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Chapter 5 Learning
Psychology 205
Chapter 5 - Learning
CHAPTER NOTES
I. Enduring Issues in Learning
II. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov - Discovered classical conditioning: which a response naturally elicited by one
stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formally neutral, stimulus.
- studying digestion – saliva
- associated without eating food, before tasting food, then sight of food, and sounds of
footsteps of experimenter.
- associated with ringing of bell – bell signaled the appearance of food, mouths would
water on cue, even if no food presented
Thus, dogs “conditioned” to salivate to new stimulus (bell)
A. Elements of Classical Conditioning
Four (4) basic elements in classical conditioning:
1. unconditioned stimulus (US): the event that automatically elicits a certain reflex
reaction, which is
2. unconditioned response (UR):
Pavlov: food in the mouth = US, the saliva = UR
3. conditioned stimulus (CS); that is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus
which is
4. conditioned response (CR)
Demonstrated in virtually every animal species.
Two page Response paper: Your example of the classical conditioning – CS/CR
the story at beginning of chapter – the park bench
the story of Little Albert
conditioned taste aversion (learned responses) – examples?
B. Establishing a Classically Conditioned Response
C. Classical Conditioning in Humans
• Phobias (anxiety, irrational behavior = learned behavior – not opposable to hold fear and
relaxation at same time)
• Desensitization therapy (deep muscle relaxation)
D. Classical Conditioning Is Selective
• Preparedness - biologically prepared , by association (snakes)
III. Operant Conditioning
A. Elements of Operant Conditioning
Two essential elements: emitted behavior (this distinguishes classical from operant)
Classical conditioning is passive: food in mouth, loud noise (startles, evokes fear)
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In operant conditioning – spontaneity a strong factor:
• waving for good-bye, select your paper content by choice, you voluntarily use
coins to buy a soda from the machine.
(1) The all involve “operating” in the environment
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
(2) is a consequence following behavior,
• Note: the “on command” element, i.e. the box escaping behaviors of cats
(Thorndike) and rats.
Reinforcers – increase the likihood that a behavior will be repeated
Punishers - decease the chances that a behavior will be repeated
Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Behavior that brings about satisfying effects (reinforcement) is
likely to be performed again, whereas behavior that brings about negative effect (punishment) is
likely to be suppressed.
- modern psychology refers to “principle of reinforcement” rather than Law of Effect
B. Establishing an Operantly Conditioned Response
May not be easy because behaviors are voluntary? (Why would ‘voluntary” make
changing behaviors difficult?)
So, need to increase motivation!
Skinner box = a small cage with solid walls that are relatively empty, except for a food
cup and an activating device, such as a bar or a button.
Shaping = reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior.
• See pg 170 for two examples: one example - rat moving toward the bar, moving
closer to bar, touching the bar and so on until it performs the desired behavior.
Remember operant conditioning has its limits – it will lose its zip, lose its effectiveness
regarding learning a new behavior.
C. A Closer Look at Reinforcement - not all reinforcers are alike
Two examples: Positive: food, praise, money = add something rewarding to situation
Negative: stopping an aversive noise, e.g. loud obnoxious buzzer,
subtract something unpleasant – loud obnoxious buzzer (5
a.m. alarm!), a mild electric shock, etc.
Both result in new behaviors or strengthening of existing ones.
• Reinforcers mean to strengthen or encourage a behavior – thus, praise begets
repeated good behavior.
Interesting side notion: superstitions – strutting pigeon and accidental receding example, p.172
Sport team fans wear uniform affiliated clothing to watch (to influence?) the game’s
outcome! Folks take stuffed animals to Bingo! “lucky” charms and special dubbers!
Punishment: a powerful effect, an energy, a powerful thought, circumstance
Is defined by unpleasant consequences
Differs from negative reinforcement – punishment does not strenghten, but adds something
unpleasant to the environment, tends to weaken the behavior
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Imposed properly – done swiftly, sufficiently without being cruel, consistent =
“time outs”
Punishment cannot unteach unwanted behaviors – it only suppresses the undesired behavior
Name example on pg 173
Thus, punishment rarely works when long-term changes in behavior are wanted.
Punishment stirs up negative feelings: frustrations, resentment, self-doubt, which impede the
learning of new, more behaviors
Name the example on pg 174
Punishment can teach aggression – may encourage the learner to copy the same harsh and
aggressive behavior toward other people.
What is proposed as an alternative to the use of punishment? How would this work, i.e. what
would replace what and why?
Note – Read and know the correct response to the two questions in Applying Your
Understanding box at top of page 177.
E. Learned Helplessness - the generalized “giving-up” response
Failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an unpleasant or aversive stimulus that occurs as a
result of previous exposure to unavoidable painful stimuli. ( see example of dogs, pg. 175)
Learned helplessness can occur in both animals and humans.
Note the example: children of abusive families where punishment is unrelated to behavior, pg
175. What are some to the results?
F. Shaping Behavior Change through Biofeedback
Biofeedback = gaining voluntary control over physiological processes, such as heart rate, blood
pressure
IV. Factors Shared by Classical and Operant Conditioning
1. both involve the learning of associations
a. In classical conditioning – it is a learned association between one stimulus and another.
b. Whereas, in operant conditioning – it is a learned association between some action and
a consequence.
2. in both, are under the control of stimuli in the environment
3. neither will last, thus require periodic renewal
4. both kinds of learning, new behaviors can build on previously established ones
A. The Importance of Contingencies
What is a [perceived] contingency? A relationship in which one event depends on another.
What is the example provided?
Contingencies in classical conditioning: is perceived between the CS and the US.
The CS is viewed as the signal that the US is about to happen.
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The CS and the US must occur in close proximity, should also precede the US and provides
predictive information about it.
Studies proved that conditioning would occur if the CS followed the US – see description –
backward conditioning – this is an example of contingency (example provided, pg 178)
Predictive information – critical in establishing a classically conditioned response.
• Classical conditioning occurs only when a stimulus tells the learner something
new or additional about the likelihood that a US will occur.
Contingencies in operant conditioning
Learner must come to perceive a connection between performing a certain voluntary action and
receiving a certain reward or punishment. If no contingency is perceived, there is no reason to
increase or decrease the behavior.
• Why should we expect to prefer partial or intermittent reinforcement over
continuous reinforcement?
o Why is the casino example such a good example of this?
B. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery - Be familiar with definitions and examples
provided in reading.
Extinction: a decrease in the strength or frequency, or stopping, of a learned response because of
failure to continue pairing of the US and CS or withholding of reinforcement.
Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time,
without training.
F. Summing Up
The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that in classical conditioning,
the learner is passive and the behavior involved is usually involuntary, whereas in operant
conditioning, the learner is active and the behavior involved is usually involuntary.
Classical and operant conditioning may simply be two different procedures for achieving the
same end. See last paragraph in pg 185.
V. Cognitive Learning
Mental processes that go on inside, that can be inferred from behavior
A. Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
Latent learning is learning that is not apparent, not yet demonstrated