Describe the Grand Valley Dani’s traditional beliefs about ghosts. What is the significance of ghosts
within the context of daily life.
3. Explain and describe the process of traditional Dani funerals from death till pig feast. What are the different functions of funerals?
4. Briefly discuss Dani warfare. Why does Heider call the Dani the “peaceful warriors”?
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Review
Key Terms & Concepts For Review:
Dani horticulture
big man system
Dani descent groups
Dani residence patterns
Wida & Waija moieties
Finger mutilation
compound
confederation
alliance
Dead Birds
cluster
neighborhood
Edai-egen
Wusa Mogat
Pig feasts
funerals
cutting of the pig skins
ritual phase of warfare
secular phase of warfare
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L 15
Lesson 15
esson
Video Reaction Paper
Viewings
View the Millennium Series video: “Touching the Timeless” Discussion
This episode explores tribal world view and modernization/secularization. This video visits the Huichol
people of Mexico on their annual pilgrimage to collect Peyote, the sacred food of the gods, as well as the
house of a Navajo Medicine Man who invites the spirits into his house through sand painting, chanting, and
“walking in beauty.” Finally, the episode explores the process of modernization and how it can be viewed in
many ways as secularization. Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
AS A REMINDER:
You MUST submit your completed project before submitting Lesson 17 !!
Very briefly describe the video, then compose an essay which details your reaction to the video by responding
to the following question or questions:
What does it mean to find one’s place in the cosmos? What are the different ways that Western societies and Tribal Cultures seek to elevate their lives from the ordinary world into the extraordinary?
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L 16
Lesson 16
eson
Culture Change
Readings
• We The Alien: Pages 255-298
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
• Be able to explain why studying culture change is important to anthropologists.
• Understand the processes of culture change.
• Be able to describe how a new innovation might be accepted by a group.
Discussion
We might start by asking the question: why is the study of culture change important to anthropologists today? Many anthropologists focus on change and assert that that’s really what culture is all about—in essence
a response or adaptation to external stimuli. One of the biggest dilemmas that cultures face is the paradox
between needing cultural traditions and rules for survival on the one hand, but at the same time needing to
change and adapt to survive on the other. Some of the questions you should ponder for this lesson are: Why
do cultures change? And, how do they change, that is, what are the mechanisms of culture change? The real
issue here is process as opposed to content.
Many anthropologists prefer to look at culture as a verb rather than a noun, that is to look at culture as an ongoing process rather than something that is standing still. So your task this lesson is to think about process. Rather than asking what it is, you need to ask how does it work ? The fact is that culture is dynamic, not static. This reality is one of the things that makes understanding a people or a culture a formidable task for the social
scientist. It is apparent that cultures need to change, that is culture change is not something that occurs for
random reasons at random times, but instead changes occur because change is required. Why do cultures
need to change? Well for one, the world changes, and if we are to survive as human cultures, often times we
must change. If we take a broad look at the animal kingdom, the most resilient species are those that are able
to adapt to environmental change. We can loosely apply the same concept to different human groups, those
cultures that are able to stay flexible, and that are able to deal with changes in their physical and social environment, tend to be the best adapted and most long lived cultures.
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Lesson 16
In addition to change, it is also important to look at cultural persistence. Why do certain beliefs or practice
persist despite pressures to change? Can you have culture change without some culture persistence? Not really, though all cultures are changing, moving, and adapting, persistence of certain aspects of their culture is
also significant. Quite basically, any given culture, at any given time will be made up of ways of doing things
and thinking that are partly changing and partly persisting. Given this observation, it becomes important to
understand cultural persistence as well as change if we are to understand the dynamics of culture. As you
look at a given culture and try to understand it, one of the general questions you are asking is: why do certain
cultural elements change, and others persist? Some anthropologists have concluded that culture changes most often begin with an individual who is presented with some new situation and, for one reason or another, assesses the situation and accepts or rejects
a change. Each individual in a given culture carries with him a cultural template as well as an individual
mind-set for interpreting the world. Some specialists who look at culture change argue that individual deviations from cultural norms are the source of culture change and should therefore be the focus of culture change
studies. Other anthropologists focus on the interactions between different socialcultural systems and the
effects they have on each other. Socialcultural systems act upon each other as stimuli for change. This process
of interaction is called acculturation, or change resulting from interaction between two socialcultural systems
that are in contact. When one system is larger and more powerful than the other and dominates vis-a-vis its
influence, eventually absorbing the minority, this is referred to as assimilation. You may have come across
discussions of assimilative pressures put on various indigenous cultures in the world. As you might imagine,
there are many different mechanisms by which cultures change. These include the processes of acculturation and assimilation, as well as other important mechanisms like innovation, diffusion, and modernization. Cultures can also change through the abandonment of certain practices which are not in turn replaced. Each
of these mechanisms of change has attracted academic attention of varying degrees throughout the last two or
three decades, and at some point each of these mechanisms has been the central focus of one or more models which attempt to account for the processes of culture change among human populations worldwide. Louise
Spindler (1977) proposes several different “mini-models” which attempt to account for culture change using
the processes of acculturation, innovation, diffusion, and modernization (as well as others). Some of the
information Spindler reviews is explained in the paragraphs that follow.
Innovation (or invention) is the process by which people invent or discover things. Primary innovations are
new principles or discoveries, for example discovering the fact that firing clay in a hearth or kiln hardens it. Secondary innovations make use of these primary discoveries, for example inventing functional vessels, e.g.
modeling the clay into various utilitarian objects before it is fired. Some scholars argue that innovation is the
most important aspect to focus on when we are looking at the processes of culture change. It has been argued
that since innovation or invention is really a basic source of change, it should be the primary model for examining culture change. The focus of an innovation model is on the newness of a given trait and on the creative
process involved in producing it. It is clear that innovation is a universal human process. Different cultures
are said to innovate more or less in certain areas of concern. Proponents of an innovation model argue that
the area that is most critical to a people and that is therefore a central cultural focus, often times is the area
within that culture where receptivity to innovation is high. In America technological innovation is important,
in some parts of Africa cattle raising is very important thus we see numerous innovations relating to cattle
pasturalism and animal husbandry in general. Some argue that even reworking diffused ideas is an innovative process, and it is therefore innovation that is the key to all change. page 94
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Lesson 16
Another interesting question regarding innovation is: how are innovations spread within a culture? This is a
critical process to think about because when an innovation becomes accepted, culture change has occurred.
Most innovations actually never become accepted, and are instead discarded as impractical or maladaptive. While it is obviously impossible to predict exactly whether an innovation will be accepted or rejected by a
given group, we can look to see if several key preconditions are met which might suggest that the innovation
is more likely to be accepted than one without these conditions. If an innovation exhibits the following general traits, it might be a candidate for cultural acceptance: 1) individuals in a culture can assign some meaning
to the innovation within the context of that culture; 2) it is in some way comparable with existing experience; 3) individuals are able to feel that the value gained from the innovation outweighs any trade-off or lost value;
and, 4) the idea behind the innovation is easily communicable or demonstrable (in other words, the more
abstract an innovation the less likely it will be adopted). As you learn about and uncover various innovations
which have been accepted, think about why they may have been adopted within a given cultural milieu.
Diffusion is another important mechanism through which cultures change. The diffusion process is a way in
which people acquire new adaptations through borrowing from other groups. Diffusion is essentially a kind
of cultural borrowing across both time and space from neighbors near and far. While issues of innovation and
acculturation are clearly related to diffusion, the processes are separate. The innovative process is a different
behavior than the diffusion process. Some culture change specialists like to focus on diffusion as the central
theme in a model for explaining culture change. Since diffusion represents borrowing ideas from other cultures, one of the first areas of concern within the framework of a diffusion model is: how and why are ideas
accepted or rejected? Another issue considered is: what happens to ideas after they have been accepted, are
they accepted exactly as is, or are they further modified? It is clear that most diffused ideas and technologies
are modified to some degree by the receiving group. When individuals in a system give the borrowed trait a
new interpretation this is called reinterpretation. Sometimes, the meaning of the new trait is combined with
existing ideas regarding the trait in the recipient’s group. This kind of blending process is called syncretization. There are numerous examples throughout the world of ideas which have been passed among cultures
and then subsequently modified and reinterpreted to fit the cultural system of their new home as it were. As
a student in this course, you should look for such examples as you read over anthropological materials, and
as you think about your own cultural system. In the end, many anthropologists dismiss the diffusion model
as weak from an explanatory stand point. They argue that while it is obvious that most technologies, ideas,
and traits originate somewhere outside one’s own group (some estimates go as high as 90% of a cultures content), it is the process within the culture (again we return to the issue of accepting or rejecting a “new” idea)
that effects culture change. Take a moment and read back over the excerpt on page 53 and 54 of this syllabus
in reference to the diffusion mini-model. Acculturation is another significant area of concern for social scientists studying the processes of culture
change. You’ll recall that acculturation refers to reciprocal changes that develop out of contact between individuals from two or more different socialcultural systems. A model using acculturation as its central focus
emphasizes the changes that result from direct contact between two or more systems. In today’s world, there
are numerous situations where individuals from two different cultural systems find themselves in contact,
thus this area of study has attracted quite a bit of attention of late. Of concern here are the relative size,
power, and status, of the systems in contact, as well as the number of individuals actually in contact, and the
degree to which individuals have or do not have a “choice” regarding change. As people in a given system
are exposed to individuals in a different system with different ideas, they can have numerous reactions. Individuals might accept the ideas and emulate the other system’s ideas or technologies. People might resist the
different ideas, and in effect put up a barrier of resistance to change. Individuals might not care either way,
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Lesson 16
exhibiting a kind of apathy regarding the differences. Another reaction is to blend or mix their own meanings
with those of the different system they are exposed to (again a form of syncretization). If acculturative change
occurs without the support of the people adopting the new items, this is called forced acculturation (some use
the term assimilation which I would view more as total absorption of a less dominant group by a more dominant group). The all too frequent examples of forced acculturation have brought forward a series of reactions
from recipient populations ranging from begrudging acceptance to out and out revolt. The acculturation
model of change does not assume assimilation (although this may be a common end result, it certainly does
not have to be). The model instead views acculturation as a kind of adaptive strategy for survival in which
individuals in one cultural system may “choose” a form of biculturalism; may re-affirm traditional values; or,
may synthesize the two conflicting systems to emerge in a newly defined system. Finally, modernization and urbanization are phenomena which have been, and continue to be looked at in
studies of culture change. “Modernization,” though certainly a subjective and value-laden term, has come
in anthropological circles to refer to the global process of culture and socioeconomic change through which
developing societies seek to acquire the characteristics of more technologically advanced and industrial
societies. The contemporary modernization/urbanization models of culture change tend to focus on individuals as members of preliterate or peasant cultural systems adapting to the urban scene through direct
contact. The concept of modernization is also used in referring to rural peoples who learn (through exposure
to mass media or other agents of change) how to become technologically “modern.” Most changes towards
modernization are viewed amicably as “good” changes, regardless of the fact that most modernization leads
to various kinds of culture loss as certain customs are left behind. One problem with modernization is that
expectations in the modernizing group can go way beyond reality, thus leaving a void that is not easily filled. The modernization model focuses most on the changes that occur in the cultures themselves, and most importantly, in the individuals’ minds as the result of the technological revolution, rather than on the technological
changes themselves. One of the fascinating aspects of modernization is the study of persistence. Persistence
of established values and beliefs occurs right along with even the most dramatic technological modernization,
thus it is important not to dwell on the relative negative or positive value of such change, but instead focus on
the creative and unique ways that groups are meeting the changing technological landscapes.
The bottom line for anthropologists studying culture change is looking at process rather than structure. Cultures change via the processes we’ve discussed thus far, and others which are discussed in your text book. As
cultures change bit by bit, they are gradually going down a path of cultural evolution. When people are faced
with new conditions (social, economic, political, environmental) they must adjust to the conditions they are
exposed to, or their cultures may perish. People’s struggles to adjust and survive have been going on since
humans developed the capacity for culture. These struggles will likely continue on and on into the future as
new conditions present themselves. As long as cultures change, anthropologists and others will be fascinated
with understanding the multifaceted processes that allow our cultures to evolve and to ultimately survive.
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Lesson 16
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
REMINDER: You will have to submit your completed
project before submitting Lesson 17 !!
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• acculturation
• diffusion
• innovation
• action chains
• cultural evolution
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. It is said that cultures are dynamic, not static. In your opinion, why do cultures change? Also, how do
they change, that is, what are the mechanisms of change? Provide examples of changes that you can find
in the readings or from you own experience.
2. Discuss the processes of human invention. Why or when do humans invent things? What are some of the
challenges to which humans respond by inventing new culture. Successful inventions often lead to the
need for additional inventions. List some examples of technological inventions that have gone through
these kinds of sequences.
3. Discuss the concept of assimilation or forced (implicitly or explicitly) acculturation. What kinds of things
happen when a dominant and/or technologically “superior” culture comes in contact with a smaller
less powerful group? What are some of the possible outcomes of such a situation? What are the possible reactions? Use some historical or contemporary examples of expansion and colonialism to support
your ideas. What do you believe should happen when one group dominates the culture and lifeways of
another?
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Lesson 16
Review
Key Terms & Concepts For Review:
acculturation
diffusion
innovation
modernization/urbanization
reinterpretation
syncretization
Spindler
mini-model
action chains
trajectory
social trap
culture pool
cycle
culture crest
cultural evolution
Your Project is Due Now !
Due Before Submitting Lesson 17
Attach a regular cover sheet to the project
and label it clearly as “PROJECT”
Be sure to include a bibliography listing ALL sources you consulted in completing your project. Failure to do so will result in
a reduced grade and may result in a plagiarism inquiry.
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L 17
Lesson 17
esson
Anthropology in Today’s World & Course
Summary
Readings
• We The Alien: Pages 299—318
Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should:
• Understand what applied anthropology is and be able to provide examples.
• Be able to describe what medical anthropology is and provide some examples of research that medical anthropologists might be involved with.
• Understand the major tasks of Visionary Anthropology.
• Be able to reflect back and summarize some basic areas of human culture that have become more
clear having gone through this course.
Discussion
As we come to the final lesson of this course it is time to considevtr how anthropology can help you as you
go forward in your pursuits, and how anthropologists in general can apply their trade in a way that helps
humankind as a whole. Over the last few decades, a whole sector of anthropology has emerged which has
been labeled applied anthropology. Moving away from the purely academic social scientific approach to
research, applied anthropologists have been hired for various kinds of proactive assistance as it were. The
basic premise for such work is that anthropologists know quite a bit about how human groups have survived
through time, and they understand many of the complex cultural processes of group dynamics, enculturation,
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Lesson 17
the world across both time and space, and hopefully this course has helped instill in you a greater
sense of respect for the differences across the globe.
• Specifically, you should have better insight into the Peoples of the Far north, the People of Japan, the
Dani People of New Guinea, and some increased awareness regarding people in the contemporary
United States.
• You should understand that anthropology provides us with a kind of stereoscopic vision about cultural matters. That is to say, it allows us not only to admit that there are many ways to do things, but
it can put several of them into focus at once. The “comparative attitude” in anthropology is the best
known device for overcoming ethnocentrism.
• You should now have a basic understanding for human adaptation in general: a glimpse at how
humans interact directly within their respective environments—the relationships among the plants
animals and ecological regime which have brought forth the cultural manifestations we have examined.
• You should realize that human beings, like all other animals, must derive a living from the environment they reside in. Both technological tools as well as social tools assist us in surviving in a given
environment. Sexual division of work is one of the primary means for organizing society. Other
specialist groups, from hunting groups to modern corporations, also perform these tasks.
• You should have a greater sense of the importance of language and communication to humans. Both the universal aspects and the unique aspects of communication and language across the world.
• You should understand the differences among the concepts of culture, personality society, and the
individual.
• You should now better appreciate the cross cultural variation in what a “family” is and what a “marriage” is and what a “household” is, and you should realize that these concepts are viewed differently
among different peoples in the world.
• You should better grasp the functions of the human family. The human family is a uniquely human
organization for mating and raising children to the age of reproduction, and it is a highly efficient
group. The human family can theoretically satisfy all organizational aspects, but in larger societies,
other specialist groups usually take over tasks that the human family cannot adequately perform
in large groups. Although the number of tasks that are culturally assigned to a family is often times
small in larger societies, families remain important social units even in large highly complex socialcultural settings.
• You should certainly be aware of the all encompassing importance of kinship and descent as organizing principles in peoples lives. It should be completely clear to you after having taken this class that
there are lots of different kinship reckoning systems and many different terminological systems across
the world.
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Lesson 17
• You should know that kinship is a fundamental organizational tool in many human groups. Because
we are mammals, the mother-child bond is the most important single relationship in human life. Extension of kinship to include the father is rare to nonexistent among other mammals yet in humans,
the father-child relationship is a significant part of human culture. Extension of kinfolk recognition
to kinfolk well beyond the parent-child relationships is the basis of several different kinds of descent
groups we discussed. These specialist groups, such as lineages and clans, can perform economic,
political and religious tasks that are too large for the family alone to perform. Descent groups often
disappear when societies reach larger scale.
• You should better grasp the idea that in the processes of cultural evolution, as power is controlled
and used in larger and larger groups, social and economic stratification appears. Clearly the power
distinctions that underlie specialized institutions of government themselves create significant power
inequalities. Any idea of inequality can be expanded to the point of absurdity. These distinctions
simplify social life, but may also provide the basis for some of the most pervasive social traps in the
world.
• You should now have a better understanding of what economics are to an anthropologist and the
many different means of distribution /production /exchange/ reciprocity/etc.
• You should have some new insights regarding religion and magic. You should be able to better
explain what religion is and what is considered magic. You should also know more regarding why people seek spiritual explanations, and why world view and spirituality are so deeply intertwined
within peoples lives.
• In more general terms it is hoped that you have learned a little more about how to read, watch, and
listen to anthropological materials—you hopefully could more critically assess some of the ideas and
theories put forth by social scientists. You certainly should have a better idea of the things anthropologists choose to research and focus on, and how they present their data in books, articles, movies,
and other mediums of information exchange.
• You should now better appreciate the diversity of opinion that exists within the anthropological community and within even your own communities. It is hoped that through your reading and through
your written responses that you’ve come to discover that there are many different ways to approach
issues and no one single perspective is proper or correct. Personal note from the instructor:
In the end, I hope that the course has helped stimulate your curiosity about the world you live in, and about the
rich diversity of traditions, beliefs, and lifestyles different people have chosen to follow. I hope you’ll pursue
these curiosities throughout your careers and your lives. I also hope you’re getting your three university credits
out of the course (if you are reading this lesson, you most likely are!), and that you were truly satisfied with the
course, gaining some useful insight regarding people and the way they survive. Good luck and good bye! I
hope you’ve enjoyed taking this correspondence course, and that you have learned something about yourself
and about the people of the world along the way. ANTH 100x
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Lesson 17
Don’t forget your lesson cover sheet provided with course materials.
Assignment
Have you submitted your completed project ? If not, do not submit this lesson yet. If you have, then complete this lesson and the final exam, and your course requirements will have been met! Congratulations!
Identify and explain the following terms, concepts, or persons in reference to the course:
• applied anthropology
• medical anthropology
• visionary anthropology
• Dr. Allen Bromley
Respond to the following questions in concise well-written essays:
1. Looking back over what you’ve read, listened to, watched, and written, pick a topic or an area and devise
a project (real or fictional) for which you would like to be hired as an applied anthropologist. Describe
the applied research that you would be involved in. What kinds of ethical problems might arise in your
research, and what solutions to these problems might you offer. Have some fun and learn something.
2. It has been said that as humans worldwide enter the twenty-first century, they will be living in several
cultures, not just one. What is your reaction to this thought. Do you agree or disagree. Why? If you
agree, how do you think people will deal with these multiple cultures? Can you think of examples
where people are living in more than one culture at a time? If so, explain.
3. Name at least three aspects of anthropology (examined in this course) which you feel have contributed
(or could contribute) to your understanding of yourself as well as your understanding of other people.
Explain why these aspects are important to you as an individual. Which aspects (different or the same)
do you think provide special insight into the cultural future of humankind? Why?
After you have finished all of your course work,
including the project, you’ll be ready for the final exam.
See the introduction and Lesson 1 for more information.
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ANTH 100x
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during business hours to take your exam.)
You have been designated as a proctor for Independent Learning examinations.
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concerned that prospective proctors understand their responsibilities and agree to ensure
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Proctors must be education officials at a university, community college or an administrator at a public school site or library, other governmental or community officials, or if, such
persons are unavailable, other people approved in advance by contacing UAF eLearning &
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• security of the sealed examination until it is opened in the student’s presence at the beginning of the examination session;
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within supervisory distance of the proctor;
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Please sign the student’s Examination Request Form before s/he returns it to our office and
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1. If you live in the Fairbanks area there is no need to complete this form. Come to our office
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2. Select an approved testing site and arrange an appointment with an eligible individual to
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3. Send this request form in a pre-paid envelope provided with course materials or to:
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PLEASE PRINT OR TYPE
Student Name: _______________________________________________________________
ANTH F100x
UY3
Final Exam
Course No: __________________ Section No: ________ Examination No: _______________
Individual, Society, and Culture
Course Title: _________________________________________________________________
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Bibliography
Bibliography
Bohannan, Paul
1992 We the Alien; An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press.
1992 Discovering The Alien; A Workbook in Cultural Athropology. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press.
Befu, Harumi
“Hands Across the Rim,” Conversations with Susan McGinnus, KUAC-FM.
Harris, Marvin
1993  Culture, People, Nature; an Introduction to General Anthropology. New York: Harper Collins.
Haviland, William
1993  Cultural Anthropology. Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Heider, Karl
1991 Grand Valley Dani: The Gentle Warriors. Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovhich, Inc.
Hendry, Joy,
1992  Understanding Japanese Society. Florence: Routledge Chapman.
Frazer, Sir James George
1911-15 The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. London: Macmillan.
Lewin, Roger
1993  Human Evolution; An Illustrated Introduction. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Linton, Ralph
1936 The Study of Man. New York: Appleton-Century.
Maybury-Lewis, David
1992  Milleium; Tribal Wisdom in the Modern World. New York: Viking Penguin.
Nelson, Richard
1980   Shadow of the Hunter. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1983  The Athabaskans; People of Alaska’s Interior. Fairbanks Alaska: University of Alaska Museum.
PBS Vido
Millennium Series.
Reischauer, Edwin O.
1988  The Japanese Today; Change and Continuity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Spindler, Louise S.
1977 Culture Change and Modernization : Mini-models and Case Studies. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Spradley, James P. and D. W. McCurdy
1989  Anthropology; The Cultural Perspective. Illinois: Waveland Press.
1990  Conformity and Connflict; Readings in Cultural Anthropology. Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company.
Toelken, Barre
1979   The Dynamics of Folklore. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
“Folklore” Conversations with Susan McGinnus, KUAC-FM.
Wallace, Anthony
1966  Religion: An Anthropologial View. New York: Random House.
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