Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
1
Participant Observation
Jana Rückert-John
Agenda
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
2
William F. Whyte “Street Corner Society”
Participant observation – a first definition
Ethnography and observations
When to use observations
Advantages and disadvantages of participant
observation
¾ Participant observation problems
¾ How to do a participant observation?
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First Examples
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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¾ William Foote Whyte – Pioneer in participant
observation (1914-2000)
¾ “Street Corner Society. The social structure of an Italian
slum” (1943)
¾ Aims
¾ The study
¾ Results
¾ Special features of the study
¾ Criticism
Definition
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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¾ Participant observation is a method of
data collection that attempts to
understand the motives and meanings
involved in people’s behaviour from the
point of view of the participant.
¾ “Naturalistic” method
¾ Interactionist perspective
Ethnography and Observation
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
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¾ Social scientists do something extra with
their observation: They write
ethnographies
¾ ‘ethno’ means ‘folk’
¾ ‘graph’ derives from ‘writing’
¾ The pioneers of ethnography were
anthropologists (19th century)
The Ethnographic Focus
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
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1. Studies of tribes
a Malinowski (1922): Trobriand Islanders in the Western
Pacific
a Mary Douglas’s (1951-1963) work on a central African
tribe
2. Studies of subcultures
a “Chicago School” (1930s) – Robert Park, Ernest Burgess
3. Studies of the public realm
a Goffman’s (1950s) study of the Shetland Islanders
4. Studies of organisations
a Goffman’s (1961) book Asylum
Aims of observational research
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
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1. “Seeing through the eyes of people being
studied”
2. Description of mundane details
3. Contextualism: social and historical
context
4. Process of social life
5. Flexible research designs
6. Avoiding early use of theories and
concepts
Source: Bryman, A. 2004
When to use observations
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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Types of information for which observations
are a good source
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Setting
Human, social environment
Nonverbal communication
Native language
Notable non-occurrences
Gaining Access
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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Two kinds of research setting:
1. ‘closed’ or ‘private’ settings
2. ‘open’ or ‘public’ settings
Two kind of research access:
1. Overt – participants aware of researcher’s
intensions
2. Covert –researcher’s identity not disclosed
¾ Most ethnography is overt
¾ But blurred boundary between overt and covert
roles
What is my identity in the field?
The roles of observer
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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¾ Full participant and identification
¾ Full participation, no possibility for scientifically
detached observation
¾ Participant as observer
¾ Primary participant, secondary observer (“going
native”)
¾ Observer as participant
¾ Missing identification
¾ Outside observer or spectator
¾ Give up the role of participant
¾ Problem of misunderstanding
Role conflict of the researcher between
‘Participant’ and ‘Observer’
Source: Gold, R. L. (1958)
The covert role of observer
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
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¾ Advantages
¾ Obviates the need to negotiate access
¾ Reactivity is not a problem
¾ Disadvantages
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Practical difficulties in taking notes
Cannot use other methods
Anxiety about ‘blowing your cover’
Ethical problems (deception)
Access to closed settings (overt role)
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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¾ negotiating access requires “strategic
planning, hard work and dumb luck” (Van
Maanen & Kolb, 1985: 11)
¾ use friends, colleagues and contacts to
help you
¾ get support from ‘sponsors’ within the
group
¾ gain clearance from higher level
‘gatekeepers’
¾ offer something in return (e.g. a report)
¾ be clear and honest about your aims and
methods
Access to open settings (overt role)
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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¾ Problem: hostility and distrust from
members are possible
¾ Key informants (sponsor/gatekeeper)
¾ e.g. Whyte (1981) ‘Doc’
¾ ‘Hanging around’ – practice a normal
behaviour
Behaviour of the observer
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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¾ Try not to influence the field by your
observation
¾ Observe correctly and perceive in an
undistorted manner
¾ Behave so, that a further observation is
possible (no exclusion)
¾ Preserve your acceptance in the
observation field
¾ Practice an ordinary (normal) behaviour:
a mix of conformity and nonconformity
Advantages of participant observation
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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¾ A rich source of high-quality information
¾ Researcher can understand the social
pressures / influences / group norms
¾ Flexible approach, researcher does not
pre-judge the issue
¾ Formulate and test hypotheses
¾ Research produces a depth of detailed
information
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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Disadvantages of participant
observation
¾ Researcher has to learn the culture of a
group. It is not always easy or possible.
¾ Restricted to small-scale studies; carried
out over a long time period
¾ No representativeness and generalisation
¾ Problems of access to all levels of a
group
¾ Great deal of skill and commitment from
the researcher
Recording observational data
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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¾ Write down notes as soon as possible
after events (memory protocols)
¾ Write up full notes at the end of every
day (“field diary”)
¾ Detailed descriptions
¾ Gradually narrow your focus
¾ Dictaphone can be less obtrusive
¾ Types of field notes
¾ Mental notes
¾ Written notes
Example: Organic supermarkets
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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Example: Organic supermarkets
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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¾ Students project: participant observation
in organic supermarkets
¾ Context of the project
¾ Research question
¾ Research process
¾ Development of an observation schedule
¾ Carry out the observation
¾ Analysing and results
Example: Organic supermarkets
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
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¾ Observation field:
¾ The location, the social space of observation
¾ Organic and conventional supermarkets
¾ Observation units:
¾ are social situations or in general objects of
the observation
¾ Observation field, notice ability of the store,
presentations of products, quality and quantity of
products, clients
¾ Observation schedule:
¾ Is the plan, which says what, how and where
will be observed by the observer
¾ See extra paper!
Example: Organic supermarkets
Qualitative Research Methods
430C
Rural Sociology
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¾ Recording observations
¾ Do not use electronic recording equipment!
¾ Field notes:
¾ Simulation of a small shopping list for the notes
¾ Write down notes as soon as possible after events
¾ Analysing
¾ Intra-case analysis
¾ Cross-case analysis (based on rating scales)
Some results of the study
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Observation field
Appearance of the store
Quality of products
Presentation of products
Clients
Disadvantages and advantages of the
study
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¾ It’s more a structured observation.
¾ The potential of a qualitative
observation was not exploited.
¾ But: The study generated some
interesting questions for further
research.
Literature
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Rural Sociology
with Gender
Studies
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Bryman, A. (2004): Social Research Methods. Second Edition. Oxford University
Press. Chapter 14.
Whyte, W. (1981): Street Corner Society. Third Edition. University of Chicago Press.
Silverman, D. (2001): Interpreting Qualitative Data. Methods for Analysing Talk,
Text and Interaction. Second Edition. Sage Publications. Chapter 3.
Gold, R. L. (1958): Roles in Sociological Fieldwork, Social Forces, 36: 217-223.
Malinowski, B. (1922): Argonauts of the Western Pacific.
Douglas, M. (1963): The Lele of Kasai. London: Oxford University Press.
Park, R.; McKenzie, R. D.; Burgess, E. (1925): The City: Suggestions for the Study
of Human Nature in the Urban Environment. University of Chicago Press.
Goffman, E. (1953): Communication conduct in an island community.
Goffman, E. (1956): The presentation of self in everyday life. University of
Edinburgh Social Sciences Research Centre. (dt. Wir alle spielen Theater)
Goffman, E. (1961): Asylums. Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and
Other Inmates. New York, Doubleday.
Van Maanen, J.; Kolb, D. (1985): ‘The Professional Apprentice: Observations on
Fieldwork Roles in two Organisational Settings’, Research in the Sociology of
Organisations, 4: 1-33.
Giulianotti, R. (1995): ‘Participant Observation and Research into Football
Hooliganism: Reflections on the Problems of Entrée and Everyday Risks’, Sociology
of Sport Journal, 12: 1-20.