Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, Fifth Edition
ACapting Your N/essage
tc Your Audience
r,,lodule 2 can help you best meet the needs of your audiences for communication. After completing
:e
module, you should be able to
'ro
2-1
z-*
2-g
Lc
,-a
'rc
2-4
Understand expectations from your L{* x'"1!'
organization.
Deline audiences for messages' L+ *"#
L-t1'i'-?
Apply strategies for audience
analysis with PAIBOC.
Apply strategies for individual and
group audience analYses.
Apply strategies for audience
needs analysis.
Adapt messages for audiences,
Choose channels for audiences.
nderstanding your audience is fundamental to the success of any message' You need to adapt
your message to fit the audience's goals, interests, and needs.
fr^elyzing your audience and adapting your message can be done in a cynical, manipulative way.
Lt
also be done in a sensitive, empathic, ethical way. Audiences have a keen sense for messages
f,a ry to manipulate them; empathic analysis and adaptation are almost always more successful, as
ut
rcl
as being more ethical.
and
Soc-,e students pride themselves on their "honesty" in not adapting their discourse to anyone
mr
their bosses as sharply as they might younger brothers and sisters. But almost all organiexpect deference to people in authority. And customers have enough options to deal only with
:fcizing
abrs
rer:ca,'lies that treat them respectfully.
22
ProfessionalWriting
ffi
Understanding what Your organization
wants
L{::t-r
Michelle wondered whether her boss rvas sexist' Everryone else who had joined the organization when shc did
had been promoted' Her boss nevcr seemed to have
good to sav about her or her rvork'
anything
'lr,fichille
didn't rcalize that, in her boss"s eycs, she
wasn't doing good work. Michelle rvas proud of her
reports; she tho,rght she u'as thc best u'riter in the
ofiice. But her boss valued punctuality, and Michelle''s
reports u,ere alrvays late.
Just as everv sport has rulcs elbout scoring' so' too'
in
do workplaces have rules about rvhat "counts'" Even
tlifferand
organizations
dilferent
inclustrv
same
the
ent supervisors may care about different things' One
boss circles misspcllecl rvords and posts the offending
message on a buietin board for everyone to sec' Other
people are more tolerant of crrors' One companv
values original ideas, rt'hile another r'l'orkplacc tells
employees just to do what thev're told' One supct-r'isor
likes technology and alrvays buvs the latest harclu'are
and softrvare; a.,othe. is technophobic and l-ras to be
persuaded to get needed uPgrades'
Succeeding in an organization depends l'irst on
understanding rvhat "counts" at Vour organization' To
find out what counts in vour organization:
Ask your boss, "What p.rrts of mv iob are most
important? Whats thc biggcst thing I could do to
.
improve mY rvork?"
. Lisien to ihe stories colleagues tell about
peoplc
failccl'
have
rvho
who have succeeded and those
"So
confirmertion:
for
check
patterns,
When you see
his real problem was that"he didn't socialize rvith
co-workers?" This gives your colleagttcs a chance
to provide feedback: "Weil, it wzrs n-Iore than never
joining us for lunch. He didn't reallv secm to carc
.
about the comPanY."
Obserrre. See rvho is praised, rvho is promoled'
Understanding, by the wav, can and should be ir trvowav strcet. Online shoe retailer Zappos'com listened to
employecs rvho said thev rvanted a rvorkplace that is
*or'" o..o.,"r-odating to their lifcstyle' The result rvas
a nap room for a quick snooT-e and social events that
inch.ide zilter-hours mixers and lightheartcd "parades"
in the office. With $1 billion in sales in 2009 alone'
the corrpany also encourages its 1,500 employees to
trvcet about Zappos and hosts free tlaily tours o[ its
Las Vegas headquarters. The work still gets done'
Source. Morley Saler. "The'Millennrals'Are Coming," 60 Minutes'
Love You
November I 1, 2007; and Jake Chessum, "How to Make Customers
hc.,2A10. Downloaded on February 12, 20lO, at http://www'inc com/ss/
how-to-nrake-customers love-you.
Who is my audience?
r'ri.
i
"
{.:
More peopte than you might think!
In an orgztnizattional setting,
21
tressage mav have {ive separatc audiences'l
yottr recommencla1. The primary audience rvill decide rvhether to accept
reach the dccision
must
tions or rvill act on the basis ol your message. You
makcr to [,rl[ill yoLrr pttl?oses.
20
23
Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, Fifth Edition
Module 2 Adaptlng Your Message to Your Audience
21
--:
secondory audience mav be asked to cofflment on yollr message or
---:iement your ideas after they've been approved. Sccondary ar-rdienccs
-:: : io include larvyers who may Llse your message-perhaps years later-
,. :. .ie nce o[ your organiz.ationt
cr-rlturc and prerctices.
initial audience receives the message lirst and routes it to other artrdi: ::-: Sometimes thc initial aruclicncc also tells you to r.vrite the message.
.-
. :atekeeper has the power to stop yollr n-lessage belore it gets to thu' pr-i-,--. audience. A sccretarry rvho decides who gets to spezrk to or see the
:, .. rs a gatekeeper. Sometimes the super-visor rvho assigns the ntessitge
.
=,so the gatekeeper; howeverl sometimes the gatekeeper is l-rigl'rer in tl'rc
:"nlzation. In some cases, gatckeepers cxist outsidc the organization.
- t'atchdog audience, though it does not have the pou,er to stop the nressitgc
.-:'..iil not act directly on it, has political, social, or cconornic porver. The
:-,:rdog pays close attention to the transaction betu,een yott :rnd tl'rc pri- ':-, audience and may base future actions on its cvnltration of vour rressage.
.,- :-.: charts in Figures 2.1 and 2.2 shorv, onc person orgrolrp can bc part
audiences. Frequently, a supervisor is both the initial atrclience ancl the
--r.;:)Cr. Sometimes the initi:rl audience is also the prir.nary audicnce tl.rat
::: ,)n the message.
itt
An account executive in an ad agency
-!
Her boss, who asks her to write the plan
Hef boss, who must approve the plan b€fore it goes to ttrc client
-
A.
The executive committee of the client company, which will decide whether to
adopt the plan
=JUUILV
The rnarketing stafi of the client company, who will be asked for comments
on the plan
Th€ artisls, writers. and media buyers who will implement the plan rl ii rs
-:--faaay
accept6d
,'-:7S
Two workers at a consulting think tank
- -.u zrilience
A consortium of manulacturers, which hires the think tank to investigate
how proposed federal regulations would atfect manufacturing, safety,
i:=-*=per
The consortrum. lf the consortium doesn'l like the report, it won t send 't
on to the federal governn€nt.
and cost
:
:--a-,
audience
The general public
Othei rnanufacturers of the product
Other clients and potential clients of the consulting think tank
The consutting thrnk tank's competitors
-=.-":tary
--cs--aes
-.
L
r:-.iog
The federal government agency that regulates this consumer product. lt
will set new regulations based in part (the manufacturers hope) on this
report. Within this audience are economists, engineers, and policymakers
audience
lndustry reviewers who read drafts of the report and commented on it.
Although they had no direct power over this report, their goodwill was
important for the consulting company's image and its future contracts.
Their comments were the ones that authors took more serrously as they
revised their drafts.
Keep audiences in mind when
using social networking sites.
Lee Landor, deputy press
secretary lo Scott M. Stftnger,
Manhattan borough president,
resigned after her reference
to Presrdent Barack Obama
as "O-dumb-a" and racially
tinged comments during a
heated exchange about the
arrest of Harvard scholar Henry
Louis Gates, Jr., on Facebook
became public, Her situation
rivals that of a woman in the
United Kingdom who posted
"OMG I HATE MY JOBI" after
insulting her boss . . . and then
found out he was a Facebook
friend. She not only lost the
job with two weeks left on
her probationary period, but
the exchange wenl viral on
the Web.
Source: Sew€ll Chan, "Facebook
Post ngs Prompt Ouick Exit of a
City Poitician's Arde,' fhe New
York Times, July 28, 2009, http://
M.
nytimes. com/2AOg / 07 / 29/
nyreglon/2gfired.htmi?_r = 2l
and Mansa Taylor, "The Perils
of Oversharlng on Facetlook,"
The w'all Street Journal August 21
2009 http:/,4:1ogs,wsj.com/digitY
2009/08/21 /the peri s'ofoversharing -on Jacebook/.
,
:::r.'12,4
+
Professional Writing
22
Unit One Building Blocks for Effective Messages
Why is my audience so important? ts t-s
Fv
Io be successfu/, messages must meet the audiences' needs'
Good business communication is audience-centered. Audience is central to
both PAIBOC and to the communication process.
Audiem**
*
t*u
On tris btog; Robert Greene,
who co-wrote the best selling
The SOth LaLv with musician
50 Cent, notes the perfonnsr's
four princrples for reachlng his
audience. Among them is to
"crush as much distance as
possible between you and your
aLldience," reaching people
and theu innor lives and reflecting their spirit in your message.
Source: Eobert Greene, "Four
Things 50 Cent Can Teactr Yor
Abort Connecting wth Yoilr Audi,ence,'i dar{$loaded ofi F€brua4, 16,
201 0. at http://www,copyblogger
.com/robert-Eeene-50-cenV.
em{$
PAEfl}*#
Think about the PAIBoc questions in Module
I (<< p. l2). of
the six ques-
tions, the five in blue relate to audience.
P
What are your purPoses in writing or speaking?
Your purposes come from you and your organization. Your audience
determines how you achieve those purposes, but not what the purposes are.
i.:
::
,,:
These questions ask directlv about your audience.
The infor-rnation you need to give depends on your audience' You need
to say more when the topic is new to your audience. If your audience has
heard something but may have forgotten it, you'll want to protect readers' egos by saying "As you know," or putting the information in a subordinite clause: "Because we had delivery problems last quarte4, ' . . ."
What counts as a good reason and what is a benefit depends on your
audience. For some audiences, personal experience counts as a good
reason. Other audiences are more persuaded by scientific studies or by
experts. For some people, saving money is a good benefit of growing
vegetables. Other people may care less about the money than about
Five Kinds of Audiences
lnitial
to receive the rnessage;
may assign message.
ls first
Gatekeeper
Has the power to stop the
message before it gets to primary audience.
Primary
Decides whether to accept
recommendations; acts,
Secondary
Comments on message or
implements recommendations.
Watchdog
Has political, social, or economic power; may base future
actions on its evaluation of
your message.
Carl Caspers understands the
market for Harmony Systems'
prostheses because he is part of
it. Often, however, you'll have to
analyze audiences of which you
are not a part,
25
Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, Fifth Edition
Module 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience 23
avoiding chemicals, growing varieties that aren't available in grocery
stores, or working outside in the fresh air. I*t' Module 8 gives more
information on developing reader benefits.
L.a
Different audiences will have different attitudes. One audience may
object to a price increase. Another audience may expect price changes
as routine and not be bothered by them. >p Module 12 on persuasion
gives more information on overcoming objections.
.:l:
,
i
,ir,,',,,,,,,,,,,,.,,1.iii. ,,,,,,,
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-
People exist in a context. How well they know you, how they feel about
you and your organization, how well the economy is doing, even what's
been
in the news recently will all influence the way they respond to
your message.
Audiem*e *md th* S*ettrseuni*etlsrE Prs*ess
Audience is also central to the communication process.
The following model of the communication process drastically simplifies
what is perhaps the most complex of human activities. Howevec even a simplified model can give us a sense of the complexity of the communication
process. And the model is useful in helping us see where and why miscommunication occurs. Figure 2.3 shows the basic process that occurs when one
person tries to communicate ideas to someone else.
The process begins when Person A (let's call him Alex) perceives some stimulus. Here we are talking about literal perception: the ability to see, to hear,
to taste, to smell, to touch. Next, Alex interprets what he has perceived. Is it
important? Unusual? The next step is for Alex to choose or select the information he wishes to send to Person B (whom we'll call Barbara). Now Alex is
ready to put his ideas into words. (Some people argue that we can think only
in words and would put this stage before interpretation and choice.) Words
are not the only way to convey ideas; gestures, clothing, and pictures can carry
t*\
The tattooed man with the
shaved head and piercing
stare srts atop a motorcycle
and s@rts a leather vest with
an iron cross. A gang member? No, an Allstate lnsurance
agent. To tap inlo the growing Baby Boomer motorcycle
market- 1 .2 million bikes were
sold in 2006 alone-the insurer
authorized an ad campaign
featuring some ol its 600 independent agents who are also
bikers. With the goallo iftatch
the audience to the agent, the
campaign is summed up by
Allstate's Lisa Cochrane: "So
we thowht. who better to talk
to riders than frclks who really
understafld thom?
.
Sourcer Burr fieinri lll-et:s Hldei Th6
Wild Ones at A,lstate," BusnressYveek, Ocrober 1, 2007, 16.
Figure ft.* A Model of
Two-Person Communication
with Feedback
*Transmission
*Feedback
*Noise (and miscommunication) can occur here.
a
26
ProfessionalWriting
24
Unit One Building Blocks for Effective Messages
dt
For any communication in
business; 6ven a phone call,
it pays to know about youi
audience.,A broker frorn fuxon
Financial Services in Atlanta
cold-called Jake van der Laan,
allegedly promising a 3OO%
wiilCfall in iust three months on
gasoline and roreign currency
investments. Unfortunately for
the brokei (but not for honest
pqople'eterywhere), van der
Laan is the enforcem€nt chief
at Canada's New Brunswick
Securities Conrnission - anO
such Promises are illegal.
He set up a sting operation
that resulted in Saxon b€ing
charged with fraudulently soliciting custon€rs.
Source: Dean Foust, 'Cold Call,
Hot Water,' BusnessWeek,
Novemboi 26, 2007, 22.
meaning nonverbally. The stage of putting ideas into any of these symbols
is called encoding. Then Alex n-lust transmit the message to Barbara using
some channel. Channels include memos, phone calls, meetings, billboards,
TV ads, and e-mail, to name just a few.
To receive the message, Barbara must first perceive it. Then she must
decode it, that is, extract meaning from the symbols. Barbara then repeats
the steps Alex has gone through: interpreting the information, choosing
a response, and encoding it. The response Barbara sends to Alcx is called
feedback. Feedback may be direct and immediate or indirect and delayed; it
may be verbal or nonverbal.
Noise can interfere with every aspcct of the communication process. Noise
may be physical or psychological. Physical noise could be a phone line rvith
staiic, a lawn mower roaring outside a classroom, or handwriting that is hard
to read. Psychological noise could include disliking a speaker, being concerned
about something other than the message, or already having onet mind made
up on an issue.
Channel overload occurs when the channel cannot handle all the messages
that are being sent. A small business may havc only two phone lines; no one
else can get through if both lines are in use. Inforrnation overload occurs
when more messages are transmitted than the human receiver can handle.
Some receivers process information "tirst come, first served." Some may try
to select the most important messages and ignore others. A third way is to
depend on abstracts or summaries prepared by other people. None of these
rvays is completely satisfactory.
At every stage, both Alex and Barbara cor-rld misperceive, misinterpret,
choose badly, encode poorly, or choose inappropriate channels' Miscommunication can also occur because diflerent peoplc have different frames of reference. We always interpret messages in light o[ our personal experiences, our
cultures and subcultures, and even the point in history at which we live.
Successful communication depends on the common ground between you
and your audience. Choose information that your aLldience needs and will
find interesting. Encode your message in words and other symbols the audience will understand. Transn-rit the message along a channel that your audience
will attend to.
What do I need to know about my audience(s)? L* ?^$
'*
Everything that's relevant to what you're writing or talking about.
Almost everything about your audience is relevant to some message. But for
any par'ticular message, only a few facts about your audience will be relevant.
Since the factors that matter vary depending on the situation, no one-sizefits-all list of questions for audience analysis exists. In general, you need to
use common sense and empathy. Empathy is the ability to put vourself in
someone else's shoes, to f'eel with that person. Empathy requires not being
self-centered because, in all probability, the audience is not just like vou'
Use what you know about people and about organizations to predict likely
responses.
&***fymiitg {stdiwi#t**l* ;}s}d $'$T*ctt**rs $$ *r*ups
When you write or speak to people in your own organization and in other
organizations you rvork closely with, you may be able to analyze your audience as individuals. You may alreadv knorv your audience; it will usually be
Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, Fifth Edition
Module 2 Adapting Your
nd.di6noeri
lr€mo armouncing that the
Relevant
,r:,r,
.
All employees
ccrrgrywif,
reimburse
errplcyees for tuitiori if they
td(e work-rdated college
.
co-rs6
.
.
Factors
Ni4essage
illi#lffii*Xsiii
to Your Audience 25
:'
Attitudes toward education (some
people find courses fun: others may
be intirnidated)
Tirne available (sorne rnay be
too busy)
lnterest in being promoted or in getting cross-training
Attitude toward company (those
committed to its success will be
more jnterested in program)
k@:otr.ssHi$
ff
qrangd:cit'ubEdca'
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agenda
Letter giving a moeting
sayirE that you will b,ring your
cHd along
lnterest
!n
having a n€ry car
I Aititude toward CaJS offered by that
dealershtp ""':
." knowlecse of interesi rates
.
:
r,r,r
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frJtur:d.income (and
ablity to repay loan)
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How well the client knows you
How much the client likes you
How important agenda items are to
.
.
the client
How the client feels about children
Physical space for meeting (room for
child to play)
.
r:
to members of your audience,
talking to people who know your audience, and observing your audience.
In other organizational situations, you'll analyze your audience as members
of a group: "taxpayers who must be notified that they owe more income tax,"
'customers living in the northeast side of the city," or "emploYees with small
children."
Information that is most often helpful includes the following:
easy to get additional information by talking
r
.
.
r
.
How much the audience knows about your topic
Demographic factors, such as age, income, number of children, and so tbrth
Personality
Values and beliefs
Past behavior
a tactful way,
Preface statements with "As you know" "As you may know," or a similar
phrase.
Spell out acronyms the first time you use them: "Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP)."
Give brief definitions
brainifc#lslliqt;allbu,,::,,,,
to have @rnpa yri:afieclilB
:r:,,il
enerythihg,l{romioui abilitr:io,: l
feet a loved one'i pain to cur
reaction to aOvertising. UnO#standir€ minor neLlrons has .:
gieat pptehtial foi netplng,us
Urderstand befraviOr, ln persons wim autism, for instance,
ken;
miiror. neuffi,maiibe
tS:oUring thb
and ih
2004 presideniial eleetion;' ,' l
:
Knowledge
El'en people in your own organization won't share all your knowledge. USAA
provides insurance to military personnel and their families, but not all the
1Z,Ooo people who work there know insurance jargon.2
Most of the time, you won't know exactly what your audience knows. Moreoyef,, even if you've told readers before, they may not remember the old information when they read the new message. To remind readers of information in
.
Mkror nalifri.'Are Pattef,fls ofl
in the text: "the principal-the
money you have
invested-."
Put information readers should know in a subordinate clause: "Because the
renovation is behind schedule, . . . ."
b
eipe
na;r'osffi
lst Marco:laeohohi
at,tfu, Unllersity of California,
tos fugeb$r: {ound, no rniir'ol
neur ,activilyarnong pAity i:,,
rnembere whO watched,Pqlili.'
l
catiaorlnrrlerobfs, {Franfiy, rlheri
campaign. s:qo nasty thal
th€ empathetic response had
completely disappeared, "
ne sao.
. 1
,.:,..,
,
:
,
"',.'::'
.
Soui6e; Robert,L€e r,tota "frowt ::
Voui.BrainAttows You to vttatlr I
,n nnotueil,b Stroes,t:i'.:Tha',Watt,.
Street Jarrrd,::A!4rrat
17i l
?0O7, dowrito'dded:at httgi/./
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ontine:x,sl:een/pUbliC/articldl,,,,
SBI 1872884IM89999t +;ha:nl.,',,,
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Professional Writing
il
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- -.
t
26
Unit One Building Blocks for Effective Messages
SernogtaPhic Factars
Go to
http://wwwcensus.gov/
for demographb information
about the U.S. Population
and more. To get information
on your community, click on
"American Factfinder, "
s
i*
tS
Bloggers of color are challenging how news is reported
and by whom in America. With
names like Ultrabrown, Bacialicious, Too Sense, Latino Pundit, Angry Asian Man, and The
Angry BlackWonran, the sites
oftefl mix a tongue-in-ch€ek
style wiih serious attention to
ner,vs overlooked or marginalized by mainstream rnedia. Art,
music. history. Politbs, sociology, literature, ard currefit
events are among the topics
gxplored for audiences'
S0urce: Vafleasa E. Jorles, "Blog
is Boautitul," The Boston Globa'
Novernber 13, 2007. dorrnloaded
at www.boston com /aelmedia/
arhclev2007/1 1 /1 3/clog-rsoeautff ul/?pl = emailto-a-triend
that can be counted
Demographic characteristics are measurable features
and so on'
income'
level'
education
religion,
objectively: age, sex, race,
it's imporsometimes
Sometimes a"*og.u;hic iiforrnation is irrelevant;
is more
(Mick
Ja-gper
not'
probably
,urr1. Oo". age matte-r? Most of the time,
on
Maturitlt')
Modent
to
subscribe
doesn'i
than 60 years old, b"t h;;;;;;blv
pension
your
company's
in
the other hand, if yorr-*.}"-"*ploi.rirg a change
to be more corrcerned than vounger workers'
*orkeri
ota".
;i;";;;;'il*p".,
Businessandnonprofitorganizationsgetdemographicdatabysurveying
data; or by purtheir customers, clients, urra-Jo"".t; by using U'S'.census
many messages'
For
.fr.*f"g i"-ographic data from marketing companies'For example' a school
entugh'
is
simply identifying r,rUr"tt oiyour audienci
knowi that not everyone living
board trying to win..,pfo'flr a tax.increase
necessary to know the exact
isn't
It
school.
ln
in the district will have'Ihlldren
to appeal not onlv to
to realize that successful messages will ne-ed
;;;;;;;.
the improvements
from
benefit
who won,t directly
;;;;"r; fut also to voters
ihat the tax increase will fund'
Pers*nalitY
his or her personality is relWhen your primary audience is just one person'
For business'.one of the
personality'
inalyze
to
evant. There are many ways
instrument' which uses four
most useful is the uryJrs';"G i;; Indicator@
differ'3
people
pairs of dichotomies ;ld";;6' *ais thut
types
. Extraversion-Introversion: where someone gets energy. Introverted
interacting
by
energized
are
typei
extraverled
*itnin;
;;;[";""".gv r.owith other PeoPle'
types gather
. sensing-Intuition: how someone gets information. Sensing
Intutangible'
and
real
is
what
pieferring
information tt ro,rgh ihelt '"""',
relationships
the
on
focusing
pictur;'
big
the
at
Loot
itive tlpes prefer i"
and connections between facts'
how someone m.akes decisions. Thinking types condecisions. Feeling types
sider logical .o.rriqr"rr."s of an action to reach
impact to people'
-ut " aJ"i.i"ns based tono*thero-"""e
orienti himself or herself to the exterJudging-p".""irri.rg,
a planned' orderly waY' seeking cloin
nal world' frdgirg iye"s like to live
enjoving possibilities.
environment,
flexible
perceivi"g
a
tvpJJp."r"r
sure.
. iiirrr.i.g_Feeling:
.
SomebusinessesadministertheMyers-BriggsTypelndicator@instrument
io assist with team build-
to all employ"".. Th;;H;Jihat results .un b"-ir"d
ing and/or personal growth and development'
you select the appropriKnowing yo,r, urai"..e's personality type can help
introvert might want
an
Foiinstance,
ate channel u.a.rJ-yor.'*"rrug".
-or
awrittenmessagebecauseitfavorscontemplation,whileanextravertmight
meeting. Sensitive
i".r"rJ p*r"r th"e dvnamics of a phone- call face-to-face
can judge each
the-y
so
sequentially
utiu,,ged
}u.t,,
types look fo, a"tuit"J
accordingly,whileintuitivetypeswanttoknowtheoverallsituationfirstto
then apPlY creative solutions'
You,llbemostpersuasiveifyouplaytoyouraudience,sstrengths.Indeed,
reflect the tlpes
many o[ ttr" generai f.i."ipl". of b.,.i.r"tt communication
satisfies the
front
p""ing
up
point
the main
most commo, u*""J *u"Jg"tt'
judging'
Giving
are
managers
U.S.
of
me 75o/.o
needs of judging ,VpE
""J"r.
8oo/o of U'S' managers rvho are
nearly
the
of
needs
the
i.-grc.r ."^..ir.ltiJfi"t
thinking
tYPes.*
Knowthathumanbeingsarealsoadaptable.Forinstance,rvhileSomerestyles of the70-75o/o
search suggests rh";.;6fi;e prefers thetommunication
i','.
'i';l
Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, Fifth Edition
t.,,,,',',')9
i'
Module 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience 27
of Americans who are extraverts,s introverts can learn many o[ the associated
behaviors, even if they're not their inclination'
Vahles ancl fieliefs
psychographic characteristics are qualitative rather than quantitative: valnext door
,"i, U"ii"f., goals, and lifestyles. For example, two families living each
have
and
money
of
amount
same
the
atout
make
might
othei
to each
and
for
college
penny
possible
two children. But one family might save everV
rather
home
at
meals
cooking
and
vacations
retirement, taking inexpensive
out. ihe other family might spend almost everything they make
ihu.,
"uti.rg
vacations, enterlainment, and dinners out. One family might
on clothesicars,
spend
ao Ino., things together as a familv, rvhile in the other, members might
different
have
might
families
The
activities.
most of theiitime on individual
religious and political beliefs.
Iiyou wanted to persuade each familv to do the same thing' you might need
to use different reasons and reader benefits; you'"vould have different objecyou
tions to overcome. Knowing what your audience finds important allows
to
and
your
audience
io orgu.rir" information in i way that seems natural to
persuasive'
appeals that audience members will find
chooie
tutu.y'Inurketers use the values and Lifestyles (vALS)-profiles develU.S. buvoped by the SRI research firm in california. vALS profiles divide
amount
the
motivation,
primary
thcir
to
according
categories
eight
i.rto
ei,
instance,
For
innovate.
they
oi."ro.r..J. they f,ave, and the extent to which
in resources and
ii.i"".r are motivated ty achievement and are relatively lorveven
rvithout a lot
in
style,
bc
to
try
consumers
conspicuous
innovation. These
of money.
enjoy
Innovators, on the other hand, may have more disposable income and
ConSRI
for
consultant
a
senior
Breman,
Patricia
As
.ootl"g and fine food.
excellent taran
be
may
Innovators
points
out,
Intelligence,
."i,i"g"g"ri"ess
get market lor upscale grocery stores'n
The other VALS catelories are Thinkers, Believers, Achievers, Expcriencerc,
Makers, and Survivors.T
online
Researcher Mary Modahl's survey of 250,000 households found that
psvchoon
but
code
Zip
and
buying depends ,roi o., clemographiis such as age
from
graphlcs: th" .o.r.r-"rs attiiude towarcl technology along a continuum
"eagerly
accepting'"8
to
t.oforrrdtv suspicious"
Past Behavior
be.have in the
Horv people have behaved in the past often, predicts how they'll
showed Finpurchases
of
customer
iecorcls
examining
example,
Ftr
i"i".;.
and decfurniturrc
of
purchases
large
gerhut that customers who *o*d made
,,mover,s
likely to
products
with
filled
catalog"
a
;;;i;;;. Fl;g".t "t developed
to this
catalogs
other
mailing
not
by
money
savecl
gro,rp-u.td
:ppeal to thi;
;ro"p right after
theY moved.e
Analyaing F**pBe i*t *a'gmmixntl*ns
,::,rr reader's reaction is affected not only by his or her personal preferences
:_i r""rl"g. but also by the discourse communities to rvhich the reader
:e-cngs and by the organizational culture'
about
.{ discourse comm"unity is a group of people who share assumptions
to
how
and
discuss
to
topics
what
,t:t channels, formats, ur.l rtyl". tL use,
o[
several
parl
person
is
Each
evidence.
constiiutes
:r{uss them, and whai
- ::ourse communities, which may or may not overlap'
[_
Go to
www.claritas.com/
MyBestSegments/
Default.isP?lD:20
Key in your Zip code to learn
which psychograPhic grouPS
are most common in Your
neighborhood.
s
,{}
t
:: ::':: -:
,r, '
...
Ken Blanchard is now a suc'
cessful business wriler with
a track record of bestsellers.
including The One Minule
Manager, but PeoPle used
to tell him he wrote pootly.
Blanchard has said that when
he was a student in g?duale
school, profossors told him he
could not write well enough
to succeed as a college Professor. But he adds. "Later I
learned that the Problem with
rny writing {rom their Point ol
view was that You could understand it, which meant it wasn't
acaoemic enough." At the
tirne, howeve( he accepted the
advice and Pursued a career in
administration.
SoL/rcer Baseo on Kevin BYan
Wrie up the Cor?arale Laddel
{New
Ys{: Amacom.
2003),
Professional Writing
28
Unit One Building Blocks for Effective Messages
Some aspects of corporate cuhure may no longer serve an obvious purpose.
ffi
"l don't know how it stafied, either. All I knovrr is that it's part of our corporate culture."
C,opyright @ 1994 Mick Stevens/The Nell Vorker Collection, www,cartoonbank.com.
To analyze an organization's discourse community, ask the following
questions:
.
e
o
What channels, formats, and stfes are preferred for communieation? Do
you write a paper memo, send e-mail, or walk down the hall to talk to someone? How formal or informal are you supposed to be?
What do people.talk about? What is not discussed?
What kind of and how much evidence is needed to be convincing? Is personal experience convincing? Do you need numbers and formal research?
Procter & Gamble's discourse community requires that recommendations
membs-and then add as many
pages of "attachments" as they need. In contrast, a Silicon Valley coppany
expects recommendations to be presented as a PowerPoint slide with a triangle with three words around it.
An organization's culture is its values, attitudes, and philosophies. Orga.nizational
culture (or corporate culture, as it is often called; >> Module 3) is
revealed verbally in the organization's myths, stories, and heroes and nonverbally in the allocation of space, money, and power.
The following questions will help you analyze an organization's culture:
be just one page. So writers create one-page
r
.
r
.
What are the organization's goals? Making money? Serving customers and
clients? Advancing knowledge? Contributing to the community?
What does the organization value? Diversity or homogeneity? Independence or being a team player? Creativity or following orders?
How do people get ahead? Are rewards based on seniority, education, being
well-liked, making technical discoveries, or serving customers? Are rewards
available to only a few top people, or is everyone expected to succeed?
How formal are behavioq, language, and dress?
Tlvo companies in the same field may have very different cultures. To compare corporate cultures, Cecilia Rothenberger reviewed how two executives
described their own organizations.l0 According to he4, Andersen Consulting,
Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, Fifth Edition
Module 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience 29
rvhich employs 65,000 people in 48 countries, values compensation, bonuses,
prestige, resources, and rewards; the 35-person Creative Good lirm values
communication, relationships, creativity, and growth. Researcher Jennifcr
Chatman found that new hires who "fit" a company'.s culture r'vere rnore likely
to stay with the job, be more productive, and be more satisfied than those who
did not fit the culture.lr
Organizations can have subcultures. For example, manufactttring and marketing may represent different subcultures in the sar-r-re organization: workers
may dress differently and have different values.
You can learn about organizational culture by observing pcople and bv listening to the stories they tell. Here are two of the stories Nike'.s leadcrs tell.
Story
Lesson
Coach Bowerman (a company cojounder) decided
his team needed better running shoes. So he went
into his workshop and poured rubber into the family
waffle iron to create a waffle sole.
Nike is committed to innovation.
Stev€ Fretqrltaind ta runn€r and anolher co-founden
worked to make running a professional s@rt and to
get better-p€rfonning 6quiprllent.
Nike is committed to helping athloles
lnstant
Replai
Discourse Community
A discourse community is
a group of people who share
assumptions about whal chan
nels, formats, and styles 10
use, what topics to discuss
and how to discuss them. and
what constitutes evidence.
You can also learn about a company's culture by looking at its Web site.
Many companies try to describe their cultures, usually as part of thc section
on employment.
Now that I have my analysis, what do I do
with it? t-s *-s
h
Use it to ptan strategy, organization, style, document design, and visuals'
If you know your audience well and if you use words well, much of yorrr audience analysis and adaptation will be ttnconscious' If you don't know your
audience or if the message is very important, take the tin-re to analyze your
audience formally and to revise your draft with vour analvsis in n-rind.
You can adapt your message's strategy, organization, and style to meet the
audience's needs. For paper or electronic documents, yoll can also adapt the
document's design and the photos or illustrations yoLl choose.
Strategy
.
o
.
.
.
Make the action as easy as possible.
Protect the readert ego.
Decide how to balance logic and emotion, rvhat details to tlse, and rvhether
to use a hard-sell or soft-sell approach based on the specilic audience, the
organizational culture, and the discourse community.
Choose appeals and reader benelits that '"vork for the specific audience
(>> Module 8).
Modules 7, 11, and
13
will show yott horv to
en'rphasize positive aspects,
decide how much information to include, and overconle obstatcles.
Organization
.
Because most managers are intuitive types, iti usually better to get to the
point right away. The major exceptions arc
. When we must persuade a reluctant reader.
. When we have bad news and want to let the readcr dor'vn graduzrlly.
dt
"Tenifying," "psychedelic," and
"awesomely bad" were among
terms critics used to describe
an advertisement by California
Senate candidate Cariy Fiorina's campaign that attacked
her opponent, Tom Campbell.
The video combined live action
with animation to show a flock
of sheep infiltrated by a redeyed, costumed human. While
Michael Scherer in f,me notes
the spot is "so weird that you
will click on it online," the ques'
tion remains whether getting
attention is the same as swaying the audience.
Sourcej Brett l'.4ichael Dykes,
"8izatre Attack Ad Heats Up
California Senate Hace,"
February 4. 2010, http://news
.yahoo.com/s/ynewvynews*
pt1112.
31
Professional Writing
30
Unit One Building Blocks for Efioctive Messag€s
To tap into youth rnarl@ts, com-
panies are s€€king ad/ce from
people in th€ target rnarket.
Natalie Rodriguez, Heide
Panglennier. md Rosaura
Lezarna offer their opinions
of markolersf efforts through
Siying.com.
.
Make the organizational pattern clear to the audience. Modules 9,23, and
24 show you how to use headings and overyiews. Module 20 shows how to
use overviews and signposts in oral presentations.
Style
.
.
.
.
.
For most aufiences, use easy-to-understand words, a mixture of sentence
lengths, and paragraphs with topic sentences (>> Modules 15 and 16).
Avoid words that sound defensive or arrogant.
Avoid hot buttons or "red-flag" words to which some readers will have an
immediate negative reaction: ciminal, un-American, crary, fundamentalist,
liberal.
Use the language(s) that your audience knows best. In Quebec, messages are
normally presented both in English and in French. In the Southwest United
States, messages may be most effective printed in both English and Spanish.
Use conversational, not "academic," language.
Document Design
.
.
.
Use lists, headings, and a mix of paragraph lengths to create white space.
Choices about format, footnotes, and visuals may be determined by the
organizational culture or the discourse community.
>> Module 5 for advice about effective document design.
Photographs and Visuals
.
r
i
.
(>r" Module 25).
Photos and visuals can make a document look more informal or more formal. Think of the difference between cartoons and photos of "high art."
Some cultures (e.9., French, Japanese) use evocative photographs that bear
little direct relationship to the text. Most U.S. audiences expect photos that
clearly relate to the text, often with a caption that further reinforces the
r
connection.
For electronic and Web documents, consider content and such issues
music or time to download, especially with video or animation
i
I
I
Use bias-ftee photographs and clip art
What if my audiences have different
F
needs?
LCI
as
a-n
Focus on gatekeepers and declsion makers.
When the members of your audience share the same interests and the same
level of knowledge, you can use the principles outlined earlier for individual
readers or for members of homogenous groups. But often different members
of the audience have different needs.
33
Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, Fifth Edition
Module 2 Adapting Your Message to Your Audience
The culture at software company Siebel Systems
is professional and competitive, Employees can't
eat at their desks. Men wear suits; women wear
pantsuits or skirted suits with panty hose.
Employees are rated, and every year the lowesl
5o/o are
fired.
Sun Microsystems' corporate culture fosters informality and flexibility. Employees can use the iwork
computer lacilities at various Sun drop-in centers,
or enroll in the work-from-home program. This
provides employees with flexible workplaces and
saves valuable driving trme, enabling Sun Microsystems to relain the best talent available.
As of January 27, ?O10, both companies are
owned by software giant Oracle Corporation.
When it is not possible to meet evcryone'.s needs, meet the needs of gatekeepers and primary audiences first.
Content and Ghoice of Details
.
o
.
Provide an overview or execlltive summary for readers who just rvant the
main points.
In the body of the document, provide enough detail for primary audiences
and for anyone else rvho could veto your proposal.
If the primary audiences don't need details that other audiences will rvant,
provide those details in appendices-statistical tabulations, earlier reports,
and so forth.
31
Professional Writing
32
Unit One Building Blocks for Effective Messages
0rganization
r
.
Use headings and a table of contents so readers can turn to the ponions
that interest them.
Organize your message based on the primary audiences'attitudes toward it.
Level of Formality
.
.
o
Avoid personal pronouns. Iioa ceases to have a specific meaning when several different audiences use a document.
If both internal and external audiences will use a document, use a slightly
more formal stfe than you would in an internal document.
Use a more formal style when you write to international audiences.
Use of Technidd Terms and Theory
r
.
.
In the body of the document, assume the degree of knowledge that primary
audiences will have.
Put background information and theory under separate headings. Then
readers can use the headings and the table of contents to read or skip these
sections, as their knowledge dictates.
If primary audiences will have more knowledge than other audiences, provide a glossary of terms. Early in the document, let readers know that the
glossary exists.
How do I reach my audience(s)? L* p-?
* lmportant messages may require multiple channels.
Communication channels vary in
'.
r
o
o
.
.
Speed
Accuracy of transmission
Cost
Number of messages carried
Number of people reached
Efficiency
Abiliry to promote goodwill
Depending on your pulposes, the audience, and the situation, one channel
may be better than another.
A written message makes it easier to
r
o
r
Present many specific details of a law, policy, or procedure.
Present extensive or complex financial data.
Minimize undesirable emotions.
Messages on paper are more formal than e-mail messages. E-mail messages
are appropriate for routine messages to people you already know. Paper is
usually better for someone to whom you're writing for the first time.
Oral messages make it easier to
.
.
r
.
.
Answerquestions, resolve conflicts, and build consensus,
Use emotion to help persuade the audience.
Get immediate action or response.
Focus the audience's attention on specifiic points.
Modify a proposal that may not be acceptable in its original form.
Scheduled meetings and oral presentations are more formal than phone calls
or stopping someone in the hall.
Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, Fifth Edition
Module 2 Adapting your Message to your Audience 33
Important messages should use more tbrmal channels, whether they're oral
or written. Oral and written messages have many similarities. In both, you
should
.
.
o
o
.
.
Adapt the message to the specific audience.
Show the audience members how they benefit lrom the idea, policy, service,
or product (>r' Module 8).
Overcome any objections the audience may have.
Use you-attitude and positive emphasis (er" Modules 6 and 7).
Use visuals to clarify or emphasize material (rr Module 25).
Specify exactly what the audience should do.
Even when everyone in an organization has access to the same channels,
different discourse communities may prefer dift-erent ones. When a university
updated its employee benefits manual, the computer scientists and librarians
'.r'anted the information online. Faculty wanted to be able to read the information on paper. Maintenance workers and carpenters wanted to get answers on
r.oice mail.l2
The bigger your audience, the more complicated channel choice becomes
because few channels reach everyone in your target audiencc. When possible,
r.e multiple channels. Also use multiple channels for very important messages. For example, talk to key players about a written document before the
neeting where the document will be discussed.
35