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BOOKS IN THE BROOKS/COLE BIOLOGY SERIES
Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, Eleventh, Starr/Taggart
Biology: Concepts and Applications, Seventh, Starr/Evers/Starr
Biology: Concepts and Applications Without Physiology, Seventh,
Starr/Evers/Starr
Biology Today and Tomorrow, Second, Starr/Evers/Starr
Biology, the Dynamic Science, First, Russell/Wolfe/Hertz/Starr/McMillan
Biology, Eighth, Solomon/Berg/Martin
Human Biology, Seventh, Starr/McMillan
Biology: A Human Emphasis, Seventh, Starr/Evers/Starr
Human Physiology, Fifth, Sherwood
Fundamentals of Physiology, Second, Sherwood
Human Physiology, Fourth, Rhoades/Pflanzer
Laboratory Manual for Biology, Fifth, Perry/Morton/Perry
Laboratory Manual for Human Biology, Morton/Perry/Perry
Photo Atlas for Biology, Perry/Morton
Photo Atlas for Anatomy and Physiology, Morton/Perry
Photo Atlas for Botany, Perry/Morton
Virtual Biology Laboratory, Beneski/Waber
Introduction to Cell and Molecular Biology, Wolfe
Molecular and Cellular Biology, Wolfe
Biotechnology: An Introduction, Second, Barnum
Introduction to Microbiology, Third, Ingraham/Ingraham
Microbiology: An Introduction, Batzing
Genetics: The Continuity of Life, Fairbanks/Anderson
Human Heredity, Seventh, Cummings
Current Perspectives in Genetics, Second, Cummings
Gene Discovery Lab, Benfey
Animal Physiology, Sherwood, Kleindorf, Yarcey
Invertebrate Zoology, Seventh, Ruppert/Fox/Barnes
Mammalogy, Fourth, Vaughan/Ryan/Czaplewski
Biology of Fishes, Third, Bond
Vertebrate Dissection, Ninth, Homberger/Walker
Plant Biology, Second, Rost/Barbour/Stocking/Murphy
Plant Physiology, Fourth, Salisbury/Ross
Introductory Botany, Berg
General Ecology, Second, Krohne
Essentials of Ecology, Fourth, Miller
Terrestrial Ecosystems, Second, Aber/Melillo
Living in the Environment, Fifteenth, Miller
Environmental Science, Twelfth, Miller/Spoolman
Sustaining the Earth, Eighth, Miller
Case Studies in Environmental Science, Second, Underwood
Environmental Ethics, Third, Des Jardins
Watersheds 3—Ten Cases in Environmental Ethics, Third,
Newton/Dillingham
Problem-Based Learning Activities for General Biology, Allen/Duch
The Pocket Guide to Critical Thinking , Second, Epstein
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INVITATION TO BIOLOGY
IMPACTS, ISSUES
Lost Worlds and Other Wonders
In this era of satellites, submarines, and global
positioning systems, could there possibly be any
The team discovered dozens of animals and plants
unknown to science, including a rhododendron with platesized flowers. They found animals that are being hunted
more places on Earth that we have not explored?
to extinction in other parts of the world, and a bird that
Well, yes. In 2005, for instance, helicopters dropped
supposedly was extinct.
The expedition fired the imagination of people all over
a team of biologists into a swamp in the middle of a
the world. It is not that finding new kinds of organisms is
vast and otherwise inaccessible tropical forest in New
such a rare event. Almost every week, biologists discover
many kinds of insects and other small organisms. However,
Guinea. Later, team member Bruce Beehler remarked,
“Everywhere we looked, we saw amazing things we
had never seen before. I was shouting. This trip was
a once-in-a lifetime series of shouting experiences.”
the animals in this particular rain forest—mammals and
birds especially—seem too big to have gone unnoticed
before. Had people just missed them? Perhaps not. No
trails or other human disturbances cut through that part
of the forest. The animals had never learned to be afraid
of humans, so the biologists could simply walk over and
pick them up (Figure 1.1).
Other animals have turned up in the past few years,
including lemurs in Madagascar (Figure 1.2), monkeys in
India and Tanzania, and whales and giant jellylike animals
in the seas. Most came to light during survey trips similar
to the New Guinea expedition—when biologists simply
were attempting to find out what lives where.
Figure 1.1 Biologist Kris Helgen and a rare golden-mantled
tree kangaroo in a tropical rain forest in the Foja Mountains of
New Guinea. There, in 2005, explorers discovered dozens of
previously unknown species.
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How would you vote?
The discoverer of a new species
usually is the one who gives it a scientific name. In 2005, a Canadian casino
bought the right to name a monkey species. Should naming rights be sold?
See ThomsonNOW for details, then vote online.
Key Concepts
Exploring and making sense of nature is nothing new.
We humans and our immediate ancestors have been at
it for at least 2 million years. We observe, come up with
explanations about what the observations mean, and then
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
We study the world of life at different levels of organization, which
extend from atoms and molecules to the biosphere. The quality
known as “life” emerges at the level of cells. Section 1.1
test the explanations. Ironically, the more we learn about
LIFE’S UNDERLYING UNITY
nature, the more we realize how much we have yet to learn.
The world of life shows unity, because all organisms are alike in key
respects. They consist of one or more cells, which stay alive through
ongoing inputs of energy and raw materials. They sense and respond
to changes in their external and internal environments. Their cells
contain DNA, a type of molecule that offspring inherit from parents
and that encodes information necessary for growth, survival, and
reproduction. Section 1.2
You might choose to let others tell you what to think
about the world around you. Or you might choose to
develop your own understanding of it. Perhaps, like the
New Guinea explorers, you are interested in animals and
where they live. Maybe you are interested in aspects that
affect your health, the food you eat, or your home and
family. Whatever your focus may be, the scientific study
LIFE’S DIVERSITY
organisms are constructed, where they live, and what they
The world of life also shows great diversity. Many millions of kinds
of organisms, or species, have appeared and disappeared over
time. Each species is unique in at least one trait—in some aspect
of its body form or behavior. Section 1.3
do. These examples support concepts that, when taken
EXPLAINING UNITY IN DIVERSITY
together, convey what “life” is. This chapter gives you an
Theories of evolution, especially a theory of evolution by natural
selection, help explain why life shows both unity and diversity.
Evolutionary theories guide research in all fields of biology.
Section 1.4
of life—biology—can deepen your perspective on the world.
Throughout this book, you will find examples of how
overview of basic concepts. It sets the stage for upcoming
descriptions of scientific observations and applications
that can help you refine your understanding of life.
HOW WE KNOW
Biologists make systematic observations, predictions, and tests in
the laboratory and in the field. They report their results so others
may repeat their work and check their reasoning. Sections 1.5–1.8
Links to Earlier Concepts
Figure 1.2 Goodman’s mouse lemur
(Microcebus lehilahytsara). Explorers
discovered this small mammal in a
Madagascar rain forest in 2005.
This book parallels nature’s levels of organization, from atoms to
the biosphere. Learning about the structure and function of atoms
and molecules primes you to understand the structure of living
cells. Learning about processes that keep a single cell alive can
help you understand how large organisms survive, because their
many living cells use the same processes. Knowing what it takes
for large organisms to survive can help you see why and how they
interact with one another and with the environment.
At the start of each chapter, we will be reminding you of such
connections. Within chapters, key icons and cross-references will
link you to relevant sections in earlier chapters.
3
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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
1.1
Life’s Levels of Organization
Suppose someone asks you to explain how “life” differs
from “nonlife.” Where would you start? Life’s building blocks
are as ordinary as the ones you find in rocks and the seas.
However, the quality of life emerges as particular building
blocks join up and interact in organized units called cells.
MAKING SENSE OF THE WORLD
Most of us intuitively understand what nature means,
but could you define it? Nature is everything in the
universe except what humans have manufactured. It
encompasses every substance, event, force, and energy
—sunlight, flowers, animals, bacteria, rocks, thunder,
waves, and so on. It excludes everything artificial.
Scientists, clerics, farmers, astronauts, and anyone
else who is of a mind to do so attempt to make sense of
nature. Interpretations differ, for no one can be expert
in everything learned so far or have foreknowledge of
all that remains hidden. If you are reading this book,
you are starting to explore how a subset of scientists,
the biologists, think about things, what they found out,
and what they are up to now.
molecule
Two or more atoms joined in
a chemical bond. In nature,
only living cells make the
molecules of life: complex
carbohydrates and lipids,
proteins, DNA, and RNA.
cell
A PATTERN IN LIFE’S ORGANIZATION
Biologists look at all aspects of life, past and present.
Their focus takes them all the way down to atoms, and
all the way up to global relationships among organisms
and the environment. Through their work, we glimpse
a great pattern of organization in nature.
The pattern starts at the level of atoms. Atoms are
fundamental building blocks of all substances, living
and nonliving (Figure 1.3a).
At the next level of organization are molecules, or
units in which atoms are joined together (Figure 1.3b).
Among the molecules are complex carbohydrates and
lipids, proteins, DNA, and RNA. In nature, only living
cells now make these “molecules of life.”
The pattern crosses the threshold to life when many
molecules are organized as cells (Figure 1.3c). A cell is
the smallest unit of life that can survive and reproduce
on its own, given information in DNA, energy inputs,
raw materials, and suitable environmental conditions.
An organism is an individual that consists of one or
more cells. In larger multicelled organisms, trillions of
tissue
Smallest unit that can live
and reproduce on its own
or as part of a multicelled
organism. A cell has DNA,
an outermost membrane,
and other components.
Organized array of cells
and substances that are
interacting in some task.
Bone tissue consists of
secretions (brown) from
cells such as this (white).
organ
organ system
Structural unit of two
or more tissues that
interact in one or more
tasks. This parrotfish
eye is a sensory organ
used in vision.
Organs that interact in one
or more tasks. The skin of
this parrotfish is an organ
system with tissue layers,
organs such as glands,
and other parts.
atom
Atoms are fundamental
units of all substances.
This is a model for a
single hydrogen atom.
Figure 1.3 Animated! Levels of organization in nature.
4 INTRODUCTION
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cells organize into tissues, organs, and organ systems,
all interacting in tasks that keep the whole body alive.
Figure 1.3d–g defines these body parts.
Populations are at a greater level of organization.
Each population is a group of individuals of the same
kind of organism, or species, in a specified area (Figure
1.3h). Examples are all humphead parrotfish living on
Shark Reef in the Red Sea or all California poppies in
California’s Antelope Valley Poppy Reserve.
Communities are at the next level. A community
consists of all populations of all species in a specified
area. As an example, Figure 1.3i shows a sampling of
the Shark Reef’s species. This underwater community
includes many kinds of seaweeds, fishes, corals, sea
anemones, shrimps, and other living organisms that
make their home in or on the reef. Communities may
be large or small, depending on the area defined.
The next level of organization is the ecosystem, or a
community interacting with its physical and chemical
environment. The biosphere—the most inclusive level
—encompasses all regions of Earth’s crust, waters, and
atmosphere in which organisms live.
Bear in mind, life is more than the sum of its parts.
In other words, emergent properties occur at successive
levels of life’s organization. Emergent properties are
characteristics of a system that do not appear in any of
its component parts. As one example, molecules are
not alive. Considering them separately, no one could
predict that a particular quantity and arrangement of
molecules will form a living cell. Life—an emergent
property—appears first at the level of the cell but not
at any lower level of organization in nature.
This book is a journey through the globe-spanning
organization of life. Take a moment to study Figure
1.3. You can use it as a road map showing where each
part fits into the great scheme of nature.
Nature shows levels of organization, from the simple to
the increasingly complex.
The unique properties of life emerge as certain kinds of
molecules become organized into cells. Greater levels of
organization include multicelled organisms, populations,
communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere.
GULF OF
AQABA
RED SEA
multicelled organism
Individual made of different types
of cells. Cells of most multicelled
organisms, such as this Red
Sea parrotfish, make up tissues,
organs, and organ systems.
population
community
ecosystem
Group of single-celled or
multicelled individuals of
a species in a given area.
This is a population of one
fish species in the Red Sea.
All populations of all species
in a specified area. These
populations belong to a
coral reef community in a
gulf of the Red Sea.
A community that is interacting with its
physical environment through inputs
and outputs of energy and materials.
Reef ecosystems flourish in warm, clear
seawater throughout the Middle East.
biosphere
All regions of Earth’s waters,
crust, and atmosphere that hold
organisms. In the vast universe,
Earth is a rare planet. Life as we
know it is impossible without its
abundance of free-flowing water.
CHAPTER 1
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INVITATION TO BIOLOGY 5
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LIFE ’ S UNDERLYING UNITY
1.2
Overview of Life’s Unity
Never-ending infusions of energy and materials maintain
life’s complex organization. Without those vital inputs,
organisms could not sense and respond to changes that
might disrupt their organization. They could not build
and maintain DNA and all of the other complex molecules
that help them stay alive, grow, and reproduce.
ENERGY AND LIFE’S ORGANIZATION
As you know, giving up eating would be a bad idea,
because you would run out of the energy and nutrients
that keep your body organized and functioning. Energy
is the capacity to do work. A nutrient is a particular
type of atom or molecule that has an essential role in
growth and survival.
All single-celled and multicelled organisms spend a
lot of time getting energy and nutrients, although they
get them from different sources. The differences allow
us to put organisms into one of two broad categories:
producers or consumers.
Producers get energy and simple raw materials from
environmental sources and make their own food. Plants
are producers. By a process called photosynthesis, they
use energy from the sun to make sugars from carbon
dioxide and water. Those sugars function as packets of
immediately available energy or as building blocks for
larger molecules.
Consumers cannot make their own food; they get
energy and nutrients indirectly—by eating producers
and other organisms. Animals fall within the consumer
category. So do decomposers, which feed on wastes or
remains of organisms. We find leftovers of their meals
in the environment. Producers take up the leftovers as
sources of nutrients. Said another way, producers and
consumers cycle nutrients among themselves.
Energy, however, is not cycled. It flows through the
world of life in one direction—from the environment,
through producers, then through consumers. This flow
maintains the organization of individual organisms,
and also it is the basis of life’s organization within the
biosphere (Figure 1.4). It is a one-way flow, because
with each transfer, some energy escapes as heat. Cells
do not use heat to do work. Thus, energy that enters
the world of life ultimately leaves it—permanently.
ORGANISMS SENSE AND RESPOND TO CHANGE
Energy
input,
from
sun
Producers
Energy inputs from the
environment flow through
producers, then consumers.
All energy that entered this
ecosystem eventually flows
out of it, mainly as heat.
Organisms sense and respond to changes in conditions
inside and outside the body by way of receptors. Each
receptor is a molecule or cellular structure that responds
to a specific form of stimulation, such as the energy of
sunlight or the mechanical energy of a bite (Figure 1.5).
Stimulated receptors trigger changes in activities of
organisms. For example, after you eat, the sugars from
your meal become added to the sugars that are already
circulating in your blood. Your body responds to this
input. Blood and tissue fluids form the body’s internal
Nutrient
cycling
Consumers
Nutrients get concentrated
in producers and consumers.
Some nutrients released by
decomposition may be cycled
back to the producers.
Energy output (mainly metabolic heat)
Figure 1.4 Animated! The one-way flow of energy
and cycling of materials through an ecosystem.
Figure 1.5 A roaring response to
signals from pain receptors, activated
by a lion cub flirting with disaster.
6 INTRODUCTION
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a
b
c
d
Figure 1.6 Animated!
Three examples of objects
assembled in different ways
from the same materials.
environment. Unless that environment’s composition
is kept within a certain range, cells in the body will die.
In this case, the added sugars bind to receptors on cells
of your pancreas, a large organ. Binding sets in motion
a series of events that causes cells throughout the body
to take up sugar faster, so the sugar level in your blood
returns to normal.
By sensing and adjusting to change, organisms keep
conditions in their internal environment within a range
that favors cell survival. This process is homeostasis,
and it is a defining feature of life.
ORGANISMS GROW AND REPRODUCE
Organisms grow and reproduce based on information
in DNA, a nucleic acid. DNA is the signature molecule
of life. No chunk of granite or quartz has it.
Why is DNA so important? It is the basis of growth,
survival, and reproduction. It is also the source of each
organism’s distinct features, or traits.
DNA contains instructions. Cells use some of those
instructions to make proteins, which are long chains of
amino acids. There are only 20 kinds of amino acids,
but cells string them together in different sequences to
make a tremendous variety of proteins. By analogy, a
few different kinds of tiles can be organized into many
different patterns (Figure 1.6).
Different proteins have structural or functional roles.
For instance, certain proteins are enzymes—functional
molecules that make cell activities occur much faster
than they would on their own. Without enzymes, such
activities would not happen fast enough for a cell to
survive. There would be no more cells—and no life.
e
Figure 1.7 Silkworm moth development. Instructions in DNA
guide the development of this insect through a series of stages,
from a fertilized egg (a), to a larval stage called a caterpillar (b),
to a pupal stage (c), to the winged adult form (d,e).
In nature, an organism inherits DNA—the basis of
its traits—from parents. Inheritance is the transmission
of DNA from parents to offspring. Why do baby storks
look like storks and not like pelicans? Because they
inherited stork DNA, which differs from pelican DNA.
Reproduction refers to actual mechanisms by which
parents transmit DNA to offspring. For all multicelled
individuals, DNA has information that guides growth
and development—the orderly transformation of the
first cell of a new individual into an adult (Figure 1.7).
A one-way flow of energy and a cycling of nutrients through
organisms and the environment sustain life’s organization.
Organisms maintain homeostasis by sensing and responding
to changing conditions. They make adjustments that keep
conditions in their internal environment within a range that
favors cell survival.
Organisms grow and reproduce based on information in
DNA molecules, which they inherit from their parents.
Taken together, these characteristics reinforce a global
concept: Unity underlies the world of life.
CHAPTER 1
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INVITATION TO BIOLOGY 7
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LIFE ’ S DIVERSITY
1.3
If So Much Unity, Why So Many Species?
Superimposed on life’s unity is tremendous diversity. Of
an estimated 100 billion kinds of organisms that have ever
lived on Earth, as many as 100 million are with us today.
How is it possible to organize information about so
many species, or kinds of organisms? Each species is
assigned a two-part name. The first part of the name
specifies the genus (plural, genera), which is a group
of species that share a unique set of features. When
combined with the second part, the name designates
one species. Individuals of a species share one or more
traits, and can interbreed successfully if the species is
a sexually reproducing one.
For example, Scarus is one genus of parrotfish. The
name of the humphead parrotfish shown in Figure 1.3g
is S. gibbus. A different species in the same genus, the
midnight parrotfish, is S. coelestinus. Notice the S. as an
abbreviation for Scarus. You can abbreviate any genus
name in a document after you first spell it out.
We organize and retrieve information about species
with classification systems. The main systems group
species on the basis of observable traits and evidence
of descent from a common ancestor. More inclusive
groupings above the level of genus include phylum
(plural, phyla), kingdom, and domain. Table 1.1 and
Figure 1.8 showcase a currently favored system that
classifies species into one of three domains: Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya. The protists, plants, fungi, and
animals make up domain Eukarya.
All bacteria (singular, bacterium) and archaeans are
single-celled organisms. All are prokaryotic, meaning
they do not have a nucleus. In all other organisms, this
membrane-enclosed sac holds DNA. Prokaryotes as a
group have the most diverse ways of procuring energy
and nutrients. They are producers and consumers in
nearly all of Earth’s environments, including extreme
ones such as frozen desert rocks and boiling, sulfurclogged lakes. They probably resemble the first cells.
Structurally, the protists are the simplest eukaryotic
organisms, which means their cells contain a nucleus.
Different kinds are producers or consumers. Many are
single cells that are larger and far more complex than
prokaryotes. Some are tree-sized, multicelled seaweeds.
Table 1.1
Comparison of Life’s Three Domains
Bacteria
Single cells, prokaryotic (no nucleus). Most ancient lineage.
Archaea
Single cells, prokaryotic. Evolutionarily closer to eukaryotes.
Eukarya
Eukaryotic cells (with a nucleus). Single-celled and multicelled
species categorized as protists, plants, fungi, and animals.
Bacteria
Compared with other species, these single prokaryotic cells
tap more diverse sources of energy and nutrients. Clockwise
from upper left, a bacterium with a tiny compass—a row of iron
crystals; bacteria living on human skin; spiral cyanobacteria
that are aquatic producers; and Lactobacillus cells in yogurt.
Archaea
These prokaryotes are evolutionarily closer to eukaryotes
than to bacteria. Left, a colony of methane-producing cells.
Right, two species from a hydrothermal vent on the seafloor.
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
Figure 1.8 Animated! Representatives of diversity
from the three most inclusive branchings of the tree of life.
Actually, the protists are so diverse that they are being
reclassified into a number of separate major lineages.
Cells of fungi, plants, and animals are eukaryotic.
Most fungi, such as the types that form mushrooms,
are multicelled. Many are decomposers, and all secrete
enzymes that digest food outside the body. Their cells
then absorb the released nutrients.
Plants are multicelled species. Most of them live on
land or in freshwater environments. Nearly all plants
8 INTRODUCTION
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Eukarya
Protists
Single-celled and multicelled eukaryotic species that
range from the microscopic to giant seaweeds. Many biologists
are now viewing the “protists” as many major lineages.
Plants Multicelled eukaryotes. Nearly all are photosynthetic; most
have roots, stems, and leaves. Plants are the primary producers for
ecosystems on land. Redwoods and flowering plants are examples.
Fungi
Animals
Single-celled and multicelled eukaryotes. Different kinds
are decomposers, parasites, or pathogens. Without decomposers,
communities would become buried in their own wastes.
are photosynthetic: They harness the energy in sunlight
to drive the production of sugars from carbon dioxide
and water. Besides feeding themselves, plants also are
producers that feed much of the biosphere.
The animals are multicelled consumers that ingest
tissues or juices of other organisms. Herbivores graze,
carnivores eat meat, scavengers eat remains of other
organisms, and parasites pilfer nutrients from a host’s
tissues. Animals grow and develop through a series of
stages that lead to the adult form. Most kinds actively
move about during at least part of their lives.
Multicelled eukaryotes that ingest tissues or juices of
other organisms. Like this basilisk lizard, they actively move about
during at least part of their life.
Pulling this overview together, are you starting to
get a sense of what it means when someone states that
life shows unity and diversity?
We group species on the basis of shared traits and evidence
of descent from a common ancestor. The most inclusive
groupings are domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Although unity underlies the world of life, we also observe
great diversity. Organisms differ in their details; they show
tremendous variation in traits.
CHAPTER 1
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INVITATION TO BIOLOGY 9
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EXPLAINING UNITY IN DIVERSITY
1.4
An Evolutionary View of Diversity
How can organisms be so much alike and still show
tremendous diversity? A theory of evolution by way
of natural selection is one explanation.
Individuals of a population are alike in certain aspects
of their body form, function, and behavior. Rarely are
these traits exactly alike; their details differ from one
individual to the next. For instance, except for identical
twins, all 6.5 billion individuals of the human species
(Homo sapiens) show variation in height, hair color, and
other traits.
Variations in most traits arise through mutations, or
changes in DNA. Most mutations have neutral or bad
effects, but some cause a trait to change in a way that
makes an individual of a population better adapted to
its environment than individuals without the mutation.
Such traits are adaptive. An individual with an adaptive
form of a trait is more likely to survive and pass on its
DNA to offspring. Charles Darwin, a naturalist, might
have expressed it this way:
First, a natural population tends to increase in size,
so its individuals compete more and more for food,
shelter, and other limited environmental resources.
Second, those individuals differ from one another
in the details of shared traits. Most traits are heritable;
they can be passed to offspring (by way of DNA).
Third, adaptive forms of traits make their bearers
more competitive, and so they tend to become more
common over generations. The differential survival
and reproduction of individuals in a population
that differ in the details of their heritable traits is
called natural selection.
Think of how pigeons differ in feather color, size,
and other traits (Figure 1.9a). Suppose a pigeon breeder
prefers black, curly-tipped feathers. She selects captive
birds having the darkest, curliest-tipped feathers and
lets only those birds mate. Over time, more and more
pigeons in the breeder’s captive population will have
black, curly-tipped feathers.
Pigeon breeding is a case of artificial selection. One
form of a trait is favored over others under contrived,
manipulated conditions—in an artificial environment.
Darwin saw that breeding practices could be an easily
understood model for natural selection, a favoring of
some forms of a given trait over others in nature.
Just as breeders are “selective agents” that promote
reproduction of certain pigeons, agents of selection act
on the range of variation in the wild. Among them are
pigeon-eating peregrine falcons (Figure 1.9b). Swifter
or better camouflaged pigeons are more likely to avoid
falcons and live long enough to reproduce, compared
with not-so-swift or too-flashy pigeons.
When different forms of a trait are becoming more or
less common over successive generations, evolution is
under way. In biology, evolution simply means change
is occurring in a line of descent.
Individuals of a population show variation in heritable traits,
which arises through mutations in DNA.
Because adaptive forms of traits tend to improve chances
for survival and reproduction, they become more common
in a population over successive generations.
Differential survival and reproduction among individuals of a
population that differ in the details of one or more heritable
traits is called natural selection.
In biology, evolution means change in a line of descent.
Evolutionary processes and events underlie life’s diversity.
rock pigeon
a
Figure 1.9 (a) Outcome of artificial selection: a
few of the hundreds of varieties of domesticated
pigeons descended from captive populations
of wild rock pigeons (Columba livia). (b) Peregrine
falcons (left ) prey on pigeons (right ) and thus act
as agents of natural selection in the wild.
b
10 INTRODUCTION
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HOW WE KNOW
1.5
Critical Thinking and Science
Earlier sections introduced some big concepts. Consider
approaching these views of nature—or any others—with
a critical attitude: “Why would I accept these views?”
Table 1.2
A Guide to Evidence-Based Thinking
Be able to state clearly your view on a subject.
Be aware of the evidence that led you to hold this view.
THINKING ABOUT THINKING
Ask yourself if there are alternative ways to interpret the evidence.
Most of us assume that we do our own thinking—but
do we, really? You might be surprised to find out just
how often we allow others to think for us. For instance,
a school’s job, which is to impart as much information
as possible to students, meshes with a student’s job,
which is to acquire as much knowledge as possible. In
the rapid-fire exchange of information, it is all too easy
to forget about the quality of what is being exchanged.
Accept information without question, and you allow
someone else to do your thinking for you.
Critical thinking means judging information before
accepting it. “Critical” comes from the Greek kriticos
(discerning judgment). When you think this way, you
move beyond the content of new information. You are
looking for underlying assumptions, evaluating the
supporting statements, and thinking of alternatives
(Table 1.2).
How does the busy student manage this? Be aware
of what you intend to learn from new information. Be
conscious of bias or underlying agendas in books or
lectures. Consider your own biases—what you want
to believe—and realize they influence your learning.
Question authority figures. Decide whether ideas are
based on opinion or evidence. Such practices will help
you decide whether to accept or reject the information,
or postpone your judgment about it.
THE SCOPE AND LIMITS OF SCIENCE
Because each of us is unique, there are as many ways
to think about the natural world as there are people.
Science, the systematic study of nature, is one way. It
helps us be objective about our observations of nature,
in part because of its limitations. We limit science to a
subset of the world—only that which is observable.
Science does not address some questions, such as
“Why do I exist?” Most answers to such questions are
subjective; they come from within as an integration of
the personal experiences and mental connections that
shape our consciousness. This is not to say subjective
answers have no value. No human society functions
for very long unless its individuals share standards for
making judgments, even if they are subjective. Moral,
aesthetic, and philosophical standards vary from one
society to the next, but all help people decide what is
important and good. All give meaning to what we do.
Think about the kind of information that might make you reconsider your view.
If you decide that nothing can ever persuade you to alter your view,
recognize that you are not being objective about this subject.
Also, science does not address the supernatural,
or anything that is “beyond nature.” Science does not
assume or deny that supernatural phenomena occur,
but scientists may still cause controversy when they
discover a natural explanation for something that was
thought to be unexplainable. Such controversy often
arises when a society’s moral standards have become
interwoven with traditional interpretations of nature.
As one example, centuries ago in Europe, Nikolaus
Copernicus studied the planets and decided that Earth
circles the sun. Today this seems obvious. Back then, it
was heresy. The prevailing belief was that the Creator
made Earth—and, by extension, humans—as the fixed
center of the universe. Galileo Galilei, another scholar,
found evidence for the Copernican model of the solar
system and published his findings. He was publicly
forced to put Earth back as the center of things.
Exploring a traditional view of the natural world
from a scientific perspective might be misinterpreted
as questioning morality even though the two are not
the same. As a group, scientists are no less moral, less
lawful, or less compassionate than anyone else. As you
will see next, however, they follow a certain standard:
Explanations must be testable in the natural world in ways
that others can repeat.
Science helps us communicate experiences without
bias; it may be as close as we can get to a universal
language. We are fairly sure, for example, that laws of
gravity apply everywhere in the universe. Intelligent
beings on a distant planet would likely understand the
concept of gravity. We might well use such concepts to
communicate with them—or anyone—anywhere. The
point of science, however, is not to communicate with
aliens. It is to find common ground here on Earth.
Critical thinking means systematically judging the quality
of information as you learn its content and implications.
Science looks for natural explanations of objects and
events. It does not address the supernatural.
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HOW WE KNOW
1.6
How Science Works
Scientists make potentially falsifiable predictions about
how the natural world works. They search for evidence
that may disprove or lend support to an explanation.
OBSERVATIONS, HYPOTHESES, AND TESTS
Science, again, is the systematic study of nature. To get
a sense of how to do science, consider Table 1.3 and
this list of practices, which are common in research:
1. Observe some aspect of nature.
2. Frame a question that relates to your observation.
3. Check to see what others have found out about the
subject, then propose a hypothesis, a testable answer
to your question.
4. Using the hypothesis as a guide, make a prediction:
a statement of some condition that should exist if the
hypothesis is not wrong. Making predictions is called
the if–then process—with “if” being the hypothesis
and “then” being the prediction. All predictions are
potentially falsifiable, in that tests may disprove them.
5. Devise ways to test the accuracy of your prediction
by making systematic observations or by conducting
experiments. You may perform your tests on a model,
an analogous system, if you are not able to observe or
test an object or event directly.
6. Assess the results of your tests. Results that confirm
your prediction are evidence—data—in support of the
hypothesis. Results that disprove your prediction are
evidence that the hypothesis may be flawed.
7. Report all the steps of your work, along with any
conclusions you drew, to the scientific community.
Table 1.3
Example of a Scientific Approach to a Question
1. Observation
People get cancer.
2. Question
Why do people get cancer?
3. Hypothesis
Smoking cigarettes causes cancer.
4. Prediction
If smoking causes cancer, then individuals who smoke
will get cancer more often than those who do not.
5. Observational
test
Conduct a survey of individuals who smoke and
individuals who do not smoke. Determine which
group has the highest incidence of cancers.
6. Experimental
test
Establish identical groups of laboratory rats.
Expose one group (the model system) to cigarette
smoke and compare the incidence of new cancers
(if any) with the incidence in the control group.
7. Report
Report the test results, quantitatively if possible,
and the conclusions drawn from them.
You might hear someone refer to these practices as
“the scientific method,” as if all scientists march to the
drumbeat of a fixed procedure. They do not. There are
different ways to do research, particularly in biology
(Figure 1.10). Some biologists do surveys; they observe
without making hypotheses. Others make hypotheses
and leave tests to others. Some stumble onto valuable
information they are not even looking for. Of course,
it is not only a matter of luck. Chance favors a mind
that is already prepared, by education and experience,
to recognize what the new information might mean.
Regardless of the variation, one thing is constant:
Scientists do not accept information simply because
someone says it is the truth. They evaluate evidence,
biases, and find potential alternatives. Does this sound
familiar? It should—it is critical thinking.
ABOUT THE WORD “THEORY”
Most scientists carefully avoid the word “truth” when
discussing science. Instead, they prefer to say that data
either support or do not support a hypothesis.
Suppose a hypothesis still stands even after years
of tests. It is consistent with all evidence gathered to
date. It proves useful in helping us make predictions
about other phenomena, and its predictive power has
been tested many times. When any hypothesis meets
these criteria, it becomes a scientific theory.
To give an example, observations for all of recorded
history have favored the hypothesis that gravity pulls
objects toward Earth. Scientists no longer spend time
testing the hypothesis for the simple reason that, after
many thousands of years of observation, no one has
seen otherwise. This hypothesis is an accepted theory,
but it is not an “absolute truth.” Why not? An infinite
number of tests would be necessary to confirm that it
holds under every possible circumstance.
However, a single observation or result that is not
consistent with a theory opens that theory to revision.
If gravity does cause apples to fall down, it would be
logical to predict that apples will fall down tomorrow.
However, a scientist might well see tomorrow as an
opportunity for the prediction to fail. Think about it. If
even one apple falls up instead of down tomorrow,
the theory of gravity would be re-evaluated. Like every
other theory, this one remains open to revision.
A well-tested theory is as close to the “truth” as
scientists will venture. Table 1.4 lists a few established
theories. One of them, the theory of natural selection,
holds after more than a century of testing. We cannot
be sure that it will hold under all possible conditions.
We can say it has a very high probability of not being
12 INTRODUCTION
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a
c
b
Figure 1.10 Scientists doing research in the laboratory and in the field. (a) Analyzing data
with computers. (b) At the Centers for Disease Control, Mary Ari testing a sample for the
presence of dangerous bacteria. (c) Making field observations in an old-growth forest.
wrong. In the future, if any evidence turns up that is
inconsistent with the theory of natural selection, then
biologists will revise it. Such a willingness to modify
or discard even an entrenched theory is a strength of
science, not a weakness.
You may hear people apply the word “theory” to a
speculative idea, as in the phrase “It’s just a theory.”
Speculation is opinion or belief, a personal conviction
that is not necessarily supported by testable evidence.
A scientific theory is not just an opinion. By definition,
it must be supported by many different kinds of tests
and have wide-ranging predictive power.
Unlike theories, many beliefs and opinions cannot
be tested. Without being able to test something, there
is no way to disprove it. Although personal conviction
often has tremendous value in our lives, it should not
be confused with scientific theory.
Table 1.4
Examples of Scientific Theories
Gravitational
theory
Objects attract one another with a
force that depends on their mass
and how close together they are.
Cell theory
All organisms consist of one or more
cells, the cell is the basic unit of life,
and all cells arise from existing cells.
Germ theory
Germs cause infectious diseases.
Plate tectonics
theory
Earth’s crust is like a cracked
eggshell, and its huge, fragmented
slabs slowly collide and move apart.
Theory of evolution Change can occur in lines of descent.
Theory of natural
selection
Variation in heritable traits influences
which individuals of a population
reproduce in each generation.
SOME TERMS USED IN EXPERIMENTS
Careful observations are one way to test predictions
that flow from a hypothesis. So are experiments. You
will find examples of experiments in the next section.
For now, just become acquainted with some important
terms that researchers commonly use:
1. Experiments are tests designed to support or falsify
a prediction.
2. Scientists simplify their observations by designing
experiments to test one variable at a time. A variable
is some characteristic or an event that differs among
individuals or systems and that may change over time.
Experimenters measure and manipulate variables.
3. Researchers design experiments to demonstrate the
effects of a certain variable on an experimental group.
Biological systems have so many interacting variables
that it is often impossible to separate one from the rest.
Instead, researchers test an experimental group side
by side with a control group, which is identical to the
experimental group except for the one variable being
tested. The complexity of the two groups is the same,
so presumably any differences in the results of the test
on the two groups will be due to the variable alone.
Scientific inquiry involves asking questions about some
aspect of nature, then formulating hypotheses, making
and testing predictions, and reporting the results.
A scientific theory is a concept of cause and effect that is
consistent with a large body of evidence, and is used to
make useful predictions about other related phenomena.
Because we cannot prove a theory will hold under every
possible condition, it is always open to tests and revision.
The external world, not internal conviction, is the testing
ground for scientific theories.
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HOW WE KNOW
1.7
The Power of Experimental Tests
Natural processes often are interrelated. Researchers
unravel how processes work together by studying one
variable at a time. They design experiments to identify
the function, cause, or effect of that variable in isolation.
Here we summarize two published experiments.
POTATO CHIPS AND GAS
In 1996 the FDA approved Olestra®, a type of synthetic
fat replacement made from sugar and vegetable oil, as
a food additive. Potato chips were the first Olestralaced food product on the market in the United States.
Controversy soon raged. Some people complained of
intestinal cramps after eating the chips and concluded
that Olestra caused them. Two years later, researchers
at Johns Hopkins University designed an experiment
to test the hypothesis that this food additive can cause
such a problem. They predicted that if Olestra causes
cramps, then people who eat Olestra are more likely to
get cramps than people who do not.
Hypothesis
Olestra® causes intestinal cramps.
Prediction
People who eat potato chips made with Olestra will be more
likely to get intestinal cramps than those who eat potato chips
made without Olestra.
Experiment
Results
Control Group
Experimental Group
Eats regular
potato chips
Eats Olestra
potato chips
93 of 529 people
get cramps later
(17.6%)
89 of 563 people
get cramps later
(15.8%)
Conclusion
Percentages are about equal. People who eat potato chips
made with Olestra are just as likely to get intestinal cramps
as those who eat potato chips made without Olestra.
These results do not support the hypothesis.
Figure 1.11 Animated! The steps in a scientific experiment to determine if
Olestra causes cramps. A report of this study was published in the Journal of
the American Medical Association in January 1998.
To test the prediction, they used a Chicago theater
as the “laboratory.” They asked more than 1,100 people
between ages thirteen and thirty-eight to watch a movie
and eat their fill of potato chips. Each person got an
unmarked bag that contained 13 ounces of chips. The
individuals who received a bag of Olestra-laced potato
chips were the experimental group. Individuals who
got a bag of regular chips were the control group.
Afterward, researchers contacted all of the people
and tabulated the reports of gastrointestinal cramps.
Of 563 people making up the experimental group, 89
(15.8 percent) complained about problems. However,
so did 93 of the 529 people (17.6 percent) making up
the control group—who had munched on regular chips!
This simple experiment disproved the prediction that
eating Olestra-laced potato chips at a single sitting can
cause gastrointestinal cramps (Figure 1.11).
BUTTERFLIES AND BIRDS
Consider the peacock butterfly. This winged insect has
a long life span, for a butterfly. It hibernates through
cold winter months in protected spots. The longer life
span gives butterfly-eating birds a bigger window of
opportunity to eat individual butterflies. Do the birds
act as selective agents for butterfly defenses? Probably.
In 2005, researchers published a report on their tests
to identify factors that help peacock butterflies defend
themselves against blue tits—small, insect-eating birds
that commonly prey on butterflies. Follow the thought
process that led to the experimental design.
The researchers made two key observations. First,
when a peacock butterfly rests, it folds its ragged-edged
wings, so only the dark underside shows (Figure 1.12a).
Second, when a butterfly sees a predator approaching,
it repeatedly flicks its paired forewings and hindwings
wide open, then closes them. At the same time, each
forewing slides over the hindwing, which produces a
hissing sound and a series of clicks.
The researchers asked this question, “Why does the
peacock butterfly flick its wings?” After they reviewed
earlier studies, they formulated three hypotheses that
might explain the wing-flicking behavior:
1. When folded, the butterfly wings resemble a dead
leaf. They may camouflage the butterfly—help it hide in
the open—from some predators in its forest habitat.
2. Although wing-flicking attracts birds, opening the
wings exposes brilliant spots that resemble owl eyes
(Figure 1.12b). Anything that looks like the eyes of an
owl is known to startle small, butterfly-eating birds,
so flicking wing spots might scare off predators.
14 INTRODUCTION
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a
b
Figure 1.12 Peacock butterfly defenses against predatory birds.
(a) With wings folded, a resting peacock butterfly looks like a dead
leaf. (b) When a bird approaches, the butterfly repeatedly flicks its
wings open and closed. This defensive behavior exposes brilliant
spots. It also produces hissing and clicking sounds.
Researchers tested whether the behavior deters blue tits (c).
They painted over the spots of some butterflies, cut the sound-making
part of the wings on other butterflies, and did both to a third group;
then the biologists exposed each butterfly to a hungry bird.
The results, listed in Table 1.5, support the hypotheses that peacock
butterfly spots and sounds can deter predatory birds. The study was
reported in Proceedings of the Royal Society (B) in June 2005.
c
Table 1.5
Results for Peacock Butterfly Experiment
Wing Spots
Painted Out
Wing Sound
Silenced
Number of
Survivors
Number
Eaten
Survival Rate
(percent)
No
No
9
0
100
Yes
No
5
5
50
No
Yes
8
0
100
Yes
Yes
2
8
20
3. The hissing and clicking sounds produced when the
peacock butterfly rubs the sections of its wings together
deter predatory birds.
The test results confirmed both predictions, so they
support the hypotheses. Birds are deterred by peacock
butterfly sounds, and even more so by wing spots.
The researchers decided to test hypotheses 2 and 3.
They made the following predictions:
ASKING USEFUL QUESTIONS
1. If the brilliant wing spots of peacock butterflies deter
predatory birds, then individuals having wings with
no spots will be more likely to get eaten by predatory
birds than individuals with wing spots.
2. If the sounds that peacock butterflies produce deter
predatory birds, then individuals that cannot make the
sounds will be more likely to be eaten by predatory
birds than individuals that can make the sounds.
The next step was the experiment. The researchers
painted the wing spots of some butterflies black, cut
off the sound-making part of the hindwings of others,
and did both to a third group. They put each butterfly
in a large cage with a hungry blue tit (Figure 1.12c)
and then watched the pair for thirty minutes.
Table 1.5 lists the results of the experiment. All of
the butterflies with unmodified wing spots survived,
regardless of whether they made sounds. By contrast,
only half of the butterflies that had spots painted out
but could make sounds survived. Most butterflies with
neither spots nor sound structures were eaten.
Experimenters risk interpreting their results in terms
of what they want to find out. That is why they often
design experiments to yield quantitative results, which
are counts or some other data that can be measured or
gathered objectively. Such results give other scientists
an opportunity to repeat the experiments and check
the conclusions drawn from them.
This last point gets us back to the value of thinking
critically. Scientists expect one another to put aside
bias and test hypotheses in ways that may prove them
wrong. If some individual will not do so, others will—
because science is a competitive community. It is also
cooperative. Scientists share ideas, knowing it is just
as useful to expose errors as to applaud insights.
Scientific experiments can simplify the study of a complex
natural process by restricting the researcher’s focus to a
single aspect of that process.
Researchers try to design experiments carefully in order
to minimize the potential for bias.
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HOW WE KNOW
1.8
Sampling Error in Experiments
FOCUS ON
SCIENCE
In most cases, experiments cannot be performed on
all individuals of a group or in each part of the places
where organisms live. Researchers generalize from
samplings—which opens the door for mistakes.
Natalie, blindfolded,
randomly plucks a jelly
bean from a jar. There
are 120 green and 280
black jelly beans in that
jar, so 30 percent of the
jelly beans in the jar are
green, and 70 percent
are black.
The jar is hidden
from Natalie’s view
before she removes
her blindfold. She sees
only one green jelly
bean in her hand and
assumes that the jar
must hold only green
jelly beans.
Still blindfolded,
Natalie randomly picks
out 50 jelly beans from
the jar and ends up
with 10 green and 40
black ones.
The larger sample leads Natalie to assume that one-fifth of
the jar’s jelly beans are green (20 percent) and four-fifths are
black (80 percent). The sample more closely approximates the
jar’s actual green-to-black ratio of 30 percent to 70 percent.
The more times Natalie repeats the sampling, the greater the
chance she will come close to knowing the actual ratio.
Rarely can researchers observe all individuals of a group.
For example, remember the explorers you read about in
the chapter introduction? They could not sample the entire
rain forest, which cloaks more than 2 million acres of New
Guinea’s Foja Mountains. Doing so would take unrealistic
amounts of time and effort. Besides, tromping about even
in a small area can damage forest ecosystems.
Given such constraints, researchers tend to experiment
on subsets of a population, event, or some other aspect of
nature that they select to represent the whole. They test
the subsets and use the results to make generalizations
about the whole population.
Suppose they design an experiment to identify variables
that influence the population growth of golden-mantled
tree kangaroos. They might focus only on the population
living in one acre of the Foja Mountains. If they identify
only 5 golden-mantled tree kangaroos in that specified
area, then they might extrapolate that there are 50 in
every ten acres, 100 in every twenty acres, and so forth.
However, generalizing from a subset can be risky: The
subset may not be representative of the whole. If the only
population of golden-mantled tree kangaroos in the forest
just happens to be living in the surveyed acre, then the
researchers’ assumptions about the number of kangaroos
in the rest of the forest will be wrong.
Sampling error is a difference between results from a
subset and results from the whole. It happens most often
when sample sizes are small. Starting with a large sample
or repeating the experiment many times helps minimize
sampling error (Figure 1.13). To understand why, imagine
flipping a coin. There are two possible results: The coin
lands heads up, or it lands tails up. You might predict that
the coin will land heads up as often as it lands tails up.
When you actually flip the coin, though, often it will land
heads up, or tails up, several times in a row. If you flip the
coin only a few times, the results may differ greatly from
your prediction. Flip it many times, and you probably will
come closer to having equal numbers of heads and tails.
Sampling error is an important consideration in the
design of most, if not all, experiments. The possibility that
it occurred should be part of the critical thinking process
as you read about experiments. Remember to ask: If the
experimenters used a subset of the whole, did they select
a large enough sample? Did they repeat the experiment
many times? Thinking about these possibilities will help
you evaluate the results and conclusions reached.
Figure 1.13 Animated! Demonstration of sampling error.
16 INTRODUCTION
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www.thomsonedu.com
Summary
Section 1.1 Nature has levels of organization, and
unique properties emerge at successively higher levels.
Life emerges at the cellular level. All organisms consist
of one or more cells. Most multicelled species have cells
organized into tissues, organs, and organ systems. A
population is a group of all individuals of one species in a
specified area; a community consists of all populations in
a specified area. An ecosystem is a community interacting
with its environment. The biosphere includes all regions
of Earth that hold life—land, water, and atmosphere.
Explore levels of biological organization with the
interaction on ThomsonNOW.
Section 1.2 The world of life shows underlying unity
(Table 1.6). All organisms require inputs of energy and
materials, which sustain their organization and activities.
Organisms sense change. Their responses keep conditions
in the internal environment within ranges that cells can
tolerate, a state called homeostasis. Organisms also grow
and reproduce, based on information encoded in DNA.
Use instructions with the animation on ThomsonNOW to
see how different objects are assembled from the same
materials. Also view energy flow and materials cycling.
Section 1.3 The world of life, past and present, shows
great diversity. Classification systems organize species in
ever more inclusive groups. Each species has a two-part
name. The first part is the genus name. When combined
with the second part, it designates one particular species.
A species is one kind of organism. A current classification
system groups all species into three domains: Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya. Eukarya includes protists, plants,
fungi, and animals.
Use the interaction on ThomsonNOW to explore
characteristics of the three domains of life.
Section 1.4 Life’s diversity arises as an outcome of
mutations. Mutations are changes in molecules of DNA,
which offspring inherit from their parents. In natural
populations, mutations introduce variation in the details
of heritable traits among individuals (Table 1.6).
Some forms of traits are more adaptive than others, so
their bearers are more likely to survive and reproduce.
Over generations, adaptive forms of traits tend to become
more common in a population; less adaptive forms of the
same traits become less common or are lost.
Thus, traits that help characterize a population (and a
species) can change over the generations; the population
can evolve. In biology, evolution means that change is
occurring in a line of descent.
For natural populations, the differential survival and
reproduction among individuals that vary in the details
of one or more heritable traits is called natural selection.
Learn more about natural selection and evolution
with InfoTrac readings on ThomsonNOW.
Read the InfoTrac article “Will We Keep Evolving?”
Ian Tattersall, Time, April 2000.
Section 1.5 Critical thinking is a self-directed act of
judging the quality of information as one learns.
Science is one way of looking at the natural world. It
helps us minimize bias in our judgments by focusing on
only testable ideas about observable aspects of nature.
Section 1.6 Scientific methods differ, but researchers
generally observe something in nature, form hypotheses
(testable assumptions) about it, then make predictions
about what might occur if the hypothesis is not wrong.
They test their predictions by observations, experiments,
or both. A hypothesis that is not consistent with results
of scientific tests (evidence) is modified or discarded.
Each scientific theory is a well-tested hypothesis that
explains a broad range of observations and can be used to
make useful predictions about other phenomena. Opinion
and belief have value in human culture, but neither can
be disproved by experiment. Thus, opinion and belief are
different from scientific theory.
See an annotated scientific paper in Appendix II.
Section 1.7 Biological systems are usually influenced
by many interacting variables. Scientific experiments can
simplify observations of nature by focusing on the cause,
effect, or function of one variable at a time. Researchers
design experiments carefully to minimize potential bias
in interpreting the results.
Section 1.8 Small sample size increases the likelihood
of sampling error in experiments. In such cases, a subset
may be tested that is not representative of the whole.
Table 1.6
Summary of Life’s Characteristics
Shared characteristics that reflect life’s unity
1. In nature’s great pattern of organization, the quality of life emerges
at the level of cells. All organisms consist of one or more cells.
2. Organisms make the molecules of life: complex carbohydrates
and lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
3. Ongoing inputs of energy and nutrients sustain the organization,
growth, survival, and reproduction of all organisms.
4. Organisms sense and respond to changing conditions in ways that
maintain homeostasis; they keep their internal environment within
a range that favors cell survival.
5. Organisms grow and reproduce based on heritable information
encoded in DNA.
6. The traits that characterize a population of organisms can change
over the generations; the population can evolve.
Foundations for life’s diversity
1. Mutations (heritable changes in DNA) give rise to variation in details
of body form, the functioning of body parts, and behavior.
2. Diversity is the sum total of variations that have accumulated, since
the time of life’s origin, in different lines of descent. It is an outcome
of natural selection and other processes of evolution.
CHAPTER 1
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May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
INVITATION TO BIOLOGY 17
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Self-Quiz
Answers in Appendix III
1. The smallest unit of life is the
.
and
are required to maintain levels
2.
of biological organization, from cells to populations and
communities, even entire ecosystems.
is a state in which conditions in the internal
3.
environment are being maintained within ranges that
individual cells can tolerate.
4. Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are three
.
.
5. DNA
a. contains instructions for building proteins
b. undergoes mutation
c. is transmitted from parents to offspring
d. all of the above
6.
7.
is the transmission of DNA to offspring.
a. Reproduction
c. Homeostasis
b. Development
d. Inheritance
are the original source of variation in traits.
if it improves an organism’s chances
8. A trait is
to survive and reproduce in its environment.
.
9. A control group is
a. the standard against which experimental groups
can be compared
b. the experiment that gives conclusive results
c. both a and b
10. Match the terms with the most suitable description.
emergent
a. statement of what a hypothesis
property
leads you to expect to see in nature
natural
b. testable explanation
selection
c. occurs at a higher organizational
scientific
level in nature, not at levels below it
theory
d. time-tested hypothesis that can
hypothesis
explain a range of observations
prediction e. differential survival and reproduction
among individuals of a population
that vary in details of shared traits
Visit ThomsonNOW for additional questions.
Critical Thinking
1. It is often said that only living things respond to the
environment. Yet even a rock shows responsiveness, as
when it yields to gravity’s force and tumbles down a hill
or changes its shape slowly under the repeated batterings
of wind, rain, or tides. So how do living things differ from
rocks in their responsiveness?
a Wing spots
painted out
2. Why would you think twice about ordering from a cafe
menu that lists only the second part of the species name (not
the genus) of its offerings? Hint: Look up Ursus americanus,
Ceanothus americanus, Bufus americanus, and Lepus americanus.
3. Witnesses in a court of law are asked to “swear to tell
the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.” Can
you think of a less subjective alternative for this oath?
4. Procter & Gamble makes Olestra and financed the study
described in Section 1.7. The main researcher, Lawrence
Cheskin of Johns Hopkins University, was a consultant to
Procter & Gamble during the study. What do you think
about scientific information that comes from tests financed
by companies with a vested interest in the outcome?
5. Suppose an outcome of some event has been observed to
happen with great regularity. Can we predict that the same
thing will always happen? Not really, because there is no
way to account for all of the possible variables that might
affect the outcome. To illustrate this point, Garvin McCain
and Erwin Segal offer a parable:
Once there was a highly intelligent turkey. The turkey
lived in a pen, attended by a kind, thoughtful master. It
had nothing to do but reflect on the world’s wonders and
regularities. It observed some major regularities. Morning
always started out with the sky turning light, followed by
the clop, clop, clop of the master’s footsteps, which was
always followed by the appearance of food. Other things
varied—sometimes the morning was warm and sometimes
cold—but food always followed footsteps. The sequence
of events was so predictable that it eventually became the
basis of the turkey’s theory about the goodness of the
world. One morning, after more than 100 confirmations
of the goodness theory, the turkey listened for the clop,
clop, clop, heard it, and had its head chopped off.
Any scientific theory is modified or discarded when
contradictory evidence becomes available. The absence of
absolute certainty has led some people to conclude that
“facts are irrelevant—facts change.” If that is so, should
we just stop doing scientific research? Why or why not?
6. In 2005 a South Korean scientist, Woo-suk Hwang,
reported that he made immortal stem cells from eleven
human patients. His research was hailed as a breakthrough
for people affected by currently incurable degenerative
diseases, because such stem cells might be used to repair
a person’s own damaged tissues. Hwang published his
results in a respected scientific journal. In 2006, the journal
retracted his paper after other scientists discovered that
Hwang and his colleagues had faked their results. Some
people think this incident shows that scientists are not
telling the truth about the natural world. However, others
think that the incident helps confirm the usefulness of
a scientific approach, because other scientists quickly
discovered and exposed the fraud. What do you think?
b Wing spots
c Wing spots
d Wings painted
e Wings
f Wings painted but
visible; wings
silenced
painted out;
wings silenced
but spots visible
cut but not
silenced
spots visible; wings
cut but not silenced
Figure 1.14 Experimental peacock butterflies modified with a black marker pen and scissors.
18 INTRODUCTION
Copyright 2008 Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
7. Figure 1.14 shows the
experimental and control
groups used in the peacock
butterfly experiment from
Section 1.7. See if you can
identify each experimental
group, and match it with a
control group. Hint: Identify
which variable is being tested
in each group (each variable
has a control).
Licensed to: iChapters User
Appendix III. Answers to Self-Quizzes and Genetics Problems
Italicized numbers refer to relevant section numbers
CHAPTER 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
cell
energy, nutrients
Homeostasis
Domains
d
1.2,
d
Mutations
adaptive
a
1.6,
c
e
d
b
a
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.7
1.1
1.4
1.6
1.6
1.6
This page contains answers for this chapter only.
Appendix III
Copyright 2008 Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
Art Credits and Acknowledgments
This page constitutes an extension of the book
copyright page. We have made every effort to
trace the ownership of all copyrighted material
and secure permission from copyright holders.
In the event of any question arising as to the
use of any material, we will be pleased to make
the necessary corrections in future printings.
Thanks are due to the following authors,
publishers, and agents for permission to use
the material indicated.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page iv left, upper,
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Strauss; Photos by Victor Fisher, courtesy
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INTRODUCTION NASA Space Flight Center
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International; right, © Steve Richards. 1.2 Photo
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Library/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (e) © Bill
Varie/Corbis; (f–h) © Jeffrey L. Rotman/Corbis;
(i) © Peter Scoones; (j–k) NASA. 1.4 above,
Photodisc/ Getty Images; below, David Neal
Parks. 1.5 © Y. Arthus-Bertrand/ Peter Arnold,
Inc. 1.6 Photographs by Jack de Coningh. 1.7 ©
Jack de Coningh. 1.8 (a) clockwise from top left,
© Dr. Richard Frankel; © David Scharf, 1999. All
rights reserved; © Susan Barnes; © SciMAT/
Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) left, © R. Robinson/
Visuals Unlimited, Inc.; right, © Dr. Harald
Huber, Dr. Michael Hohn, Prof. Dr. K. O. Stetter,
University of Regensburg, Germany; (c) above,
left, clockwise from top, © Lewis Trusty/
Animals Animals; © Emiliania Huxleyi photograph, Vita Pariente, scanning electron micrograph taken on a Jeol T330A instrument at Texas
A&M University Electron Microscopy center; ©
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Stack & Associates; inset, © Edward S. Ross;
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Stephen Dalton/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
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Disease Control and Prevention; (c) © Raymond
Gehman/ Corbis. 1.11 top, © Superstock. 1.12
(a) © Matt Rowlings, www.eurobutterflies.com;
(b) © Adrian Vallin; (c) © Antje Schulte. 1.13 ©
Gary Head. 1.14 Scientific Paper; Adrian Vallin,
Sven Jakobsson, Johan Lind and Christer
Wiklund, Proc. R. Soc. B (2005 272, 1203, 1207).
Used with permission of The Royal Society and
the author.
Page 19 UNIT I © Wim van Egmond,
Micropolitan Museum
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center, © Bill Beatty/ Visuals Unlimited. 2.11
(a,b,c, left) PDB file from NYU Scientific
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Rainbow; (c, right) © Dan Guravich/ Corbis.
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Stone/ Getty Images; right, © Dr. W. Michaelis/
Universitat Hamburg. 3.2 (a,b), PDB file from
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from Klotho Biochemical Compounds
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Researchers, Inc. 3.8 © Steve Chenn/ CORBIS.
3.9 © David Scharf/ Peter Arnold, Inc. 3.11 left,
© Kevin Schafer/ CORBIS. 3.12 left, ©
ThinkStock/ SuperStock. Page 41 Kenneth
Lorenzen. 3.16 (a–d, bottom) PDB files from
NYU Scientific Visualization Lab. 3.17 (b, right)
After: Introduction to Protein Structure, 2nd ed.,
Branden & Tooze, Garland Publishing, Inc.; (c,
left) PDB ID: 1BBB; Silva, M. M., Rogers, P. H.,
Arnone, A.; A third quaternary structure of
human hemoglobin A at 1.7-Å resolution; J Biol
Chem 267 pp. 17248 (1992); (c, right) After:
Introduction to Protein Structure, 2nd ed., Branden
& Tooze, Garland Publishing, Inc. 3.17 PDB ID:
1BBB; Silva, M. M., Rogers, P. H., Arnone, A.; A
third quaternary structure of human hemoglobin
A at 1.7-Å resolution; J Biol Chem 267 pp. 17248
(1992). 3.19 (a,b) PDB files from New York
University Scientific Visualization Center; (c) ©
Dr. Gopal Murti/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.;
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Drew, R. M. Wing, T. Takano, C. Broka, S.
Tanaka, K. Itakura, R. E. Dickerson; Structure of
a B-DNA Dodecamer. Conformation and
Dynamics; PNAS V. 78 2179, 1981. 3.23 right, ©
Professor P. Motta/ Department of Anatomy/
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G. F., Tormo, J., Gerth, U. C., Wyer, J. R.,
McMichael, A. J., Stuart, D. I., Bell, J. I., Jones,
E. Y., Jakobsen, B. K.; Crystal structure of the
complex between human CD8alpha(alpha)
and HLA-A2; Nature 387 pp. 630 (1997); right,
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Decker. 4.16 Micrographs: (a) Stephen L. Wolfe;
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Fawcett/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) © Mike
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Stephen L. Wolfe, Molecular and Cellular Biology,
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Photo Researchers, Inc. 4.28 (a,b) From Tissue
and Cell, Vol. 27, pp. 421–427, Courtesy of Bjorn
Afzelius, Stockholm University.
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Goodin, The Scripps Research Institute; right, ©
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Liddington, R., Tame, J., Wilkinson, A., Dodson,
G.; Crystal structure of T state hemoglobin with
oxygen bound at all four haems. J.Mol.Biol.,
v256, pp. 775–792, 1996. 5.10 (b) © Scott
McKiernan/ ZUMA Press. 5.11 (b) © Perennou
Nuridsany/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 5.16 top, ©
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Library/ Photo Researchers; Art, Raychel
Ciemma. 5.19 PDB files from NYU Scientific
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“The Mechanism of Ca2+ Transport by Sarco
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Volume 272, Number 46, Issue of November 14,
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Ciemma; (b–d) © M. Sheetz, R. Painter, and S.
Singer, J of Cell Biol., 70:193 (1976) by permission,
The Rockefeller University Press. 5.23 (a) © Gary
Head; (b,c) © Perennou Nuridsany/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 5.25 © R. G. W. Anderson, M. S.
Brown and J. L. Goldstein. Cell 10:351 (1977)
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Brno. 10.3 © Jean M. Labat/ Ardea, London.
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courtesy Genetic Savings & Clone. 12.2 C.
Barrington Brown, 1968 J. D. Watson. 12.4 left,
lower, © Eye of Science/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
12.6 PDB ID: 1BBB; Silva, M. M., Rogers, P. H.,
Arnone, A.: A third quaternary structure of
human hemoglobin A at 1.7-Å resolution. J Biol
Chem 267 pp. 17248 (1992). 12.10 (a–c) © James
King-Holmes/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (d)
© Mc Leod Murdo/Corbis Sygma. 12.11
Shahbaz A. Janjua, MD, Dermatlas; www
.dermatlas.org.
CHAPTER 13 13.1 right, © Vaughan Fleming/
SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 13.3 (d) below, ©
Model by Dr. David B. Goodin, The Scripps
Research Institute. 13.10 left, © Nik Kleinberg;
right, P. J. Maughan. 13.11 © John W. Gofman
and Arthur R. Tamplin. From Poisoned Power:
The Case Against Nuclear Power Plants Before and
After Three Mile Island, Rodale Press, PA, 1979.
13.13 © Dr. M.A. Ansary / SPL/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.
CHAPTER 14 14.1 Page 208, From the archives
of www.breastpath.com, courtesy of J.B. Askew,
Jr., M.D., P.A. Reprinted with permission, copyright 2004 Breastpath.com.; page 209, Courtesy
of Robin Shoulla and Young Survival Coalition.
14.2 (b) From the collection of Jamos Werner and
John T. Lis. 14.3 (b) From the collection of Jamos
Werner and John T. Lis. 14.4 (a,b) © Dr. William
Strauss; (c) © DermAtlas, www.dermatlas.org.
14.5 © Thinkstock Images/ JupiterImages
Corporation. 14.6 (a) lower, © Juergen Berger,
Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology,
Germany; (b) © Jose Luis Riechmann. Page 214
© Lisa Starr. 14.7 (a) © Jürgen Berger, MaxPlanck-Institut for Developmental Biology,
Tübingen; (b) © Visuals Unlimited; (c) © Eye of
Science/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (d) far right,
Courtesy of Edward B. Lewis, California
Institute of Technology; all others, © Carolina
Biological/ Visuals Unlimited. 14.8 (a) Palay/
Beaubois after Robert F. Weaver and Philip W.
Hedrick, Genetics. © 1989 W. C. Brown
Publishers; (b,c) © Jim Langeland, Jim Williams,
Julie Gates, Kathy Vorwerk, Steve Paddock and
Sean Carroll, HHMI, University of WisconsinMadison. Page 217 © Lowe Worldwide, Inc. as
Agent for National Fluid Milk Processor
Promotion Board. 14.10 (a) © Jim Langeland,
Jim Williams, Julie Gates, Kathy Vorwerk, Steve
Paddock and Sean Carroll, HHMI, University of
Wisconsin-Madison; (b) © Craig Brunetti and
Sean Carroll, Howard Hughes Medical Institute,
University of Wisconsin.
CHAPTER 15 15.1 (a,b) © Courtesy of Golden
Rice Humanitarian Board; page 221, ©
ScienceUV/ Visuals Unlimited. 15.3 (a) ©
Professor Stanley Cohen/SPL/Photo
Researchers, Inc.; (b) with permission of © QIAGEN, Inc. 15.9 Courtesy of © Genelex Corp.
15.10 right, © Volker Steger/ SPL/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 15.11 © Ken Cavanagh/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 15.12 Courtesy of Joseph
DeRisa. From Science, 1997 Oct. 24; 278 (5338)
680–686. Page 230 Photo Courtesy of Systems
Biodynamics Lab, P.I. Jeff Hasty, UCSD
Department of Bioengineering, and Scott
Cookson. 15.13 (d) © Lowell Georgis/ Corbis;
Licensed to: iChapters User
(e) © Keith V. Wood. 15.14 (a) The Bt and NonBt corn photos were taken as part of field trial
conducted on the main campus of Tennessee
State University at the Institute of Agricultural
and Environmental Research. The work was
supported by a competitive grant from the
CSREES, USDA titled “Southern Agricultural
Biotechnology Consortium for Underserved
Communities,” (2000–2005). Dr. Fisseha Tegegne
and Dr. Ahmad Aziz served as Principal and Coprincipal Investigators respectively to conduct
the portion of the study in the State of
Tennessee; (b) © Dr. Vincent Chaing, School of
Forestry and Wood Projects, Michigan
Technology University. 15.15 (a) © Adi Nes,
Dvir Gallery Ltd.; (b) Transgenic goat produced
using nuclear transfer at GTC Biotherapeutics.
Photo used with permission; (c) Photo courtesy
of MU Extension and Agricultural Infomation.
15.16 R. Brinster, R. E. Hammer, School of
Veterinary Medicine, University of
Pennsylvania. Page 234 © Jeans for Gene
Appeal. 15.17 (b) © Mike Stewart/ Corbis
Sygma; (c) © Simon Kwong/ REUTERS/
Landov; (d) © Work of Atsushi Miyawaki, Qing
Xiong, Varda Lev-Ram, Paul Steinbach, and
Roger Y. Tsien at the University of California,
San Diego.
sion of Wiley-Liss, Inc., a subsidiary of John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., (d) Courtesy of Prof. Dr. G.
Elisabeth Pollerberg, Institut für Zoologie,
Universität Heidelberg, Germany; (e) USGS.
16.20 (a) © Chip Clark; (b) above, Tait/
Sunnucks Peripatus Research; below and (c)
below, © Jennifer Grenier, Grace Boekhoff-Falk
and Sean Carroll, HMI, University of WisconsinMadison (c) above, © Herve Chaumeton/
Agence Nature; below; (d) above, © Peter
Skinner/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; below,
Courtesy of Dr. Giovanni Levi. 16.23 from left,
© Kjell B. Sandved/ Visuals Unlimited; © Jeffrey
Sylvester/ FPG/ Getty Images; © Thomas D.
Mangelsen/ Images of Nature. 16.24 from left,
© Science Photo Library/ Photo Researchers,
Inc.; © Galen Rowell/ Corbis; © Kevin Schafer/
Corbis; Courtesy of Department of Entomology,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln; Bruce Coleman,
Ltd. 16.27 left from top, © Hans Reinhard/
Bruce Coleman, Inc.; © Phillip Colla, oceanlight
.com; © Randy Wells/ Corbis; © Cousteau
Society/ The Image Bank/ Getty Images; © Jack
Jeffrey Photography. 16.29 Courtesy of Irving
Buchbinder, DPM, DABPS, Community Health
Services, Hartford CT 16.30 © John Klausmeyer,
University of Michigan Exhibit of Natural
History.
of Queensland. 18.3 © Jeff Hester and Paul
Scowen, Arizona State University, and NASA.
18.4 (a) Painting by William K. Hartmann. 18.6
(a) © Eiichi Kurasawa/ Photo Researchers, Inc.;
(b) © Dr. Ken MacDonald/ SPL/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; (c) © Micheal J. Russell,
Scottish Universities Environmental Research
Centre. 18.7 (a) © Sidney W. Fox; (b) From
Hanczyc, Fujikawa, and Szostak, Experimental
Models of Primitive Cellular Compartments:
Encapsulation, Growth, and Division;www
.sciencemag.org Science 24 October 2003; 302;
529, Figure 2, page 619. Reprinted with permission of the authors and AAAS. 18.8 (a) ©
Stanley M. Awramik; (b,c) © Bruce Runnegar,
NASA Astrobiology Institute; (d) © N. J.
Butterfield, University of Cambridge. 18.9 (a) ©
Christopher Scotese, PALEOMAP Project; (b) ©
Chase Studios/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (c) ©
John Reader/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (d)
© Sinclair Stammers/ SPL/ Photo Researchers,
Inc.; (e) © Neville Pledge/ South Australian
Museum. 18.10 (a) © CNRI/ Photo Researchers,
Inc.; (b) © Robert Trench, Professor Emeritus,
University of British Columbia. 18.11 (a) ©
CNRI/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) © Robert
Trench, Professor Emeritus, University of British
Columbia.
Page 237, UNIT III © Wolfgang Kaehler/ Corbis.
CHAPTER 17 17.1 page 264, © Reuters
NewMedia, Inc./ Corbis; page 265, © Rollin
Verlinde/ Vilda. 17.2 (a) © Alan Solem; (b)
third from left, © Roderick Hulsbergen/
http://www.photography.euweb.nl; all others,
© JupiterImages Corporation. 17.3 top, ©
Photodisc/ Getty Images. 17.6 J. A. Bishop,
L. M. Cook. 17.7 Courtesy of Hopi Hoekstra,
University of California, San Diego. 17.10 ©
Peter Chadwick/ Science Photo Library/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 17.11 © Thomas Bates Smith.
17.12 (a) Courtesy of Gerald Wilkinson; (b) ©
Bruce Beehler. 17.13 (a,b) After Ayala and others;
(c) © Michael Freeman/ Corbis. 17.14 Adapted
from S. S. Rich, A. E. Bell, and S. P. Wilson,
“Genetic drift in small populations of
Tribolium,” Evolution 33:579–584, Fig. 1, p. 580,
1979. Used by permission of the publisher. 17.15
© Frans Lanting/ Minden Pictures (computermodified by Lisa Starr). 17.16 left, © David Neal
Parks; right, © W. Carter Johnson. Page 278 ©
Alvin E. Staffan/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 17.19
left, Courtesy of Dr. James French; right,
Courtesy of Joe Decruyenaere. 17.20 G. Ziesler/
ZEFA. 17.21 (a) © Graham Neden/ Corbis; (b) ©
Kevin Schafer/ Corbis; center, © Ron Blakey,
Northern Arizona University (c) © Rick Rosen/
Corbis SABA. 17.22 Po’ouli, Bill Sparklin/
Ashley Dayer; All others, © Jack Jeffrey
Photography. 17.24 (a) © Ian Hutton; (b)
Courtesy of Peter Richardson; (c) © Jo Wilkins.
17.25 (a,b) Courtesy of Dr. Robert Mesibov. 17.26
Courtesy of Daniel C. Kelley, Anthony J. Arnold,
and William C. Parker, Florida State University
Department of Geological Science. 17.27 © Photo
by Marcel Lecoufle. Page 286 Image courtesy of
the Image Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson
Space Center. 17.29 from left, © Gary Head; ©
Dan Guravich/ Corbis; © Theo Allofs/Corbis.
17.30 from left, © Francois Gohier/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; © David Parker/ SPL/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 17.31 © Gulf News, Dubai,
UAE. Page 286 © JupiterImages Corporation.
Page 303 UNIT IV © Layne Kennedy/ Corbis.
CHAPTER 16 16.1 (a) © Brad Snowder; (b) ©
David A. Kring, NASA/ Univ. Arizona Space
Imagery Center. 16.2 (a,c) © Wolfgang Kaehler/
Corbis; (b) © Earl & Nazima Kowall/ Corbis;
(d,e) © Edward S. Ross. 16.3 left, Gary Head;
right above, © Bruce J. Mohn; inset, © Phillip
Gingerich, Director, University of Michigan.
Museum of Paleontology. 16.4 © Jonathan
Blair/ Corbis. 16.5 (a) Courtesy George P.
Darwin, Darwin Museum, Down House; (b) ©
Christopher Ralling; (e) © Dieter & Mary Plage/
Survival Anglia; above, page 243, © Heather
Angel. 16.6 (a) © Joe McDonald/ Corbis; (b) ©
Karen Carr Studio/ www.karencarr.com. 16.7
(a) © Gerra and Sommazzi/ www.justbirds.org;
(b) © Kevin Schafer/ Corbis; (c) © Alan Root/
Bruce Coleman Ltd. 16.8 © Down House and
The Royal College of Surgeons of England. 16.9
(a) © H. P. Banks; (b) © Jonathan Blair; (c)
Courtesy of Stan Celestian/ Glendale Comunity
College Earth Science Image Archive. 16.10 ©
Jonathan Blair/ Corbis. 16.11 (a) Gary Head; (b)
© Photodisc/ Getty Images; (c,d) Lisa Starr.
16.14 (a) NASA/ GSFC. 16.15 left, © Martin
Land/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; right, © John
Sibbick; (a–e) After A.M. Ziegler, C.R. Scotese,
and S.F. Barrett, “Mesozoic and Cenozoic
Paleogeographic Maps,” and J. Krohn and J.
Sundermann (Eds.), Tidal Frictions and the Earth’s
Rotation II, Springer-Verlag, 1983. 16.17 (a)
© Taro Taylor, www.flickr.com/photos/tjt195;
(b) © JupiterImages Corporation; (c) © Linda
Bingham. 16.18 (a–b) Courtesy of Professor
Richard Amasino, University of WisconsinMadison; (c) © Jose Luis Riechmann; (d)
Courtesy of Professor Martin F. Yanofsky, UCSD.
16.19 (a) © Lennart Nilsson/ Bonnierforlagen
AB; (b) Courtesy of Anna Bigas, IDIBELLInstitut de Recerca Oncologica, Spain; (c) From
Embryonic staging system for the short-tailed
fruit bat, Carollia perspicillata, a model organism for
the mammalian order Chiroptera, based upon timed
pregnancies in captive-bred animals, C.J. Cretekos
et al., Developmental Dynamics, Vol. 233, Issue 3,
July 2005, pp. 721–738. Reprinted with permis-
CHAPTER 18 18.1 © Peter Menzel/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; inset, Courtesy of Agriculture
Canada. 18.2 © Philippa Uwins/ The University
CHAPTER 19 19.1 © David Lees/Getty
Images. Page 305 © R. Sorensen/ J. Olsen/
Photo Researchers, Inc. 19.3 (a) © P. Hawtin,
University of Southampton/ SPL/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; (b) © Dr. Dennis Kunkel/
Visuals Unlimited. 19.6 (a) © Dr. Jeremy
Burgess/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) © P.
W. Johnson and J. Mc N. Sieburth, Univ. Rhode
Island/ BPS; (c) © Dr. Manfred Schloesser, Max
Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology. 19.7
© Dr. Terry J. Beveridge, Department of
Microbiology, University of Guelph, Ontario,
Canada. 19.8 (a) © Stem Jems/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; (b) © California Department
of Health Services; (c) © Bernard Cohen, M.D.,
DermAtlas; http://www.dermatlas.org. 19.10
(a) © Courtesy Jack Jones, Archives of
Microbiology, Vol. 136, 1983, pp. 254–261.
Reprinted by permission of Springer-Verlag; (b)
© Dr. John Brackenbury/ Photo Researchers,
Inc. 19.11 (a) © Martin Miller / Visuals
Unlimited; (b) © Dr. Harald Huber, Dr. Michael
Hohn, Prof. Dr. K. O. Stetter, University of
Regensburg, Germany; (c) © Savannah River
Ecology Laboratory; (d) © Alan L. Detrick,
Science Source/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 19.12
(a) left, after Stephen L. Wolfe; right, © Dr.
Harold Fisher/ Visuals Unlimited; (b) top © Dr.
Hans Gelderblom/ Visuals Unlimited; bottom,
after Stephen L. Wolfe. 19.14 © Russell
Knightly/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 19.15 (a)
Photo by Barry Fitzgerald, Courtesy of USDA;
(b) Photo by Peggy Greb, Courtesy of USDA.
19.16 (a) © APHIS photo by Dr. Al Jenny; (b) ©
Lily Echeverria/ Miami Herald; (bottom) PDB
ID: 1QLX; Zahn, R., Liu, A., Luhrs, T., Riek, R.,
Von Schroetter, C., Garcia, F. L., Billeter, M.,
Calzolai, L., Wider, G., Wuthrich, K.: NMR
Solution Structure of the Human Prion Protein,
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 97 pp. 145 (2000).
Page 315 center, © Sercomi/ Photo Researchers,
Inc.; others, © CAMR, Barry Dowsett/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 19.17 From left, Gary Head;
E. A. Zottola, University of Minnesota. 19.18
Kenneth M. Corbett.
Copyright 2008 Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
CHAPTER 20 20.1 (a) © Wim van Egmond/
Visuals Unlimited; (b) © Adam Woolfitt/ Corbis;
(c) © Ric Ergenbright/ Corbis. Page 321 © Dr.
Stan Erlandsen, University of Minnesota. 20.4 (a)
© Dr. Dennis Kunkel/ Visuals Unlimited; (b) ©
Oliver Meckes/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 20.5 ©
Dr. David Phillips/ Visuals Unlimited. 20.6 (a)
Courtesy of Allen W. H. Bé and David A. Caron;
(b) © John Clegg/ Ardea, London. 20.7 (a)
Redrawn from V. & M. Pearse and M. & R.
Buchsbaum, Living Invertebrates, The Boxwood
Press, 1987. Used by permission; (b) Courtesy
James Evarts. 20.8 (a) left, © Wim van Egmond/
Micropolitan Museum; right, © Frank Borges
Llosa/ www.frankley.com; (b) left, © Dr. David
Phillips/ Visuals Unlimited; right, © Lexey
Swall/ Staff from article, Deep Trouble: Bad
Blooms, October 3, 2003 by Eric Staats. 20.9 (a)
© Sinclair Stammers/ Photo Researchers, Inc.;
(c) © London School of Hygiene & Tropical
Medicine/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (d) ©
Moredum Animal Health, Ltd./ Photo
Researchers, Inc; (e) Micrograph Steven
L’Hernaults. Page 325 left, International Potato
Center, Lima, Peru. 20.10 (a) © Susan Frankel,
USDA-FS; (b) Heather Angel. 20.11 (a) Greta
Fryxell, University of Texas, Austin; (b) © Wim
van Egmond/ Visuals Unlimited; (c) © Emiliania
Huxleyi. Photograph by Vita Pariente. Scanning
electron micrograph taken on a Jeol T330A
instrument at the Texas A & M University
Electron Microscopy Center; (d) Ron Hoham,
Dept. of Biology, Colgate University. 20.12 left,
from T. Garrison, Oceanography: An Invitation to
Marine Science, Brooks/Cole, 1993; right, ©
Lewis Trusty/ Animals Animals. 20.13 right,
Courtesy of Professeur Michel Cavalla. 20.14 (a)
Courtesy of Professor Astrid Saugestad; (b) ©
Lawson Wood/ Corbis; (c) Courtesy Microbial
Culture Collection, National Institute for
Environmental Studies, Japan; (d) © Wim van
Egmond. 20.15 bottom, © PhotoDisc/ Getty
Images. 20.16 © Wim van Egmond. 20.17 (a) ©
M I Walker/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©
Edward S. Ross; (c) © Courtesy of www
.hiddenforest.co.nz. 20.18 bottom, Courtesy
Robert R. Kay from R. R. Kay, et al., Development,
1989 Supplement, pp. 81–90, © The Company of
Biologists Ltd.; all others, © Carolina Biological
Supply Company. 20.19 Gary W. Grimes and
Steven L’Hernault. 20.20 © W. P. Armstrong;
inset, Courtesy Brian Duval. 20.21 © Jeffrey
Levinton, State University of New York, Stony
Brook. Page 330 Gary Head.
CHAPTER 21 21.1 page 332 left, upper, © Jeri
Hochman and Martin Hochman, Illustration by
Zdenek Burian; lower, © Karen Carr Studio/
www.karencarr.com; right, © T. Kerasote/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; page 333, © Craig Allikas/
www.orchidworks.com. Page 334 left, upper, ©
Reprinted with permission from Elsevier; lower,
© Patricia G. Gensel. 21.2 (b) After E.O. Dodson
and P. Dodson, Evolution: Process and Product,
Third Ed., p. 401, PWS. 21.3 above, ©
Christopher Scotese, PALEOMAP Project. 21.4 ©
Craig Wood/ Visuals Unlimited. 21.5 top center,
© Jane Burton/Bruce Coleman Ltd.; art, Raychel
Ciemma. 21.6 (a) © Fred Bavendam/ Peter
Arnold, Inc.; (b) © John D. Cunningham/
Visuals Unlimited. 21.7 (a) © University of
Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Biology,
Anthoceros CD; (b) left, © National Park
Services, Paul Stehr-Green; right, © National
Park Services, Martin Hutten; (c) both, © Wayne
P. Armstrong, Professor of Biology and Botany,
Palomar College, San Marcos, California. 21.8
(a) © Ed Reschke/ Peter Arnold, Inc. (b) ©
Gerald D. Carr; (c) © Colin Bates; (d) Photo by
A. Murray, University of Florida, Center for
Aquatic and Invasive Plants. Used with permission; (e) © Derrick Ditchburn/ Visuals
Unlimited. 21.9 © A. & E. Bomford/ Ardea,
London; art, Raychel Ciemma. 21.10 (a) © S.
Navie (b) © David C. Clegg/ Photo Researchers,
Inc.; (c) © Klein Hubert/ Peter Arnold, Inc.
21.11 right, © PaleoDirect.com. 21.12 © Field
Museum of Natural History, Chicago (Neg.
#7500C); inset, © Brian Parker/ Tom Stack &
Associates. Page 341 right, © George J. Wilder/
Visuals Unlimited, computer enhanced by
Lachina Publishing Services, Inc. 21.13 (a) ©
Ralph Pleasant/ FPG / Getty Images; (b) © Earl
Roberge/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (c) © George
Loun/ Visuals Unlimited; (d) Courtesy of Water
Research Commission, South Africa. 21.14 (a) ©
Dave Cavagnaro/ Peter Arnold, Inc.; (b) © M.
Fagg, Australian National Botanic Gardens; (c) ©
E. Webber/ Visuals Unlimited; (d) © Michael P.
Gadomski/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (e) ©
Sinclair Stammers/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (f)
Courtesy of © www.waysidegardens.com; (g) ©
Gerald & Buff Corsi/ Visuals Unlimited; (h) ©
Fletcher and Baylis/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
21.15 left, © Robert Potts, California Academy of
Sciences (a) © Robert & Linda Mitchell
Photography; (b) © R. J. Erwin/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 21.16 from top, © Ed Reschke;
© Lee Casebere; © Robert & Linda Mitchell
Photography; © Runk & Schoenberger / Grant
Heilman, Inc. 21.18 (a) © Michelle Garrett/
Corbis (b) © Sanford/ Agliolo/ Corbis; (c) ©
Gregory G. Dimijian/ Photo Researchers, Inc.;
(d) © Darrell Gulin/ Corbis; (e) © DLN/
Permission by Dr. Daniel L. Nickrent. 21.20 ©
Dan Fairbanks. 21.22 left, © Clinton Webb; right,
Gary Head. 21.23 © Rod Planck/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 21.24 © William Campbell/
TimePix/ Getty Images.
CHAPTER 22 22.1 page 350 both, © Charles
Lewallen; page 351, © Jacques Langevin/
Corbis Sygma. 22.3 (a,d) © Robert C. Simpson/
Nature Stock. 22.4 (a,b) © Ed Reschke; below, ©
Dr. John D. Cunningham/ Visuals Unlimited.
22.5 (a) upper, © Michael Wood/ mykob.com;
lower, © North Carolina State University,
Department of Plant Pathology; (b) © Bill
Beatty/ Visuals Unlimited; (c) © Dr. Dennis
Kunkel/ Visuals Unlimited. 22.6 N. Allin and G.
L. Barron. 22.7 left, Garry T. Cole, University of
Texas, Austin/ BPS; right, © Eye of Science/
Photo Researchers, Inc.; art, After T. Rost, et al.,
Botany, Wiley 1979. 22.8 (a) Gary Head; (b) ©
Mark Mattock/ Planet Earth Pictures; (c) ©
Mark E. Gibson/ Visuals Unlimited; (d) After
Raven, Evert, and Eichhorn, Biology of Plants, 4th
ed., Worth Publishers, New York, 1986. 22.9 (a)
© Gary Braasch; (b) © F. B. Reeves. 22.10 (a) ©
Dr. P. Marazzi/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b)
© Eric Crichton/ Bruce Coleman, Inc.; (c) ©
Harry Regin. 22.11 John Hodgin. 22.12 © Robert
C. Simpson/ Nature Stock. 22.13 (a) © Jane
Burton/ Bruce Coleman, Ltd.; (b) © Chris
Worden.
CHAPTER 23 23.1 (a) © K.S. Matz; (b) ©
Callum Roberts, University of York. 23.4 © The
Natural History Museum (London). 22.5 (a,b)
David Patterson, courtesy micro*scope/
http://microscope.mbl.edu; (c) © 2003 Ana
Signorovitch. 23.7 (a) © David Sailors/ Corbis;
Copyright 2008 Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
(b) Marty Snyderman/ Planet Earth Pictures; (c)
© Don W. Fawcett/ Visuals Unlimited; (d) ©
Bruce Hall. 23.9 (c) © Brandon D. Cole/ Corbis;
(d) © Jeffrey L. Rotman/ Corbis. 23.10 (a) after
Eugene Kozloff; (b) Courtesy of Dr. William H.
Hamner. 23.11 (a) © Kim Taylor/ Bruce
Coleman, Ltd.; (b) © A.N.T./ Photo Researchers,
Inc.; inset, © Peter Parks/ Image Quest 3D.
23.12 After T. Storer, et al., General Zoology, Sixth
Edition. 23.14 © James Marshall/ Corbis. 23.15
(c) © Andrew Syred/ SPL/ Photo Researchers,
Inc. 23.16 (a,b) Adapted from Rasmussen,
“Ophelia,” Vol. 11, in Eugene Kozloff,
Invertebrates, 1990; (c) © J. Solliday/ BPS; (d) ©
Jon Kenfield/ Bruce Coleman Ltd. 23.17 © J. A.
L. Cooke/ Oxford Scientific Films. 23.18 above,
© Cabisco/ Visuals Unlimited. 23.19 (a) ©
Science Photo Library/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
23.20 (a) Danielle C. Zacherl with John McNulty;
(b) © B. Borrell Casals/ Frank Lane Picture
Agency/ Corbis; (c) © Joe McDonald/ Corbis;
(d) © Jeff Foott/ Tom Stack & Associates; (e) ©
Frank Park/ ANT Photo Library; (f) © Alex
Kirstitch. 23.21 (a) Illustration by Zdenek
Burian, © Jeri Hochman and Martin Hochman;
(b) © Alex Kirstitch; (d) © Bob Cranston; (e) J.
Grossauer/ ZEFA. 23.22 below, Micrograph, J.
Sulston, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology.
23.23 (a) © L. Jensen/ Visuals Unlimited; (b) ©
Sinclair Stammers/ SPL/ Photo Researchers,
Inc.; (c) Courtesy of © Emily Howard Staub and
The Carter Center. 23.24 (a) © Dr. Chip Clark;
(b) © Michael & Patricia Fogden/ Corbis; (c) ©
Jane Burton/ Bruce Coleman, Ltd. 23.25 (a) ©
Angelo Giampiccolo; (b) © Frans Lemmens/ The
Image Bank/ Getty Images; (c) © Corbis; (d) ©
Andrew Syred/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 23.26
Redrawn from Living Invertebrates, V. & J.
Pearse/M. & R. Buchsbaum, The Boxwood
Press, 1987. Used by permission. 23.27
(a) © David Tipling/ Photographer’s
Choice/ Getty Images; (b) © Peter Parks/
Imagequestmarine.com; (c) © Science
Photo Library/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
23.28 After D.H. Milne, Marine Life and the Sea,
Wadsworth, 1995. 23.32 (a) © David Maitland/
Seaphot Limited/ Planet Earth Pictures; (b–g)
Edward S. Ross; (h) © Mark Moffett/ Minden
Pictures; (i) Marlin E. Rice, Iowa State
University; (j) Courtesy of Karen Swain, North
Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences; (k) ©
Chris Anderson/ Darklight Imagery; (l) ©
Joseph L. Spencer. 23.33 (a) © John H. Gerard;
(b) © D. Suzio/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (c) ©
Eye of Science/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (d)
Photo by James Gathany, Centers for Disease
Control. 23.34 (a) © Fred Bavendam/ Minden
Pictures; (b) © Jan Haaga, Kodiak Lab,
AFSC/NMFS; (c) © Herve Chaumeton/ Agence
Nature; (d) © George Perina, www.seapix.com;
(e) right, © Herve Chaumeton/ Agence Nature.
23.35 © Walter Deas/ Seaphot Limited/ Planet
Earth Pictures. 23.36 © Wim van Egmond/
Micropolitan Museum. 23.37 upper, © Dr.
Dennis Kunkel/ Visuals Unlimited; lower, ©
Frank Romano, Jacksonville State University.
CHAPTER 24 24.1 page 384, © Karen Carr
Studio/ www.karencarr.com; page 385, © P.
Morris/ Ardea London. 24.3 (a) © Gary Bell/
Taxi/ Getty Images; (b,c) Redrawn from Living
Invertebrates, V. & J. Pearse and M. & R.
Buchsbaum. The Boxwood Press, 1987. Used by
permission. 24.4 above, © Patrick J. Lynch/
Photo Researchers, Inc. 24.5 below, © Brandon
D. Cole/ Corbis. 24.6 (a) © John and Bridgette
Licensed to: iChapters User
Sibbick; (b,c) © Jenna Hellack, Department of
Biology, University of Central Oklahoma. 24.7
(a–c) Adapted from A.S. Romer and T.S. Parsons,
The Vertebrate Body, Sixth Edition, Saunders,
1986. 24.8 Photo of human by Lisa Starr; jawed
fish courtesy of John McNamara, www.paleo
direct.com. 24.9 (a) © Jonathan Bird/ Oceanic
Research Group, Inc.; (b) © Gido Braase/ Deep
Blue Productions; (c) from E. Solomon, L. Berg,
and D.W. Martin, Biology, Seventh Edition,
Thomson Brooks/Cole; (d) Robert & Linda
Mitchell Photography; (e) © Ivor Fulcher/
Corbis; (f) Patrice Ceisel/ © 1986 John G. Shedd
Aquarium. 24.10 (a) © Norbert Wu/ Peter
Arnold, Inc.; (b) © Wernher Krutein/ photo
vault.com; (c) © Alfred Kamajian; (d–f) © P. E.
Ahlberg. 24.11 left, Adapted from A.S. Romer
and T.S. Parsons, The Vertebrate Body, Sixth
Edition, Saunders, 1986. (a) © Bill M. Campbell,
MD; (b) © Stephen Dalton/ Photo Researchers,
Inc.; (c) © John Serraro/ Visuals Unlimited.
24.12 © Juan M. Renjifo/ Animals Animals.
24.13 (a) © Pieter Johnson; (b) © Stanley
Sessions/ Hartwick College. 24.14 (a) ©
D. Braginetz; (b) © Z. Leszczynski/ Animals
Animals. 24.15 © Karen Carr Studio/
www.karencarr.com. Page 395 right, © Julian
Baum/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc. Page 396
left, © S. Blair Hedges, Pennsylvania State
University. 24.17 (a) © Kevin Schafer/ Corbis (c)
© Joe McDonald/ Corbis; (d) © David A.
Northcott/ Corbis; (e) © Pete & Judy Morrin/
Ardea London; (f) © Stephen Dalton/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; (g) © Kevin Schafer/ Tom
Stack & Associates. 24.18 (a) © Doug Wechsler/
VIREO; (b) With permission of the Australian
Museum. 24.20 (a) © Gerard Lacz/
ANTPhoto.com.au; (b,c) Courtesy of Dr. M.
Guinan, University of California-Davis,
Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology, School of
Veterinary Medicine; (d) © Kevin Schafer/
Corbis. 24.22 (a) © Sandy Roessler/ FPG/ Getty
Images; (b) After M. Weiss and A. Mann, Human
Biology and Behavior, 5th Edition, HarperCollins,
1990. 24.23 right above, Painting © Ely Kish.
24.24 (a) © D. & V. Blagden/ ANTPhoto.com.au;
(b) © Nigel J. Dennis, Gallo Images/ Corbis; (c)
© Tom Ulrich / Visuals Unlimited. 24.25 (a) ©
Alan and Sandy Carey; (b) © Merlin D. Tuttle/
Bat Conservation International; (c) © David
Parker/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (d) ©
Mike Johnson. All rights reserved, www.earth
window.com. 24.26 (a) © Larry Burrows/
Aspect Photolibrary; (c) © Dallas Zoo, Robert
Cabello; (d) © Allen Gathman, Biology
Department, Southeast Missouri State
University; (e) © Bone Clones®,
www.boneclones.com; (f) © Gary Head. 24.28
(a) © Rod Williams/ www.bciusa.com. 24.29 (a)
© MPFT/ Corbis Sygma; (b–e) © Pascal
Goetgheluck/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 24.30 (a)
© Dr. Donald Johanson, Institute of Human
Origins; (b,d) © Kenneth Garrett/ National
Geographic Image Collection; (c) © Louise M.
Robbins. 24.31 © Jean-Paul Tibbles, Book of Life,
Ebury Press. 24.32 © John Reader/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 24.33 (a) © Pascal
Goetgheluck/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b,c) ©
Peter Brown. 24.35 © Christopher Scotese,
PALEOMAP Project. 24.37 © California
Academy of Sciences. 24.38 © Jean Phillipe
Varin/ Jacana/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
CHAPTER 25 25.1 page 410, © Star Tribune/
Minneapolis-St. Paul; page 411, © Michael
Davidson/Mortimer Abramowitz Gallery of
Photomicrography/www.olympusmicro.com.
25.2 right, from top, Courtesy of Charles
Lewallen; Dartmouth Electron Microscope
Facility; Photo Courtesy of Prof. Alison Roberts,
University of Rhode Island. 25.3 left, ©
PhotoDisc/ Getty Images, with art by Lisa Starr;
right upper, © CNRI/ SPL/ Photo Researchers,
Inc.; lower, © Dr. Robert Wagner/ University of
Delaware, www.udel.edu/ Biology/ Wags. 25.4
left, © Montana Pritchard/ Getty Images Sport;
right, © Darrell Gulin/ The Image Bank/ Getty
Images. 24.5 (a) © Cory Gray; (b) © PhotoDisc/
Getty Images; (c) © Heather Angel; (d) ©
Biophoto Associates/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
25.6 (a) © Geoff Tompkinson/ SPL/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; (b) © Erwin & Peggy Bauer/
www.bciusa.com. 25.8 Right, © VVG/ Science
Photo Library/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 25.9 ©
Galen Rowell/ Peter Arnold, Inc. 25.10 right, ©
Niall Benvie/ Corbis. 25.11 left, © Kennan
Ward/ Corbis; right, © G. J. McKenzie (MGS).
25.12 © Frank B. Salisbury. 25.14 (a,b) Courtesy
of Dr. Kathleen K. Sulik, Bowles Center for
Alcohol Studies, the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill. 25.15 © John DaSiai,
MD/ Custom Medical Stock Photo. 25.16 (a)
Courtesy of Dr. Consuelo M. De Moraes; (b–d) ©
Andrei Sourakov and Consuelo M. De Moraes.
Page 423 UNIT V © Jim Christensen, Fine Art
Digital Photographic Images.
CHAPTER 26 26.1 (a) © Michael
Westmoreland/ Corbis; (b) © Charles O’Rear/
Corbis; (c) © Reuters/ Corbis. 26.3 (a) from left,
© Bruce Iverson; © Ernest Manewal/ Index
Stock Imagery; Courtesy of Dr. Thomas L. Rost;
© Andrew Syred/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b)
from left, © Mike Clayton/ University of
Wisconsin Department of Botany; © Darrell
Gulin/ Corbis; © Gary Head; © Andrew Syred/
Photo Researchers, Inc. 26.6 © Donald L.
Rubbelke/ Lakeland Community College. 26.7
(a) © Dr. Dale M. Benham, Nebraska Wesleyan
University; (b) © D. E. Akin and I. L. Risgby,
Richard B. Russel Agricultural Research Center,
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Dept.
Agriculture, Athens, GA; (c) © Kingsley R. Stern.
26.8 © Andrew Syred/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
26.9 © George S. Ellmore. 26.10 (d) above, © M.
I. Walker/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; below, ©
Gary Head. 26.11 (a) center, © Mike Clayton/
University of Wisconsin Botany Department;
right, © James W. Perry; (b) center, © Carolina
Biological Supply Company; right, © James W.
Perry. 26.13 © David Cavagnaro/ Peter Arnold,
Inc. Page 432 © JupiterImages Corporation.
26.14 (a) © N. Cattlin/ Photo Researchers, Inc.;
(c) © C. E. Jeffree, et al., Planta, 172(1):20–37,
1987. Reprinted by permission of C. E. Jeffree
and Springer-Verlag; (d) © Jeremy Burgess/
SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 26.15 (a) Courtesy
of Dr. Thomas L. Rost; (b) © Gary Head. 26.17
After Salisbury and Ross, Plant Physiology,
Fourth Edition, Wadsworth. 26.18 (a) © Biodisc/
Visuals Unlimited; (b) © Brad Mogen/ Visuals
Unlimited; (c) © Dr. John D. Cunningham/
Visuals Unlimited. 26.19 © Dr. John D.
Cunningham/ Visuals Unlimited. 26.20 (a–c) ©
Omikron/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 26.22 (b) ©
Peter Gasson, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 26.23
(a) © NOAA; (b) © David W. Stahle, Department
of Geosciences, University of Arkansas. 26.24 ©
Edward S. Ross. 26.25 (a) © Peter Ryan/ SPL/
Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) © Jon Pilcher; (c) ©
George Bernard/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
CHAPTER 27 27.1 (a) © OPSEC Control
Number #4 077-A-4; (b) © Billy Wrobel, 2004; (c)
Photo by Keith Weller, ARS, Courtesy of USDA.
Page 442 © Gary Head. 27.2 © William
Ferguson. 27.3 (a) © Robert Frerck/ Stone/
Getty Images (b) Courtesy of NOAA. 27.4 (a) ©
Wally Eberhart/ Visuals Unlimited; (b) Mark E.
Dudley and Sharon R. Long; (c) © NifTAL
Project, Univ. of Hawaii, Maui. 27.5 © Andrew
Syred/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 27.6 (b) © Dr.
John D. Cunningham/ Visuals Unlimited; (c) ©
Francis Leroy, Biocosmos/ Photo Researchers,
Inc. 27.7 (a) © Alison W. Roberts, University of
Rhode Island; (b,c) © H. A. Core, W. A. Cote and
A. C. Day, Wood Structure and Identification, 2nd
Ed., Syracuse University Press, 1979. 27.8 left, ©
The Ohio Historical Society, Natural History
Collections. 27.9 above, Courtesy of John S.
Russell, Pioneer High School; below, micrograph, Bruce Iverson, computer-enhanced by
Lisa Starr. 27.10, 27.11 Courtesy of E. Raveh.
27.12 © Don Hopey/ Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
2002, all rights reserved. Reprinted with permission; inset, © Jeremy Burgess/ SPL/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 27.13 Photo by ARS, Courtesy
of USDA. 27.14 (a) © James D. Mauseth, MCDB;
(b) © J. C. Revy/ ISM/ Phototake. 27.15 ©
Martin Zimmerman, Science, 1961, 133:73–79,
© AAAS. 27.18 (a,b) Robert & Linda Mitchell
Photography; (c) John N. A. Lott, Scanning
Electron Microscope Study of Green Plants, St.
Louis: C. V. Mosby Company, 1976; (d) Robert C.
Simpson/ Nature Stock.
CHAPTER 28 28.1 page 454 upper, Courtesy of
Caroline Ford, School of Plant Sciences,
University of Reading, UK; lower, © James L.
Amos/ Corbis; page 455, © Gary Head. 28.2 (a)
upper left, © John McAnulty/ Corbis; right, ©
Robert Essel NYC/ Corbis. 28.3 (a) © David M.
Phillips/ Visuals Unlimited; (b) © Dr. Jeremy
Burgess/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (c) ©
David Scharf/ Peter Arnold, Inc. 28.4 (a) left, ©
John Alcock, Arizona State University; right, ©
Merlin D. Tuttle, Bat Conservation International;
(b) © Thomas Eisner, Cornell University. 28.6
from left, © Michael Clayton, University of
Wisconsin; Raychel Ciemma; © Michael Clayton,
University of Wisconsin; © Dr. Charles Good,
Ohio State University, Lima; © Michael Clayton,
University of Wisconsin; © Michael Clayton,
University of Wisconsin. 28.7 (a–c) Janet Jones;
(e) © Dr. Dan Legard, University of Florida
GCREC, 2000; (f) © Richard H. Gross; (g) ©
Andrew Syred/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (i)
Mark Rieger. 28.8 (a) © Gregory K. Scott/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; (b) © Robert H. Mohlenbrock
© USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database/ USDA SCS.
1989. Midwest wetland flora; field office illustrated
guide to plant species. Midwest National Technical
Center, Lincoln, NE; (c) © R. Carr. 28.9 © Darrell
Gulin/ Corbis. 28.10 © Professor Dr. Hans
Hanks-Ulrich Koop. 28.11 © Mike Clayton/
University of Wisconsin Department of Botany.
28.12 Right above, © Barry L. Runk/ Grant
Heilman, Inc.; below, © James D. Mauseth,
University of Texas. 28.13 right, © Herve
Chaumeton/ Agence Nature. 28.14 © Sylvan H.
Wittwer/ Visuals Unlimited. 28.16 left, © Robert
Lyons/ Visuals Unlimited; right, @ mepr. 28.17
(a,b) © Michael Clayton, University of
Wisconsin; (c,d) © Muday, GK and P. Haworth
(1994) “Tomato root growth, gravitropism,
and lateral development: Correlations with
auxin transport.” “Plant Physiology and
Biochemistry” 32, 193–203 with permission from
Copyright 2008 Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
Elsevier Science. 28.18 (a,b) Micrographs courtesy of Randy Moore from “How Roots Respond
to Gravity,” M. L. Evans, R. Moore, and K.
Hasenstein, Scientific American, December 1986.
28.19 (c) © Cathlyn Melloan/ Stone/ Getty
Images. 28.20 (c) © Gary Head. 28.21 Cary
Mitchell. 28.22 Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.
28.24 (a) © Ray Evert, University of Wisconsin;
(b) © Clay Perry/ Corbis; (c) © Eric Chrichton/
Corbis. 28.25 (a) © Clay Perry/ Corbis; (b) ©
Eric Chrichton/ Corbis. 28.26 Eric Welzel/ Fox
Hill Nursery, Freeport, Maine. 28.27 left, ©
Roger Wilmshurst, Frank Lane Picture Agency/
Corbis; right, © Dr. Jeremy Burgess/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 28.28 Larry D. Nooden. 28.30
(a) © Edward S. Ross; (b,c) Gary Head.
Page 467 UNIT VI © Kevin Schafer.
CHAPTER 29 29.1 © Dow W. Fawcett/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; inset, © Science Photo
Library/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 29.2 left, ©
Ohlinger Jerry/ Corbis Sygma; right, © Sachs
Ron/ Corbis Sygma. 29.3 (a) © Manfred Kage/
Bruce Coleman, Ltd.; (b) above, © Focus on
Sports; (c) left, © Ray Simmons/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; center, © Ed Reschke/ Peter
Arnold, Inc.; right, © Don W. Fawcett. 29.4
above, © Gregory Dimijian/ Photo Researchers,
Inc; below, adapted from C.P. Hickman, Jr., L.S.
Roberts, and A. Larson, Integrated Principles of
Zoology, Ninth Edition, Wm. C. Brown, 1995.
29.6 above (a) © John Cunningham/ Visuals
Unlimited; (b,c) © Ed Reschke; (d) © Science
Photo Library/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (e) ©
University of Cincinnati, Raymond Walters
College, Biology; (f) © Michael Abbey/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 29.7 left, © Roger K. Burnard.
29.8 © Science Photo Library/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 29.9 above, © Tony
McConnell/ Science Photo Library/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; (a,b) © Ed Reschke; (c) ©
Biophoto Associates/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
29.10 © Triarch/ Visuals Unlimited. 29.11 © Kim
Taylor/ Bruce Coleman, Ltd. 29.14 (b) © John D.
Cunningham/ Visuals Unlimited. 29.16 (b) ©
Frank Trapper/ Corbis Sygma; (c) © AFP/
Corbis. 29.17 © Pascal Goetgheluck/ Science
Photo Library/ Photo Researchers, Inc. Page 488
(a) © Ed Reschke/ Peter Arnold, Inc.; (b–d) © Ed
Reschke. 29.18 © Keith Levit/ Alamy. 29.19 ©
David Macdonald. 29.20 © Dr. Preston Maxim
and Dr. Stephen Bretz, Department of
Emergency Services, San Francisco General
Hospital.
CHAPTER 30 30.1 page 490, © Jamie Baker/
Taxi/ Getty Images; page 491 left, © EMPICS;
right, © Manni Mason’s Pictures. 30.3 (a)
Courtesy Dr. William J. Tietjen, Bellarmine
University. 30.6 left, © Manfred Kage/ Peter
Arnold, Inc. 30.9 (c) © Jeff Greenberg/ Index
Stock Imagery. 30.10 (b) © Dr. Constantino
Sotelo from International Cell Biology, p. 83, 1977.
Used by copyright permission of the Rockefeller
University Press. 30.11 left, Micrograph by Don
Fawcett, Bloom and Fawcett, 11th edition, after
J. Desaki and Y. Uehara/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
30.13 (a) AP/ Wide World Photos; (b,c) From
Neuro Via Clinicall Research Program,
Minneapolis VA Medical Center. 30.14 © E. D.
London, et al., Archives of General Psychiatry,
47:567–574, 1990. 30.18 right, Washington
University/ www.thalamus.wustl.edu. 30.20
(a) © Colin Chumbley/ Science Source/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; (b) © C. Yokochi and J. Rohen,
Photographic Anatomy of the Human Body, 2nd
Ed., Igaku-Shoin, Ltd., 197. 30.21 (a) after
Penfield and Rasmussen, The Cerebral Cortex
of Man, © 1950 Macmillan Library Reference.
Renewed 1978 by Theodore Rasmussen;
(b) © Colin Chumbley/ Science Source/
Photo Researchers, Inc. 30.22 (b) © Marcus
Raichle, Washington Univ. School of Medicine.
30.25 © Nancy Kedersha/ UCLA/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 30.26 © Herve Chaumeton/
Agence Nature.
CHAPTER 31 31.1 © AP/ Wide World Photos.
31.2 (a) © David Turnley/ Corbis. 31.3 left, after
Penfield and Rasmussen, The Cerebral Cortex of
Man, © 1950 Macmillan Library Reference.
Renewed 1978 by Theodore Rasmussen; right, ©
Colin Chumbley/ Science Source/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. Page 516 left, © AFP Photo/
Timothy A. Clary/ Corbis. 31.9 (a) © Fabian/
Corbis Sygma; (d) Medtronic Xomed; (e) above,
© Dr. Thomas R. Van De Water, University of
Miami Ear Institute. 31.10 © Robert E. Preston,
courtesy Joseph E. Hawkins, Kresge Hearing
Research Institute, University of Michigan
Medical School. 31.11 (a, below) After M.
Gardiner, The Biology of Vertebrates, McGrawHill, 1972; (a) above, © E. R. Degginger; (b) G. A.
Mazohkin-Porshnykov (1958). Reprinted with
permission from Insect Vision © 1969 Plenum
Press. 31.13 (b) © Bo Veisland/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 31.14 (a) above, © Lennart
Nilsson/ Bonnierforlagen AB; (b)
www.2.gasou.edu/psychology/courses/
muchinsky and www.occipita.cfa.cmu.edu.
31.17 above, © Will & Deni McIntyre/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; below, Courtesy of Dr. Bryan
Jones, University of Utah School of Medicine.
31.18 © Eric A. Newman. 31.19 © Edward W.
Bower/ The Image Bank/ Getty Images. 31.20
© Chase Swift.
CHAPTER 32 32.1 left, © David Ryan/
SuperStock; right, © Catherine Ledner; page 527
© David Aubrey/ Corbis. 32.5 below, © Lisa
Starr; right; Courtesy of Dr. Erica Eugster. 32.7
Left, © Gary Head. 32.8 (a) © Scott Camazine/
Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) © Biophoto
Associates/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 32.11
left, © Ralph Pleasant/ FPG / Getty Images;
right, © Yoav Levy/ Phototake. 32.12 © John S.
Dunning/ Ardea, London. 32.13 © Frans
Lanting/ Bruce Coleman, Ltd. 32.14 (a) Dr.
Carlos J. Bourdony; (b) Courtesy of G. Baumann,
MD, Northwestern University. 32.15 © Kevin
Fleming/ Corbis.
CHAPTER 33 33.1 left, © Michael Neveux;
right, © Ed Reschke. 33.2 left, © Linda Pitkin/
Planet Earth Pictures; (a) above, © Stephen
Dalton/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 33.4 left, ©
Yokochi and J. Rohen, Photographic Anatomy of
the Human Body, 2nd Ed., Igaku-Shoin, Ltd.,
1979. 33.5 (a) right, © Ed Reschke. 33.7 ©
Professor P. Motta/ Department of Anatomy/
La Sapienza, Rome/ SPL/ Photo Researchers,
Inc. 33.8 © N.H.P.A./ ANT Photolibrary. 33.11
(a) below, © Dance Theatre of Harlem, by
Frank Capri; (b,c) © Don Fawcett/ Visuals
Unlimited, from D. W. Fawcett, The Cell,
Philadelphia; W. B. Saunders Co., 1966. 33.16
Painting by Sir Charles Bell, 1809, courtesy of
Royal College of Surgeons, Edinburgh. 33.17 (a)
© Paul Sponseller, MD/ Johns Hopkins Medical
Center; (b) Courtesy of the family of Tiffany
Manning.
Copyright 2008 Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
CHAPTER 34 34.1 (a) From A. D. Waller,
Physiology: The Servant of Medicine, Hitchcock
Lectures, University of London Press, 1910; (b)
Courtesy of The New York Academy of
Medicine Library; (d) © Mark Thomas/ Science
Photo Library/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 34.2 (a)
left, © Darlyne A Murawski / Getty Images; (b)
left, © Cabisco/ Visuals Unlimited. 34.3 (d)
After Labarbera and S. Vogel, American Scientist,
1982, 70:54–60. 34.4 right, © National Cancer
Institute/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 34.5 left, ©
EyeWire/ Getty Images; (Art) After Bloodline
Image Atlas, University of Nebraska-Omaha, and
Sherri Wicks, Human Physiology and Anatomy,
University of Wisconsin Web Education System,
and others. 34.6 From: Maslak P., Blast Crisis of
Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (posted online
December 5, 2001). ASH Image Bank. Copyright
American Society of Hematology, used with permission. 34.7 © Lester V. Bergman & Associates,
Inc. 34.9 (a,b) After G. J. Tortora and N.
Anagnostakos, Principles of Anatomy and
Physiology, 6th ed. © 1990 by Biological Sciences
Textbooks, Inc., A&P Textbooks, Inc., and ElliaSparta, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 34.13 (b) © C. Yokochi and
J. Rohen, Photographic Anatomy of the Human
Body, 2nd Ed., Igaku-Shoin, Ltd., 1979. 34.19
right, © Jose Pelaez, Inc./ Corbis. 34.20 left, ©
Sheila Terry/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.;
right, Courtesy of Oregon Scientific, Inc. 34.21
left, © Biophoto Associates/ Photo Researchers,
Inc. 34.22 (a) left, Lisa Starr, using © 2001
PhotoDisc, Inc./ Getty Images photograph;
right, © Dr. John D. Cunningham/ Visuals
Unlimited. 34.23 © Professor P. Motta/
Department of Anatomy/ University La
Sapienca, Rome/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
34.24 (a) © Ed Reschke; (b) © Biophoto
Associates/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 34.25 left, ©
Lester V. Bergman/ Corbis. 34.28 left, © Lennart
Nilsson/ Bonnierforlagen AB.
CHAPTER 35 35.1 left, © NIBSC/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; right, © Lowell Tindell. 35.2
left, James Hicks, Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention; right, © Eye of Science/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 35.3 After Bloodline Image Atlas,
University of Nebraska-Omaha, and Sherri
Wicks, Human Physiology and Anatomy,
University of Wisconsin Web Education System,
and others. 35.4 (a) © David Scharf, 1999. All
rights reserved; (b) © Juergen Berger/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 35.5 (d) © Robert R.
Dourmashkin, courtesy of Clinical Research
Centre, Harrow, England. 35.6 below, © NSIBC/
SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 35.7 (a) © Biology
Media/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 35.14 © Dr. A.
Liepins/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 35.15
www.zahnarzt-stuttgart.com. 35.16 left, © David
Scharf/ Peter Arnold, Inc.; right, © Kent Wood/
Photo Researchers, Inc. 35.17 © Greg Ruffing.
35.18 © Zeva Oelbaum/ Peter Arnold, Inc. 35.19
Left, © NIBSC/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (a–e)
After Stephen Wolfe, Molecular Biology of the Cell,
Wadsworth. 1993 35.20 © Kwangshin Kim/
Photo Researchers, Inc.
CHAPTER 36 36.1 left, © Ariel Skelley/ Corbis;
right, Courtesy of Dr. Joe Losos. 36.4 (a) © Peter
Parks/ Oxford Scientific Films; (b) above, John
Glowczwski/ University of Texas Medical
Branch; below, Precisions Graphics; (c) left,
© Ed Reschke; right, Redrawn from Living
Invertebrates, V & J Pearse/ M & R Buchsbaum,
The Boxwood Press, 1987; (d) left, © D. E. Hill;
Licensed to: iChapters User
right, redrawn from Living Invertebrates, V & J
Pearse/ M & R Buchsbaum, The Boxwood Press,
1987. 36.8 left, © H. R. Duncker, Justus-Liebig
University, Giessen, Germany. 36.10
Photographs, Courtesy of Kay Elemetrics
Corporation. 36.11 (a) © R. Kessel/ Visuals
Unlimited. 36.14 left, © PhotoDisc/ Getty
Images (with art by Lisa Starr); (a,b) below, ©
Charles McRae, MD/ Visuals Unlimited. 36.15
right, © Joe McBride/ Getty Images. 36.16 ©
C. Yokochi and J. Rohen, Photographic Anatomy
of the Human Body, 2nd Ed., Igaku-Shoin,
Ltd., 1979. 36.17 (a) © Lennart Nilsson/
Bonnierforlagen AB; (b) © CNRI/ SPL/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 36.18 © O. Auerbach/ Visuals
Unlimited. 36.19 © Francois Gohier/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 36.20 (a) Christian Zuber/
Bruce Coleman, Ltd.; (b) © Stuart Westmorland/
Stone/ Getty Images. 36.21 (a) © David
Nardini/ Getty Images; (b) © John Lund/
Getty Images.
CHAPTER 37 37.1 (a) © Jean-Paul Tibbles, Book
of Life, Ebury Press; (b,c) Courtesy of Kevin
Wickenheiser, University of Michigan. 37.2
Courtesy of Lisa Hyche. 37.5 (a) © W. Perry
Conway/ Corbis; (a,b art) Adapted from A.
Romer and T. Parsons, The Vertebrate Body, Sixth
Edition, Saunders Publishing Company, 1986.
37.8 After A. Vander et al., Human Physiology:
Mechanisms of Body Function, Fifth Edition,
McGraw-Hill, 1990. Used by permission. 37.9 (a)
© Microslide courtesy Mark Nielsen, University
of Utah; (b) After A. Vander et al., Human
Physiology: Mechanisms of Body Function, Fifth
Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1990. Used by permission. 37.10 (a) right, © Microslide courtesy Mark
Nielsen, University of Utah; (b) © D. W.
Fawcett/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; Art, After
Sherwood and others. 37.12 (b) National Cancer
Institute. 37.14 page 628, © Ralph Pleasant/
FPG/ Getty Images; page 629 from left, ©
PhotoDisc/ Getty Images; © Paul Poplis
Photography, Inc./ Stockfood America; ©
PhotoDisc/ Getty Images; © PhotoDisc/ Getty
Images; © Gary Head. 37.15 © Gary Head.
37.16 © Dr. Douglas Coleman, The Jackson
Laboratory. 37.17 © Reuters NewsMedia/ Corbis.
37.18 © Gunter Ziesler/ Bruce Coleman, Inc.
CHAPTER 38 38.1 page 636, © Archivo
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Kashi/ Corbis; right, © Lawrence Lawry/
Science Photo Library/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
38.5 © Tom McHugh/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
38.9 © Air Force News/ Photo by Tech. Sgt.
Timothy Hoffman. 38.10 (a) © Bob McKeever/
Tom Stack & Associates; (b) © S. J. Krasemann/
Photo Researchers, Inc. 38.11 © David Parker/
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Guravich/ Corbis; (b) © Corbis-Bettmann. 38.13
© Gary Head.
CHAPTER 39 39.1 page 650, © 1999 Dana
Fineman/ Corbis Sygma; page 651, © Lennart
Nilsson/ Bonnierforlagen AB. 39.2 (a) © Fred
SaintOurs/ University of Massachusetts-Boston;
(b) © Martin Harvey/ Photo Researchers, Inc.;
(c) © Marc Moritsch; (d) © Photodisc/ Getty
Images. 39.3 (a) © Frieder Sauer/ Bruce
Coleman, Ltd.; (b) © Matjaz Kuntner; (c) © Ron
Austing, Frank Lane Picture Agency/ Corbis; (d)
© Doug Perrine/ seapics.com; (e) © Carolina
Biological Supply Company; (f) © Fred
McKinney/ FPG/ Getty Images; (g) © Gary
Head. 39.5 (b–i) © Carolina Biological Supply
Company; (j–k) © David M. Dennis/ Tom Stack
& Associates, Inc.; (l) © John Shaw/ Tom Stack
& Associates. 39.7 right, © Carolina Biological
Supply Company; all others, Dr. Maria Leptin,
Institute of Genetics, University of Koln,
Germany. 39.8 (a–b) After S. Gilbert,
Developmental Biology, Fourth Edition; (c) ©
Professor Jonathon Slack. 39.9 (b) After
B. Burnside, Developmental Biology, 1971,
26:416–441. Used by permission of Academic
Press. 39.10 left, © Peter Parks/ Oxford
Scientific Films/ Animals, Animals. Table 39.1
page 660, © Laura Dwight/ Corbis. 39.13 (b) ©
Ed Reschke. Page 665 © AJPhoto/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 39.17 (e) © Lennart Nilsson/
Bonnierforlagen AB. 39.19 © Marilyn Houlberg.
39.20 right, © David M. Phillips/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 39.22 Heidi Specht, West
Virginia University. 39.23 (a) © Dr. E. Walker/
Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) © Western
Ophthalmic Hospital/ Photo Researchers, Inc.;
(c) © CNRI/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 39.24 (a) ©
David M. Phillips/ Visuals Unlimited; (b) ©
CNRI/ SPL/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; (c) © John
D. Cunningham/ Visuals Unlimited. 39.25 ©
Todd Warshaw/ Getty Images. 39.29 top, (all) ©
Lennart Nilsson/ Bonnierforlagen AB. 39.30
left, © Zeva Oelbaum/ Corbis; right, James W.
Hanson, M.D. 39.33 Adapted from L.B. Arey,
Developmental Anatomy, Philadelphia, W.B.
Saunders Co., 1965. 39.34 (a) © David M.
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Page 685 UNIT VII
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CHAPTER 40 40.1 © David Nunuk/ Photo
Researchers, Inc. 40.2 from left, © Amos
Nachoum/ Corbis; © A. E. Zuckerman/ Tom
Stack & Associates; © Corbis. 40.3 from left, © E.
R. Degginger; inset, © Jeff Foott Productions/
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Bateman, Bateman Photography; (b) © Tom
Davis. 40.5 left, © Jeff Lepore/ Photo Researchers,
Inc. 40.6 above, © David Scharf, 1999. All rights
reserved. 40.7 (a) © G. K. Peck; (b) © Rick
Leche, www.flickr.com/photos/rick_leche. 40.9
right, © Peter Lija/ The Image Bank/ Getty
Images. 40.10 (a) © Joe McDonald/ Corbis; (b) ©
Wayne Bennett/ Corbis; (c) © Douglas P.
Wilson/ Corbis. 40.11 (a,b) © Hippocampus
Bildarchiv; above, © David Reznick/ University
of California-Riverside; computer enhanced by
Lisa Starr; (c) © Helen Rodd. Page 697 © Bruce
Bornstein, www.captbluefin.com. 40.13 left, ©
Mark Harmel/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; right,
© AP/ Wide World Photos. 40.14 NASA; Art
by Precision Graphics. 40.16 (c) Data from
Population Reference Bureau after G.T. Miller,
Jr., Living in the Environment, Eighth Edition,
Brooks/Cole, 1993. All rights reserved. 40.17
left, © Adrian Arbib/ Corbis; right, © Don
Mason/ Corbis. 40.18 After G. T. Miller, Jr.,
Living in the Environment, Eighth Edition,
Brooks/Cole, 1993. All rights reserved. 40.19 ©
John Alcock/ Arizona State University. 40.20 ©
Wolfgang Kaehler/ Corbis. 40.21 © Reinhard
Dirscherl/ www.bciusa.com.
CHAPTER 41 41.1 Page 706, Photography by
B. M. Drees, Texas A&M University. http://fire
ant.tamu; page 707, Daniel Wojak/ USDA. 41.2
left, © Donna Hutchins (a) © B. G. Thomson/
Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) © Len Robinson,
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Miriam Francis/ Tom Stack & Associates. 41.4 ©
Thomas W. Doeppner. 41.5 (a,d) © Don
Roberson; (b) © Kennan Ward/ Corbis; (c) © D.
Robert Franz/ Corbis; left, © Richard Cummins/
Corbis. 41.6 Paramecium caudatum, © Michael
Abbey/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; P. Aurelia, ©
Eric V. Grave/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 41.7 ©
Stephen G. Tilley. 41.8 Art, After N. Weldan and
F. Bazazz, Ecology, 56:681–688, © 1975 Ecological
Society of America; upper, © Joe McDonald/
Corbis; lower, left, © Hal Horwitz/ Corbis; right,
© Tony Wharton, Frank Lane Picture Agency/
Corbis. 41.9 (a,b) After Rickleffs & Miller,
Ecology, Fourth Edition, page 459 (Fig. 23.13a)
and page 461 (Fig. 23.14); photo, © W. Perry
Conway/ Corbis. 41.10 left, © Ed Cesar/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; right, © Robert McCaw,
www.robertmccaw.com. 41.11 (a) © JH Pete
Carmichael; (b) © Edward S. Ross; (c) W. M.
Laetsch. 41.12 (a,c) © Edward S. Ross; (d) ©
Nigel Jones. 41.13 (a,b) Thomas Eisner, Cornell
University; (c) © Jeffrey Rotman Photography;
(d) © Bob Jensen Photography. 41.14 (a) MSU
News Service, photo by Montana Water Center;
(b) © Karl Andree. 41.15 left, © The Samuel
Roberts Noble Foundation, Inc.; right, Courtesy
of Colin Purrington, Swarthmore College. 41.16
© C. James Webb/ Phototake USA. 41.17 ©
Peter J. Bryant/ Biological Photo Service. 41.18
(a) © Richard Price/ Getty Images; (b) © E.R.
Degginger/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 41.19 (a)
© Doug Peebles/ Corbis; (b) © Pat O’Hara/
Corbis; (c,d) © Tom Bean/ Corbis; (e) © Duncan
Murrell/ Taxi/ Getty Images. 41.20 (a) R.
Barrick/ USGS; (b) USGS; (c) P. Frenzen, USDA
Forest Service. 41.21 (a,c) © Jane Burton/ Bruce
Coleman, Ltd.; (b) © Heather Angel; (d,e) Based
on Jane Lubchenco, American Naturalist,
112:23–19, © 1978 University of Chicago Press.
Used with permission. 41.22 (a) © Pr. Alexande
Meinesz, University of Nice-Sophia Antipolis;
(b) © Angelina Lax/ Photo Researchers, Inc.;
right, © The University of Alabama Center for
Public TV. 41.23 © John Carnemolla/ Australian
Picture Library. 41.24 After W. Dansgaard et al.,
Nature, 364:218–220, July 15, 1993; D. Raymond
et al., Science, 259:926–933, February 1993; W.
Post, American Scientist, 78:310–326, July–August
1990. 41.25 (a) © Pierre Vauthey/ Corbis Sygma;
(b) © Pierre Vauthey/ Corbis Sygma; (c) After S.
Fridriksson, Evolution of Life on a Volcanic Island,
Butterworth, London 1975. 41.26 (a) © Susan G.
Drinker/ Corbis; (b) © Frans Lanting/ Minden
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41.28 © James Marshall/ Corbis. 41.29 left, ©
Bagla Pallava/ Corbis Sygma; right, © A.
Bannister/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 41.31 ©
R. Bieregaard/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; ©
PhotoDisc/ Getty Images. 41.32, © Bureau of
Land Management. 41.33 (a) © Anthony
Bannister, Gallo Images/ Corbis; (b) © Bob
Jensen Photography; (c) © Cedric Vaucher. 41.34
© Heather Angel / Natural Visions.
CHAPTER 42 42.1 page 732, © C. C.
Lockwood/ Cactus Clyde Productions; page 733,
Diane Borden-Bilot, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. 42.2 (a) © Photodisc/ Getty Images; (b)
© David Neal Parks. 42.3 bottom right, © Van
Vives; all others, © Dave Rintoul. 42.4 from left,
top row, © Bryan & Cherry Alexander/ Photo
Researchers, Inc.; © Dave Mech; © Tom & Pat
Leeson, Ardea London Ltd.; 2nd row, © Tom
Wakefield/ www.bciusa.com.; © Paul J. Fusco/
Photo Researchers, Inc.; © E. R. Degginger/
Photo Researchers, Inc.; 3rd row, © Tom J.
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May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Ulrich/ Visuals Unlimited; © Dave Mech; © Tom
McHugh/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; 4th row, ©
Jim Steinborn; © Jim Riley; © Matt Skalitzky;
bottom right, mosquito, Photo by James
Gathany, Centers for Disease Contro; flea, ©
Edward S. Ross; tick, © California Department of
Health Services. 42.5 left, Courtesy of Dr. Chris
Floyd; right, Graphic created by FoodWeb3D
program written by Rich Williams courtesy of
the Webs on the Web project
(www.foodwebs.org). 42.6 left, © Inga Spence/
Tom Stack & Associates. 42.7 © Gary Head. 42.8
Craig Koppie, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
42.9 (a) NASA/GSFC. 42.13 (a,b) USDA Forest
Service, Northeastern Research Station; (c) After
G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, “An
Experimental Approach to New England
Landscapes,” in A. D. Hasler (ed.), Coupling of
Land and Water Systems, Chapman & Hall, 1975.
42.14 Water Resources Council. 42.15 Lisa Starr
after Paul Hertz; photograph © Photodisc/ Getty
Images. 42.16, 42.17 Lisa Starr and Gary Head,
based on NASA photographs from JSC Digital
Image Collection. 42.18 left, © Yann ArthusBertrand/ Corbis; data, www.cmdl.noaa .gov.
42.19 Data, www.ncdc.noaa.gov. 42.20 © Jeff
Vanuga/ Corbis. 42.21 © Frederica Georgia/
Photo Researchers, Inc. 42.22 Art, Gary Head
and Lisa Starr; photograph, © Photodisc/ Getty
Images. 42.23 Fisheries & Oceans Canada,
Experimental Lakes Area. 42.24 (a,b) Courtesy of
NASA’s Terra satellite, supplied by Ted Scambos,
National Snow and Ice Data Center, University
of Colorado, Boulder; (c) Courtesy of Keith
Nicholls, British Antarctic Survey. 42.25 NASA.
CHAPTER 43 43.1 page 754, © Hank Fotos
Photography; page 755, NASA. 43.5 © Alex
MacLean/ Landslides, www.alexmaclean.com.
43.6 (b) NASA. 43.8 (a) Adapted from Living in
the Environment by G. Tyler Miller, Jr., p. 428. ©
2002 by Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson
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Ardea London Ltd.; below, © Eagy Landau/
Photo Researchers, Inc. 43.14 (a) NASA’s Earth
Observatory; (b) After Whittaker, Bland, and
Tilman. 43.15, 43.16 Courtesy of Jim Deacon,
The University of Edinburgh. 43.17 © George H.
Huey/ Corbis; inset, © John M. Roberts/ Corbis.
43.18 © Orbimage Imagery. Image provided by
GeoEye and processing by NASA Goddard
Space Flight Center. 43.19 left, © John C.
Cunningham/ Visuals Unlimited.; right, AP/
Wide World Photos. 43.20 (a) © Jonathan Scott/
Planet Earth Pictures; (b) © Tom Bean
Photography; (c) Ray Wagner/ Save the Tall
Grass Prairie, Inc. 43.21 left, © James Randklev/
Corbis; all others, © Randy Wells/ Corbis. 43.22
upper, © Franz Lanting/ Minden Pictures; lower,
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Researchers, Inc. 43.24 (a) © Darrell Gulin/
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Conrad/ Corbis. 44.12 (a) © Tom and Pat
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Appendix V Hemoglobin models: PDB ID:
1GZX; Paoli, M., Liddington, R., Tame, J.,
Wilkinson, A., Dodson, G., Crystal structure of T
state hemoglobin with oxygen bound at all four
haems. J.Mol.Biol., v256, pp. 775–792, 1996.
Appendix VI Electron transfer chains: PDB ID:
1A70; Binda, C., Coda, A., Aliverti, A., Zanetti,
G., Mattevi, A., Structure of the mutant E92K of
[2Fe-2S] ferredoxin I from Spinacia oleracea at
1.7 Å resolution. Acta Crystallogr., Sect.D, v54,
pp. 1353–1358, 1998. PDB ID: 1AG6; Xue, Y.,
Okvist, M., Hansson, O., Young, S., Crystal
structure of spinach plastocyanin at 1.7 Å resolution. Protein Sci., v7, pp. 2099–2105, 1998. PDB
ID: 1ILX; Vasil`ev, S., Orth, P., Zouni, A., Owens,
T.G., Bruce, D., Excited-state dynamics in photosystem II: insights from the x-ray crystal structure. Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci., USA, v98, pp.
8602–8607, 2001. PDB ID: 1Q90; Stroebel, D.,
Choquet, Y., Popot, J.-L., Picot, D., An Atypical
Haem in the Cytochrome B6F Complex, Nature,
v426, pp. 413–418, 2003. PDB ID: 1QZV; BenShem, A., Frolow, F., Nelson, N., Crystal structure of plant photosystem I, Nature, v426, pp.
630–635, 2003. PDB ID: 1IZL; Kamiya, N., Shen,
J.-R., Crystal structure of oxygen-evolving photosystem II from Thermosynechococcus vulcanus at 3.7-Å resolution, Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.,
USA, v100, pp. 98–103, 2003. PDB ID: 1GJR;
Hermoso, J.A., Mayoral, T., Faro, M., GomezMoreno, C., Sanz-Aparicio, J., Medina, M.,
Mechanism of coenzyme recognition and binding revealed by crystal structure analysis of
ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase complexed with
NADP+., J.Mol.Biol., v319, pp. 1133–1142, 2002.
pdb ID: 1C17; Rastogi, V.K., Girvin, M.E.,
Structural changes linked to proton translocation
by subunit c of the ATP synthase., Nature, v402,
pp. 263–268, 1999. PDB ID: 1E79; Gibbons, C.,
Montgomery, M.G., Leslie, A.G., Walker, J.E.,
The structure of the central stalk in bovine F(1)ATPase at 2.4 Å resolution., Nat.Struct.Biol., v7,
pp. 1055–1061, 2000.