Ch. 13: Western Eurasia, 1200-1500
I.
Rise of the Mongols, 1200-1260
a. Nomadism in C. Asia
i. Nomadic groups compete for resources: scarcity =
conflict. ~1000, drought put pressure on Mongols.
ii. Groups hierarchical, headed by Khan. Decisions ratified
by council. Powerful groups received tribute.
iii. Groups formed federations. Marriage alliances
important; women helped negotiate.
iv. Migration exposed Mongols to many religions – pluralism.
Khans represented Sky God; :. Khans were universal
rulers transcending/using various religions of subjects.
v. Goal: eco. self-sufficiency. Relied on trade w/ settled
peoples (iron, wood, cotton, grain, silk…) Disruption in
trade led to war.
b. The Mongol Conquests
i. 1206-1258: territories from Korea to Hungary &
Baghdad conquered. Genghis Khan (Temujin) began;
son/grandsons continued…
ii. Contributing factors: Horsemanship; better bows;
archery/cavalry; openness to new military techniques &
technology; incorporating non-Mongol soldiers;
slaughtering resisting people; taking advantage of enemy
rivalries.
c. Overland Trade & Plague
i. Conquests opened trade routes & commercially
integrated Eurasia. Long-distance trade transferred
military & scientific knowledge between Europe, ME,
China, Iran, & Japan. (Traders like Marco Polo. Tax
policies encouraged.)
ii. Diseases, including plague (& typhus, smallpox…), spread
along routes. Plague: SW China to C/N China  C. Asia
 Kaffa  Mediterranean.
II.
The Rise & Fall of Islam, 1260-1500
a. Mongol Rivalry
i. 1260s: Il-Khan controlled
Armenia/Azerbaijan/Iran/Meso. Conflict between
Buddhist/Shamanist Mongols & Muslim subjects because
of caliph’s murder & Mongol beliefs/customs contrary to
Islam. (1st leader: Hulegu)
ii. Batu’s Golden Horde conquered Russia. Batu became
Muslim – vowed to avenge caliph. Mongol vs. Mongol.
iii. European/Il-Khan alliances to drive Muslims out of Holy
Land & Golden Horde out of Caucasus. Alliance failed
when Il-Khan Ghazan became Muslim in 1295.
b. Muslims & the State
i. Il-Khan goal: tax revenue. “Tax farming” system.
ii. Short-term: delivered large amounts of grain, cash, &
silk.
iii. Long-term: overtaxing led to increases in grain price,
shrinking tax base, eco. crisis (1295).
iv. Tax reduction/paper money failed to avert 50-year
depression. Il-Khan domains fragment as nobles fight
for resources & Golden Horde attacks.
v. 14th cen.: Il-Khan & Golden Horde decline. Timur (AKA
Tamerlane) built Jagadai Khanate. Timurids rule ME.
c. Art & Science in Islamic Eurasia
i. Juvaini wrote account of rise under Genghis Khan.
Inspired Rashid al-Din’s history of the world. Rashid, a
Jew  Muslim convert & Il-Khan adviser, is an example
of cosmopolitanism. Ibn Khaldun worked w/ Timur &
wrote on rise/fall of states.
ii. Astronomy, calendars, eclipse prediction. Nasir al-Din
Tusi: Model of universe w/ epicycles. Astronomical
instruments & data.
iii. Math: Indian # system; decimal fractions; pi. Advances
passed to Europe.
III. Regional Definition in Response to Mongols
a. Russia & Rule from Afar
i. Golden Horde made capital @ mouth of Volga (end of C.
Asia caravan route). Ruled from afar; left Orthodox
Church alone & used Russian princes as agents. Main
goal: collect taxes (so introduced census, postal
system…)
ii. Favor to Novgorod & Moscow because of Alexander
Nevskii. Combined w/ Mongol devastation of Ukraine,
pop. shifted from Kiev – Moscow became Russian center.
iii. Did Mongols have a negative effect – economic
depression & cultural isolation? Or, was Kiev already
declining – w/ princes responsible for overtaxing, Church
responsible for isolation, & gov’t not really changing?
iv. Ivan III (the Great) ended Mongol rule in 1480
(beginning of use of “tsar” for Russian rulers).
v. In both ME & Russia, Mongol rule caused downfall of
dominant cities (Kiev, Baghdad…) & rise of new power
centers. Local religions left in place; more centralized
gov’t developed.
b. Social Change & Centralization in Europe & Anatolia
i. Eur.: Split between political power of pope & HRE
Frederick II. :., E. Europe faced Mongols alone.
ii. Mongol armies were multinational w/ Mongol generals.
Armies drove to Vienna – then w/drew in 12/1241 so
princes could go elect a successor to Great Khan Ogodei.
iii. After w/drawal, Europe made diplomatic/trade
overtures. 13th cen.: contact increased; knowledge of
geography, natural resources, commerce, science,
technology, & math. Invasions & plague caused ? about
customs/beliefs.
iv. Some stronger centralized states – Lithuania, Balkans –
rose. Lithuania capitalized on Mongol decline to dominate
neighbors.
v. Anatolia served as route to carry Islamic culture to
Europe (via Constantinople). Ottomans expanded in
1400s – conquered Constantinople in 1453 & made it
capital (Istanbul). (Bye, bye, Byzantine Empire…)
c. Stabilization of Mamluks in Egypt
i. Mamluk state became stronger/more centralized vs.
Mongols. Campaigns against Il-Khans, Crusaders, &
Assassins; took Syria; supported Sunnis.
ii. Mamluk society cosmopolitan, ethnically diverse, &
traded w/ Crimea… which brought plague.
IV. Conclusion
a. Mongols benefited from ability to adapt tech., employ nonMongols, & willingness to let commanders innovate.
b. Conquests stimulated a greater degree of identity among
subject peoples – but also poverty, backwardness, & isolation.
c. Peripheral regions also benefited from trade & exchange of
ideas/tech.