The effects of oil and gas exploration in the Albertine Rift region on
biodiversity;
A case of protected areas (Murchison Falls National Park)
Oil prospects north of the Nile in MFNP are named after the Giraffe – Rii in the
Luo Language.
Prepared for NatureUganda
By Dr. Robert M. Kityo
2011
Final Report October 2011
1
Table of Contents
1.
Introduction/Background ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Specific issues to be addressed .................................................................................................... 5
2.
Status of Oil Exploration in Uganda ............................................................................................ 6
3.
Environmental standards employed in oil industry ................................................................. 11
4.
Biodiversity .................................................................................................................................. 15
5.
Highlight of some legal considerations ..................................................................................... 25
6.
Proposed or ongoing developments in the AR area that may impact on biodiversity ......... 32
7.
Potential Impacts on biodiversity ............................................................................................. 39
8.
Recommendations and Advocacy Proposals ............................................................................. 56
References........................................................................................................................................... 58
i
List of maps and Plates
Plate 1: A temporal flood area along Bulisa-Hoima road............................................................. 2
Map 1: The Oil and gas exploration area in the Albertine Rift, Uganda and DRC (Source:
International Alert (2009))............................................................................................................... 4
Map 2: Oil exploration areas in Ugandan (Source: International Alert (2009)).......................... 8
Map 3 Pattern of Species richness in the Albertine Rift area (Source: NEMA 2009) ............... 21
Map 4 Overall trend in biodiversity in The Albertine Rift (Source: NEMA 2009)...................... 22
Map 5 Distribution of species of special importance (Source: NEMA 2009) ............................. 23
Map 6 Conservation status of areas in the Albertine Rift (Source: NEMA 2009) ...................... 24
Plate 2: Locations within the Oil exploration area to show how much the current vegetation
cover is derived due to overgrazing and extraction of woody vegetation ............................... 41
Plate 3 Seismic lines through landscapes (source Hansen 2007) ............................................... 44
Plate 4 Views into the Wahirindi Well site Bulisa, in an area of impeded drainage- Filling up
of the operational area resulted into blocking the flow direction of the water resulting into
standing ponds of water. ............................................................................................................... 46
Plate 5 An area enhanced for use by wildlife through providing a watering point in Kabwoya
WLR (note the bare ground a result of over-trampling by large congregations of wildlife) .. 46
Plate 6 Open non-flared oil pit at Waraga (Source: AmanigaRuhanga et al 2009).................. 48
Plate 7 Chelonians (one trapped but alive the other dead) in an emptied drill waste pit .... 48
Plate 8 Slow moving species bound to be affected by fires. (Photo was taken in the
Kasamene Operational area in Bulisa March 2010) ..................................................................... 50
Plate 9: Present day good class marrum Bulisa – Hoima road- could get bituminized
increasing traffic and traffic speed with increased risks of road kills. .................................... 50
ii
List of Tables and Figures
Table 1. National discharge standards ..................................................................................... 12
Table 2. National noise level standards ................................................................................... 13
Table 3.Regulatory limit standards for selected pollutants that affect air quality ............ 13
Table 4 IFC emission limits from onshore oil & gas production ............................................. 14
Table 5 IFC noise limits from onshore oil & gas production ................................................... 14
Table 6 IFC effluent discharge limits from onshore oil & gas production......................................... 14
Table 7 Important Protected areas in the AR (based on BirdLife International (2010);
Saundry and Arce (2009)) ........................................................................................................... 15
Table 8 Examples of species richness (and other aspects) for various taxa in the better
known savanna reserves of the Albertine rift (Source Plumptre et. al. 2003) .................... 17
Uganda’s Constitution, the supreme law governing the country has provisions for the
Environment in article 245. “Protection and preservation of the environment. Parliament
shall, by law, provide for measures intended”—which aims to ............................................. 25
Box 1: Examples of Golf courses in National Parks ................................................................. 34
Fig 1: Fig. 1 Population trends in four species of mammals in MFCA, 1973-2006 (Data
from Rwetsiba & Wanyama 2005) ......................................................................................... 42
Fig 2: A Bouguer Gravity map of Semliki basin showing the seismic grid (source
Kashambuzi and Mugisha (undated) ...................................................................................... 43
iii
1. Introduction/Background
Uganda recently discovered oil deposits in the Albertine Graben and exploration has
been taking place since 1998. Some exploration sites are located in inside protected
areas.
A number of productive wells have been drilled and others continue to be
investigated. The oil exploration activities are expected to follow some stipulated
procedures, including Environmental and Social Impact studies (ESIAS) that must
identify short and long term impacts as well as identify mitigation measures to
address the potential negative impacts. Usually the locations in which the studies are
conducted lack baseline data that could be used to strengthen such ESIASs. Since
wildlife and biodiversity studies are included as part components of such ESIASs, their
scope has usually been narrow making it hard to fully capture and understand the full
extent of direct and indirect effects to wildlife and biodiversity in general. For
example trends in biodiversity are known to change on temporal scales. Therefore
among others:-
Species of wildlife recorded for an area in one visit may be an underrepresentation of the full biodiversity potential of the area.
-
Seasonal climatic changes are bound to change ecosystems and therefore
species compositions of both flora and fauna of any one area (Plate1)
-
Migratory species if any may or may not be captured in the record depending
on when surveys are conducted.
-
Quite often species of conservation concern also occur at low abundance and
could be missed in the record in a single field visit.
Studies on many of the ESIAS are usually time limited such that they do not allow time
for return visits to cover seasonal scopes. In addition the spatial scope has usually
been limited to “the direct impact area” to be drilled, but it is increasingly
understood that the impacts of one drill site will be much wider in scope including
areas that will be traversed by access roads, areas where dust from roads and
1
operation areas may settle once raised by traffic or wind, areas from which marrum
will be sourced and many others.
Plate 1: A temporal flood area along Bulisa-Hoima road.
(In the rain season this area was found to be teaming with hundreds of birds
including Abdim’s stock, Sacred Ibis, Woolly-necked Stock, Saddle-billed Stock and
several other species.)
Plate 1 illustrates a temporal scenario that would not be captured if surveys were
conducted in the dry season alone.
The present assignment comes from a realization of the need to follow up the
processes and properly document the standards being employed (See national and
International standards latter in document) by the different oil exploration companies
and provide quantitative resultant effects.
Besides Oil exploration and very likely eventual extraction with its attendant
infrastructure, a number of other new developments are planned or have been muted
whose implementation will also have their own impacts on areas of the Albertine rift
(Section 6)
Oil exploration and development will inevitably attract other industries and urban
growth, which will also have resultant impacts that will in the long term affect
ecosystems and land cover and no doubt the species that are associated with these. In
such a scenario the long term survival of wildlife or biodiversity as a whole will rely on
2
exercising best practices in managing the Protected Areas (PAs) and any corridors
outside the PAs in the region.
Uganda today is at a point, where oil and gas will inevitably be extracted. This will
require that all stakeholders play their part to ensure the resource is rationally
accessed, with minimal negative or at the very worst mitigable environmental as well
as social impacts.
The oil exploration area in Uganda stretches from West Nile to the south-western tip
of Uganda (Fig 1 & 2). This area largely overlaps with the section of the Albertine Rift
in Uganda which has as many as 14 of Uganda’s protected areas.
3
Map 1: The Oil and gas exploration area in the Albertine Rift, Uganda and DRC
(Source: International Alert (2009))
Louise (2007) made important observations that, as exploration continues, the
importance of Uganda’s indigenous oil and gas resources will only become more
important, not only on a national scale but perhaps on the international arena. This is
4
notwithstanding the fact that Uganda is already well aware of the amazing natural
resource she holds in her wildlife, and the associated financial benefits this is
contributing to the economy especially through tourism. The same author added that
ensuring that the environmental and social impacts from development of her other
main natural resources (namely hydrocarbon, hydro and geothermal) are managed
effectively, is crucial to responsibly maximizing their potential too.
Hansen (2007) observed about the Albertine Rift (AR), that with an expanding human
population in western Uganda, the integrity of these areas is increasingly threatened.
Forests are being destroyed and wildlife populations are intensively hunted for bush
meat. These threats are particularly acute in the central part of the AR along the
escarpment areas adjacent to Lake Albert. In recent years the increasing petroleum
exploration activities in the AR has added another challenge concerning conservation
of biodiversity and landscape in the region.
1.1 Specific issues to be addressed
A large number of sites (Kennedy 2011 reports 51 of 55 as productive) have so far
been drilled and investigated for oil and gas in the AR, some of which are within while
others are outside protected areas. This study was designed to highlight the effects of
oil exploration on biodiversity in general. The primary target sites were protected
areas (PA) while those exploration sites outside PAs were considered as secondary
targets. In addition, the study was also detailed to highlight the potential effects of a
proposed golf course in the Chobe sector, Murchison Falls Conservation Area (MFCA).
Specifically the study aimed to address the following areas:
•
Document the extent and coverage of exploration sites.
•
Document new developments or undertaking (roads and other infrastructures)
as a result of exploration.
•
Document the procedures and environmental standards being employed.
5
•
Highlight issues, document effects (potential effects) of exploration on species,
sites and habitats as per observation and where possible use quantitative
representation to highlight the magnitude of the problem.
•
Highlight potential and resultant effects of approving the development of the
golf course in Chobe sector.
•
Highlight case studies of Protected Areas with golf courses and the emerging
issues therein.
•
Make appropriate recommendations and action points for advocacy.
2. Status of Oil Exploration in Uganda
Uganda's oil and gas industry in the Albertine Rift area is expected to attract billions
of dollars in investment as it moves from exploration to development/ production?
The current oil reserves have variously been estimated to be from as low as 3.5
million bbl to as high as at least 2.5 billion barrels (Kennedy 2011). The Tullow Oil
web page however puts the oil estimates at a gross of 1.1 billion barrels of oil already
discovered in the Lake Albert Rift Basin. The page further observes that with many
prospects still to be drilled, Tullow believes the basin has an additional 1.4 billion
barrels of oil yet to be found (http://www.tullowoil.com/index.asp?pageid=282).
At the lower reserve level it has been predicted to have a production potential of
around 200,000 barrels/day once the country's known fields are developed.
To date, Tullow Oil and Heritage Oil have drilled successfully in the Albertine Rift
area beside and under Lake Albert, which lies in the uppermost part of the western
arm of the Great Rift Valley.
Murchison Falls National Park lies in Exploration Area 1, in which 6 wells (Mpyo 1, 2 &
3 in the south section of the Park and Rii, Jobi and Jobi-East 1 in the north side of the
Park) have been drilled. At least 5 sites in the south side and 7 sites in the north
section are also lined up for drilling.
6
At the present time Tullow & Total are in the process of conducting ESIA studies
leading the conducting of 3D seismic surveys in a large section of the Park covering
large sections both north and south of the Nile. It is expected, that 3D seismic surveys
will give a much better understanding of the distribution of rocks bearing
hydrocarbons than was possible from 2D surveys already conducted.
It is the
understanding too that a better understanding of the distribution of the rock and
deposits will then negate the need to sink more exploration wells since the reserves
can then be accessed from a few best locations (Total presentation “Introduction to
3D seismic in Block 1).
Fig 1 details the distribution of the oil exploration area into the 5 operational blocks,
while Fig 2 details the distribution of the licensing and exploration activities as of
2009. The bulk of the oil exploration activities this far has concentrated in Exploration
areas 1, 2 and 3 with several productive wells successfully drilled.
7
Map 2: Oil exploration areas in Ugandan (Source: International Alert (2009))
Kashambuzi and Mugisha (2003) detailed the history of petroleum exploration in
Uganda. Some key highlights listed below have been extracted from their write up to
show some major highlights.
i. Despite its petroleum potential manifested by numerous oil seeps in the
Albertine Graben and the fact that rift environments are proven oil
8
provinces in many parts of the world, Uganda’s search for petroleum has
been unsystematic and discontinuous since 1925.
ii. The drilling of the Buitaba Waki-B1 well in late 1930’s was the first attempt to
investigate the subsurface. The well penetrated sandstones, shales and
conglomerates. An oil shale at a depth of 1200m reported to contain some
free oil which confirmed the existence of source rocks responsible for the
numerous oil seeps identified in the Albertine Graben.
iii. The aeromagnetic surveys of 1983/84 and subsequent ground gravity and
magnetic follow-up as well as detailed in geological mapping strengthened
the evidence of the petroleum potential of the Graben. Source rocks,
reservoir rocks and possible seals were mapped and significant structures
identified. Consequent to which Exploration Areas 2 and 3 were licensed to
Hardman Resources NL and Heritage Oil and Gas Limited, respectively.
iv. The seismic surveys of 1998 and 2001 in Exploration Area 3, Semliki Basin
confirmed earlier observations and also properly defined structures and
revealed the complexity of the geology of that area and possibly of the
whole Graben.
v. Whereas the aeromagnetic data interpretation suggested basement depth of
not more than 4000m, gravity and seismic data interpretation refined this
to about 6,000m.
vi. Turaco – 1 well in the Semliki Basin, was the first deep well drilled in the basin,
and was at the time expected to throw more light on the geology and
hydrocarbon potential of the basin.
Prospecting for oil in Uganda’s Albertine Rift restarted in 2003–04 (International Alert
2009) since which time the government has licensed five exploration areas (EAs) out
of a total of nine, both onshore and offshore in Lake Albert. Key of the licensed blocks
are EAs 1, 2 and 3A, respectively in the Pakwach, Northern Lake Albert and Southern
Lake Albert/Semliki Basins.
9
By 2009 Tullow and Heritage had drilled 27 oil wells, of which 25 were confirmed to
contain commercially viable hydrocarbons. More recent reports indicate 51 of 55
drilled wells as having found hydrocarbons (Kennedy 2011)
Tullow the current largest player in Uganda’s oil exploration, specializes in finding
new oil and then selling all or part of them to other operators when their
development gets costly and complex, using the cash to find new oil patches.
Among some of the productive well sites that have been drilled are:-
i. The Kingfisher well site on Lake Albert shore.
ii. Butiaba in Block 2 where Kigogole-3 exploration well has an estimated 20
meters of net oil pay.
iii. Delta play fairway within the Lake Albert Rift Basin in the Kaiso-Tonya region
of Uganda's Block 2 has Ngassa-2 exploration well another very productive
well.
iv. The Kasamene well site has a reported 39 meters of net oil pay and 8 meters of
net gas pay within a 132-meter gross interval in its Kasamene-2 appraisal
well. Other productive wells in this area are Kasamene-1, Kasamene-3A
Wahrindi North. The Kasamene and Wahrindi North exploratory appraisal
results are said to have brought Tullow a significant step closer to producing
the first oil in Uganda.
v. Butiaba (Lake Albert) Blocks 1, 3a and 4b – in Block 1 of this section, two
onshore wells the Buffalo and Giraffe wells were successfully drilled and
estimated to contain about 400,000 million bbl of recoverable oil. These it
was reported potentially comprise one of the largest onshore discoveries in
Africa.
vi. The Nzizi well sites.
a. These comprise of Nzizi-2 with a confirmed presence of 14 million cf/d
of natural gas.
b. Kingfisher-3A
c. Kingfisher-1A and
10
d. Kingfisher-2 wells
vii.Two well sites Buffalo and Hartebeest were drilled in the Delta area of
Murchison Falls National Park which is the most sensitive part of the Park
but in addition several other wells have been drilled in different parts of
the Park.
In addition to the above several other locations are being investigated in the Albertine
Graben of Uganda and may well prove productive. Therefore additional seismic
survey, further exploratory drilling, the longer-term production stage, pipelines,
decommissioning plans and audits are envisaged to continue in the Albertine Rift area
in general and within the Protected Areas in particular.
TOTAL, a recent arrival in the oil exploration and development business in the AR,
acquired from Tullow interests in part of Block 1 south of the Nile in Murchison Falls
National Park and extending into the Wanseko Village. This area already has at least
three sites that were drilled, and presently the company is in the planning process to
conduct 2D seismic surveys in the area.
3. Environmental standards employed in oil industry
National
Environmental
Management
Agency
(NEMA)
(Uganda)
published
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Guidelines in 1997. The guidelines provide
clear direction on what detail should be included, the level of detail of assessment,
and the kinds of action that should be taken post approval. The Guidelines also
provides the opportunity for the authorities to reject an EIA that does not meet the
criteria or quality required in the Guidelines.
EIA is a globally recognized and accepted methodology for identifying and assessing
the significance of impacts associated with developments considered likely to have
negative impacts on the environment. It results in the development of an
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), which summarizes the project, the impact
assessment and the mitigation actions required to eliminate or minimize those
impacts.
11
This has been a requirement for all oil exploration activities ranging from the
acquisition of seismic data to the actual drilling and testing of the drilled wells.
In the execution of oil and gas exploration in Uganda the companies are required to
meet both local and international standards of best practice. These include but are
not limited to:a) National standards
i. The National Environment (Standards for Discharge of Effluent into Water or on
Land) Regulations, 1999.
These regulations set the national discharge standards to values shown in Table 1.
Table 1. National discharge standards
National
discharge
Parameter
standards
BOD5 (mg/l)
50
Suspended
solids
(mg/l)
100
Faucal coliforms
10,000 counts/ 100ml
Chlorine
residual
(mg/l)
1 mg/l
pH
6-8
Phenols (ìg/l)
0.2 mg/l
Oil and grease (mg/l)
10 mg/l
Total
Phosphorus
(mg/l)
10 mg/l
Temperature
20-350C
ii. The National Environment (Noise Standards and Control) Regulations, 2003
In Part III Section 8 (1) of these regulations, it is required of machinery operators, to
use the best practicable means to ensure that the emission of noise does not exceed
the permissible noise levels. The regulations require that persons to be exposed to
occupational noise exceeding 85 dBA for 8 hours should be provided with requisite ear
protection. The permissible noise is set at levels shown in Table 2.
12
Table 2. National noise level standards
Facility
Noise limits dB (A) (Leq)
Day*
Night*
Construction sites 75
65
-10.00 p.m; Night 10.00 p.m - 6.00
*Time frame:
a.m
iii. The Draft National Air Quality Standards, 2006
Because drilling operations are powered by diesel electricity generators, pollutants
such as CO2, NOx, SOx, VOC and particulates are expected to be emitted. The draft
national air quality standards provide regulatory limit standards for these emissions
(Table 3).
Table 3.Regulatory limit standards for selected pollutants that affect air quality
Averaging time for Standard
for
Pollutant
ambient air
ambient air
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
8 hr
9.0 ppm
8 hr
9.0 ppm
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Hydrocarbons
24 hr
5 mg m-3
24 hr
1 year
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
arithmetic mean
0.10 ppm
Smoke
Not to exceed 5 Ringlemann
minutes in any one scale No.2 or
hour
40% observed
at 6m or more
Soot
24 hr
500 µg Nm-3
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
24 hr
0.15 ppm
Sulphur trioxide (SO3)
24 hr
200 µg Nm-3
Note: ppm = parts per million; “N” in µg/Nm-3 connotes normal atmospheric
conditions of pressure and temperature (250C and 1atmosphere).
b) International standards
Since major projects such as the oil and gas exploration may have to outsource funds
from agencies such as World Bank, their standards must comply to the International
Finance Corporation (IFC) requirements. Three IFC standards are shown here (Tables 4
- 6).
13
Table 4 IFC emission limits from onshore oil & gas production
Parameter
Maximum value
VOCs, including benzene
20
Hydrogen sulfide
30
Sulfur Oxides (for oil
1000
production)
Nitrogen oxides
Gas fired
320 (or 86ng/J)
Oil fired
460 (or 130ng/J)
Odor
Not offensive at the receptor end a
Note: ng/j nanograms per joule
a. Hydrogen sulfide at the property boundary should be less that 5mg/m3
b. Units milligrams per normal cubic (mg/Nm3) meter unless otherwise specified.
Table 5 IFC noise limits from onshore oil & gas production
Maximum allowable log equivalent (hourly
measurements), in dB(A)
Receptor
Day (07:00 – 22:00
Night (22:00 – 07:00
Residential
Institutional
Educational
55
45
Industrial
Commercial
70
70
Table 6 IFC effluent discharge limits from onshore oil & gas production
Parameter
Maximum value
pH
6-9
BOD
50
TSS
50
Oil and greasea
20
Phenol
1
Sulfide
1
b
Total toxic metals
5
Temperature increase <30Cc
Note: Effluent requirements are for direct discharge to surface waters
a. Up to 40mg/l is acceptable for facilities producing less than 10,000 tons per
day.
b. Toxic metals include antimony, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium,
copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium, vanadium, and zinc
c. The effluent should result in a temperature increase of no more than 30c at the
edge of the zone where initial mixing and dilution take place. Where the zone
is not defined, use 100 meters from the point of discharge.
14
4. Biodiversity
The Albertine Rift (AR) area is currently recognized globally as a biodiversity hotspot,
containing over 50% of birds, 39% of mammals, 19% of amphibians, and 14% of reptiles
and plants found in mainland Africa (Plumptre et al 2004). This richness is manifested
in the number of large number of protected areas, ranging from forest reserves,
community wildlife reserves, wildlife reserves to fully-protected national parks.
Murchison Falls NP, Bugungu WR, Kabwoya WR and Semliki WR among others are
wholly inside the oil blocks and so will have or have already had direct impacts from
the oil exploration.
Table 7 based on information from BirdLife International (2010); Saundry and Arce
(2009) summarizes information about some important Protected areas within the AR.
Table 7 Important Protected areas in the AR (based on BirdLife International
(2010); Saundry and Arce (2009))
2
Bugoma Central FR
40,100
82
Bugungu Wildlife Reserve
74,830 ,
Bwindi Impenetrable NP
33,100
97
Echuya FR
4,000
61
Kasyoha-Kitomi FR
39,464
100
Kibale NP
76,600
83
7
Kyambura Wildlife Reserve
15,510
68
8
Mgahinga Gorilla NP
4,750
75
4
Murchison Falls NP
39,000
37
16
Queen Elizabeth NP (including 223,000
Lake George
Rwenzori Mountains NP
99,600
51
4
2
78
11
2
Semliki NP
21,900
89
Semliki Wildlife Reserve
115,000
28
15
2
Shrub land
%savanna
74
%wetland
% forest
cover
82,530
15
%grassland
Size (ha)
Reserve
Budongo Forest Reserve
12
7
10
4
20
5
18
1
4
The area of the Albertine Rift in Uganda is famous for its wide variety of landscapes,
ecosystems and biological diversity. The diversity is maintained in the continuous
string of forest reserves and wildlife protected areas found in the AR (listed above)
extending from Mgahinga National Park in the south to Murchison Falls in the north.
Table 8 summarizes some biodiversity values for the better known taxa in a number of
the savanna reserves in the Albertine Rift that are either currently directly or may in
future be affected by oil prospecting activities. The better known terrestrial taxa
shown include plants, amphibians, birds, reptiles and mammals. Even for these, the
species richness may be far from complete including for the well studied reserves
such as MFNP and QENP. For example the species richness for plants in MFNP a much
larger reserve than QENP may not represent the true situation. A study in 2010 around
the proposed site for Ayago Dam in Murchison Falls national Park recorded a total of
244 vascular (Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. & Nippon Koei Co., Ltd. 2010)
plants many more than those reported in Plumptre et al (2003). Wildlife reserves
including Bugungu, Karuma and Semliki have not received the amount of research
interest as for the National Parks and therefore their species richness may be far
greater than known at the present time. Presence of endemic species and species of
conservation concern, in these reserves is also possibly not that well known as yet.
16
Table 8 Examples of species richness (and other aspects) for various taxa in
the Albertine rift (Source Plumptre et. al. 2003)
AR
All mammals
No. Large
endemic
Site
Spp no.
mammals
species
Mammals
Murchison Falls NP
109
54
0
Bugungu WR
9
7
0
Karuma WR
57
27
0
Semliki WR
69
35
0
Queen Elizabeth NP
97
62
0
Birds
Site
Murchison Falls NP
Semliki WR
Queen Elizabeth
Site
Murchison Falls NP
Bugungu WR
Karuma WR
Semliki WR
Queen Elizabeth
Site
Murchison Falls NP
Karuma WR
SPP no.
the better known savanna reserves of
Near
endemic
species
1
0
0
1
2
SPP no.
32
9
15
33
34
SPP no.
14
16
0
0
0
Reptiles
AR endemic
Near Endemic
species
species
0
0
0
0
0
Amphibians
AR endemic
Near Endemic
species
species
0
0
17
5
1
4
4
6
Threatened
CR,EN, VU
AR endemic species
476
435
594
IUCN
Threatened CR, listed
EN,VU
species
IUCN listed species
7
3
7
Threatened
CR,EN, VU
0
0
0
0
0
10
4
15
IUCN listed species
1
0
0
1
0
Threatened
CR,EN, VU
0
0
21
1
7
12
21
1
0
0
1
0
IUCN listed species
0
0
1
1
Semliki WR
Queen Elizabeth NP
Site
Murchison Falls NP
Queen Elizabeth
12
10
SPP no.
0
1
Plants
No. Tree
AR endemic
species
species
149
145
950
288
18
0
0
0
1
Threatened
CR,EN, VU
1
22
1
1
IUCN listed species
5
5
8
7
In most situations, and although constituting small proportions of the total species,
the PAs in table 1 have some Albertine Rift area endemics as well as International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed species. Both these attributes and the
data available altogether testify to the importance of the areas in the AR for
biodiversity.
Kabwoya WR and Kaiso-Tonya Community Wildlife Area, that are also experiencing a
great amount of oil exploration activities (the Ngasa, Walaga, Mputa and Nzizi wells
located in these reserves), have only recently been investigated in some detail. Totals
of 30 mammal species, 20 reptile and 18 amphibian species, 176 bird species, and 167
plant species were recorded for the two protected areas (Plumptre et al 2009).
Environmental sensitivity
An Environmental Sensitivity Atlas for the Albertine Graben (NEMA 2009) aimed to
answer a general objective of “displaying, identifying and providing the ability to
analyze the relative sensitivities (environmental, biological, geographical, and socioeconomic) to oil spill and oil development within the exploration areas in the
Albertine Graben region of western Uganda” was completed in 2009.
Figs 3 – 6 sourced from the Sensitivity Atlas sum up the biodiversity pattern of the AR
area. All four figures show approximately similar trends of areas of importance. Fig 3
& 4 of species richness and biodiversity show the areas that rank highest to largely
correspond with PAs while areas in between are not ranked at all largely due to the
patchy nature of available biodiversity data.
The PAs range from Forest reserves, Community wildlife areas, Wildlife reserves to
National Parks with different levels of protection. National parks represent the
highest level of protection while the other three are lower rank. Fig 6 mapped the
conservation status in the PA chain in the Albertine rift ranging from very low in the
community wildlife area to very high in the Bwindi and Mgahinga Parks presumably
because of the Mountain Gorillas in these parks.
19
The areas in between will either be settled, built up and cultivated or have varying
amounts of natural vegetation surviving in the matrix. Although not part of the PA
system, these areas are important in the long term survival of metapopulations of the
different components of the overall biodiversity. The biodiversity in them remains
either unknown or only anecdotally documented to permit the kinds of analyses
shown in Figs 3 – 6.
The highest concentration of species considered of “special importance” by the
Sensitivity Atlas, correspond with Forest reserves which this far are not directly
affected by the oil exploration activities.
20
Map 3 Pattern of Species richness in the Albertine Rift area (Source: NEMA 2009)
21
Map 4 Overall trend in biodiversity in The Albertine Rift (Source: NEMA 2009)
22
Map 5 Distribution of species of special importance (Source: NEMA 2009)
23
Map 6 Conservation status of areas in the Albertine Rift (Source: NEMA 2009)
24
5. Highlight of some legal considerations
The constitution
Uganda’s Constitution, the supreme law governing the country has provisions for the
Environment in article 245. “Protection and preservation of the environment.
Parliament shall, by law, provide for measures intended”—which aims to
o
(a) to protect and preserve the environment from abuse, pollution and
degradation;
o
(b) to manage the environment for sustainable development; and
o
(c) to promote environmental awareness.
It is on the basis of this supreme law that other enabling laws have been enacted and
are in place to take care of various special interests.
Objective 27 of the Constitution is specifically concerned with on “the Environment” –
its protection and wise and sustainable use.
Several Acts, Laws and regulations have been enacted to directly or by implication,
ensure that the oil resource is accessed in responsible ways and the proceeds used
well to benefit the whole country. These notwithstanding, oil exploration deals in
Uganda have continued to be shrouded in secrecy causing and justifiably too, a lot of
suspicion on part of the general public.
The principal agency in Uganda for monitoring environmental impacts and for
coordination of management and protection of the environment is NEMA. For each
proposed oil investment, the company in question must produce an EIA, which NEMA
must then make public, giving the affected community and other stakeholders the
right to respond. In addition, on issues of national importance such as oil
development, EIAs can be subject to public hearings.
25
The National Environmental Act (Cap 153) and Environmental Impact Assessment
Regulations (1998) are the foundational legislation governing EIA studies in Uganda.
The National Environment Management Policy, 1994, has as its overall goal the
promotion of sustainable economic and social development mindful of the needs of
future generations and EIA is one of the vital tools it considers necessary to ensure
environmental quality and resource productivity on long-term basis. It calls for
integration of environmental concerns into development policies, plans and projects
at national, district and local levels. Hence, the policy requires that projects or
policies likely to have significant adverse ecological or social impacts undertake an
EIA before their implementation. This is also reaffirmed in the National Environment
Act, Cap 153 which makes EIA a requirement for eligible projects.
The Petroleum Exploration and Production Act 2000 mandates the line Ministry
Minister the authority to grant a petroleum exploration license, on such conditions as
he may determine.
The ATI Act provides that every citizen has a right of access to government-held
information except when such disclosure is not good for national security or
sovereignty, and individual privacy
A National Oil and Gas Policy, for Uganda was approved by Cabinet in February 2008,
it also recognizes that “Openness and access to information are fundamental rights in
activities that may positively or negatively impact individuals, communities and
states.”
The policy was designed to: i. Ensure the promotion of high standards of transparency and accountability in
licensing,
procurement,
exploration,
development
and
operations as well as management of revenues from oil and gas.
26
production
ii. Support disclosure of payments and revenues from oil and gas using simple and
easily understood principles in line with accepted national and international
financial reporting standards.
iii. Be
consistent
with
the
internationally-recognized
Extractive
Industry
Transparency Initiative (EITI) disclosure standards.
Objective 9 of the National Oil & Gas Policy for Uganda, 2008 seeks to ensure that oil
and gas activities are undertaken in a manner that conserves environment and
biodiversity through strategies such as:
a. Strengthening environmental monitoring of oil activities (Strategy b)
b. Ensuring that sites at which oil activities are undertaken are restored to
original conditions (Strategy d).
The policy considers environmental protection to include both physical and social
aspects and seeks to mitigate typical forms of environmental damage and hazards
associated with oil and gas activities. Specifically, the policy supports measures
against improper discharge of waste into the natural environment (air, water, soil) to
ensure safety of animal, fish and human life.
The policy also recognizes a need to minimize the impact footprint in ecologicallysensitive sites such as wildlife conservation areas. For instance access roads in such
areas should be kept at a minimum and their construction or maintenance should be
done in an environmentally-responsible manner (Section 6.2.4).
The National Oil and Gas Policy for Uganda, 2008 (NOGP) enshrines ‘Protection of the
Environment and Conservation of Biodiversity’ as one of its guiding principles. To
ensure this, the NGOP recognizes the need for: i. putting in place the right ‘institutional and regulatory framework to address
environment and biodiversity issues relevant to oil and gas activities’ and
ii. ensuring there is ‘the necessary capacity and facilities to monitor the impact of
oil and gas activities on the environment and biodiversity’.
27
The objective in NGOP relevant for biodiversity and conservation promises to ensure that oil
and gas activities are undertaken in a manner that conserves the environment. The policy
acknowledges that the oil and gas industry will affect the wildlife, biodiversity and economy
of the Lake Albert ecosystem as well as the corridor in which the pipeline will pass. The
policy proposes to mitigate environmental damage through control of air pollution, keeping
access roads at minimum and using bitumen to surface the roads, control measures against
the release of chemical wastes and spills into Lake Albert and rivers that drain the basin. The
policy also states that a disaster preparedness response mechanism will be put in place to
respond to any oil spills in the Lake Albert basin and pipeline corridor.
Petroleum (Exploration, Development, Production, and Value Addition) Bill that
focuses on exploration and extraction was disclosed for review and comments to the
public in 2010
The Wildlife Management Policy formed the basis for the enactment of the Wildlife
Act, 1996 and the establishment of the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) with the
purpose of promoting the conservation and sustainable utilization of Wildlife
throughout Uganda so that the abundance and diversity of their species are
maintained at optimum levels commensurate with the forms of land use. The Act also
requires that an EIA for any project that may have significant effects on any wildlife
species or community be conducted before any such project is implemented. It in
addition requires that Uganda Wildlife Authority in consultation with NEMA carry out
audits and monitoring of projects carried out in accordance with the EIA regulations
of the National Environment Act, CAP 153, Laws of Uganda, 2000.
The Wildlife Act of 2000 was enacted with the purposes of the Act is to promote: -
a) The conservation of wildlife throughout Uganda so that the abundance and
diversity of their species are maintained at optimum levels commensurate
with other forms of land use, in order to support sustainable utilization of
wildlife for the benefit of the people of Uganda;
28
b) The sustainable management of wildlife conservation areas;
c) The conservation of selected examples of wildlife communities in Uganda;
d) The protection of rare, endangered and endemic species of wild plants and
animals;
e) Ecologically acceptable control of problem animals;
f) The enhancement of economic and social benefits from wildlife management
by establishing wildlife use rights and the promoting of tourism;
g) The control of import, export and re-export of wildlife species and
specimens;
h) The implementation of relevant international treaties, conventions,
agreements or other arrangement to which Uganda is a party; and
i) Public participation in wildlife management
The laws and policies in place imply/suggest that Uganda’s oil sector, including oil
revenues will be managed in an open and transparent manner to ensure
accountability.
If these and all other legal instruments available in Uganda were implemented
properly we would expect to see best practices both in access and extraction of the
resource and in subsequent investment of the proceeds for the good of Ugandans.
On the one hand though these legal instruments provide vital yardsticks upon which
the key players in the enterprise can and should be forced/caused to account.
International Agreements and Conventions
Uganda is party to several global and regional environmental conventions and
agreements including but not limited to the following:
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971
This convention on wetlands of international importance especially as waterfowl
habitat (or Ramsar Convention 1971) as amended in 1982 and 1987, was ratified by
Uganda in 1988.
29
The Ramsar Convention was the first multilateral treaty aiming at conserving natural
resources on a global scale. One of its two essential rungs, presses for “A commitment
to promoting as far as possible the wise use of all wetlands within member states’
territories.” This recognizes that some use can be sustained while other forms of use
could result into major irreversible impacts.
Two Ramsar sites (Lake George and Murchison Falls - River and Delta) are found in
Exploration Areas 4 and 1 respectively.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
A major objective of this convention is in-situ and ex-situ conservation of biological
diversity. Parties to this convention are required to undertake EIA for projects likely
to have significant adverse effects on biodiversity and develop national plans and
programmes for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
Protocol Agreement on Conservation of Common Natural Resources (1982)
Uganda signed the Protocol Agreement on the Conservation of Common Natural
Resources (1982). The relevancy of this agreement to the project is the fact that
River Nile, part of which (Albert Nile) flows through Lake Albert is a watercourse
shared by nations lying between Uganda and Egypt. Straddling the border of Uganda
and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Lake Albert itself is a shared water body.
IUCN Guidelines on Oil Exploration in the Tropics
Prepared by IUCN’s Environmental Assessment Service in cooperation with the oil
industry’s Exploration Production Forum, these guidelines set out the oil exploration
process, describe potential environmental consequences of exploration in the tropics
and recommend measures for the prevention or minimization of adverse impacts.
Pollution control measures recommended include maximizing the use of freshwater
gel– based mud instead of ones based on saltwater (potassium chloride or and sodium
30
chloride); disposing of drilling mud in a manner that minimizes environment
contamination; reusing drilling-mud pond decant water.
The Energy and Biodiversity Initiative (EBI)
The Energy and Biodiversity Initiative (EBI) is a nine-member organization created to
develop and promote practices for integrating biodiversity conservation into upstream
oil and gas development. EBI seeks to be a positive force for biodiversity conservation
by bringing together leading energy companies and conservation organizations to
share experiences and build on intellectual capital to create value and influence key
audiences. EBI developed guidelines to enable oil companies to integrate biodiversity
conservation into oil and gas development.
These guidelines were designed to build on systems already widely used within the
industry, notably the Environmental Management System (EMS) and the Environmental
and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) process. Relevant biodiversity considerations can
be integrated into the specific components and steps of an EMS at both the project
and company levels, as well as into an integrated EIA process that considers impacts
using a broad-scale ecosystem approach. These guidelines recognize that an EIA is
essentially a procedural standard, and its completion does not guarantee high
performance on biodiversity issues or that the level of impact will be acceptable. In
all cases, the commitment of the oil company to a high standard of environmental
management will play an important role in determining the final, long-term effect on
biodiversity from the operation. As with other issues, the guidelines note, any actions
or activities to manage and conserve biodiversity should be based on a valid and
transparent risk assessment process – only in those cases where there are significant
biodiversity issues will in-depth biodiversity management practices be necessary.
IPIECA
The International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA)
was founded in 1974 following the establishment of the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP). IPIECA provides one of the industry’s principal channels of
31
communication with the United Nations. IPIECA is the single global association
representing both the upstream and downstream oil and gas industry on key global
environmental and social issues. IPIECA’s programme takes full account of
international developments in these issues, serving as a forum for discussion and
cooperation involving industry and international organizations. The aims of IPIECA are
to develop and promote scientifically-sound, cost-effective, practical, socially and
economically acceptable solutions to global environmental and social issues pertaining
to the oil and gas industry.
IPIECA is not a lobbying organization, but provides a forum for encouraging continuous
improvement of industry performance.
In 2007, IPIECA together with American Petroleum Institute (API) developed “Oil and
Natural Gas Industry Guidelines for Greenhouse Gas Reduction Projects” to guide oil
companies on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and implementing emission
reduction projects either voluntarily or to comply with regulatory requirements.
The guidelines recommend GHG reduction measures such as: Cogeneration; Carbon
capture and geological storage; Flare reduction; Fuel switching and Energy efficiency
improvements.
6. Proposed or ongoing developments in the AR area that may impact on
biodiversity
Several other medium to large sized projects that could have a variety of impacts on
ecosystems and biodiversity in the AR and or the PAs in the AR include but are not
limited to the following: i. A proposed Golf course in Murchison Falls National Park in the Chobe
Sector.
As far as is understood, this remains a proposal that was rejected by UWA despite
insistence by the prospective developer in the presence of the President of
Uganda. A standard golf course usually comprises of managed turfgrass (greens,
32
tees, fairways, rough, driving range/practice areas, turfgrass nurseries, clubhouse
grounds) and a nonturfgrass component that may include non-turfgrass landscapes,
water bodies, buildings, bunkers and parking lots.
The golf course consists of a series of holes, each consisting of a teeing ground,
fairway, rough and other hazards, and a green with a flagstick (pin) and cup, all
designed for the game of golf. A standard round of golf consists of playing 18 holes
although some only have nine holes. Other variations that exist include courses
with 27 or 36 holes. An 18 hole golf course usually sits on 150 acres (607,028.463
square meters) of land and the distance from first tee to the final hole, could
stretch up to 6.5 – 7 km. This would no doubt result in significant amounts of land
take, vegetation conversion and overall habitat change and loss. (Box1 presents a
brief note and example of Golf courses in National parks elsewhere in the world)
33
Box 1: Examples of Golf courses in National Parks
Cases of Golf courses in National Parks
A Google search for “golf courses in a National Park” returned 19,300,000 hits; many of these are
relevant while others not quite. This implies that information on Golf Courses within or associated
with National Parks abounds on the internet all of which have websites which however do not give
very much information except that meant to draw the golfer to them.
A checklist of just three of these follows: 1. Kruger National Park Golf Courses (http://www.krugerpark-direct.com/golf-course). This park is
listed as having 7 Golf courses associated with it only two are named here: a. Hans Merensky Golf Course – the brief note for this course promises common sights of elephant,
giraffe, warthogs and all sorts of buck crossing the rolling fairways. Incidents when elephants
block the green are not uncommon and could present moving hazards to the golfer. Other
wildlife reported for the area are Live Crocodiles and Hippos. The course is said to be located in
the Valley of the Elephants, adjacent to the Kruger National Park where supposedly Crocodile
and hippo add zest to the normal "water hazards" and it is rated one of the top 20 golf courses in
South Africa.
b. Leopard Creek Golf Course – an 18 Holes course is reported to have been designed working
closely with the Kruger National Park and nature conservation authorities. And that the golf
course was specifically designed to blend in with the surroundings, providing sophisticated
leisure amenities in an undisturbed natural environment. The information about this course
further describes it a paradise for bird-watchers, a challenge for golfers and an opportunity for
all the beauty of the bushveld. The cool shade of indigenous trees, some hundreds of years old,
is home to over 200 bird species. The area in which this course is located has abundant wildlife
including the big five - lion, leopard, elephant, rhino and buffalo. Other species include Hippos
and Crocodiles.
2. The Bluff National Park Golf course (http://bluffgolf.co.za/) is set in a beautiful wetland
conservation area in Kwa Zulu Natal South Africa. The wildlife reported for this area includes
mainly birds - Fish Eagle, Plovers, Sandpipers, Herons, Pelicans, Geese and Cormorants, but
presumably also many other smaller species.
3. Pasture
Golf
Australia
Yanchep
National
Park
Golf
Course
(http://www.pasturegolf.com/courses/aussie.htm) – invites golfers to spend a great day out
with the kangaroos and other Australian natives, on a 9-hole golf course. They give a cautionary
not that Park officials emphasize that all animals in the park are wild and should be approached
with appropriate caution and respect, whether they are on the greens, by the tee boxes or in the
rough.
34
ii. The proposed Ayago hydropower dam in MFNP.
A scoping study has been completed for this project and it remains for the developer
with the Ministry of Energy to decide whether to go ahead with the development, for
which a full ESIA will have to be conducted. At the time of completing this report, a
call has been issued for “Environmental and Social Considerations Study for Feasibility
Study of Ayago Hydropower Plant”
iii. The Karuma Hydropower dam and associated facilities partly in Karuma
Wildlife reserve.
This seems a high priority project for which the Government has expressed the intent
to invest earnings accrued from capital developments in the oil exploration
enterprises. The main project is marginally outside Murchison Falls NP and Karuma
WLR, although a number of construction activities will be right within the latter. The
ESIA for this project is in the process of being completed
iv. Upgrading the Hoima-Kaiso Road
The processed oil could be evacuated by road from the rift valley in the KaisoKabwoya area. If this were to be done the present main road out of the Rift valley
would have to be upgraded to enable it handle the kind of traffic and load that might
accompany such a development.
v. Upgrading of the Bulisa- Hoima road
The processed oil could be evacuated by road from the rift valley in the Bulisa area. If
this were to be done the present main road out of Bulisa would have to be upgraded
to enable it handle the kind of traffic and load that might accompany such a
development.
vi. Hydro-power dam on River Wambabya.
35
Construction work is already underway on this project (Buseruka hydro power dam)
for the construction of a 9 Mega Watt. The power plant will be connected through
44 km of high voltage transmission line to a substation in Hoima.
vii.
Proposed Gas Pipeline from Nzizi well sites in Kabwoya WR
This proposed pipeline would cross through mainly grassland areas in Kabwoya WR and
up the escarpment that is increasingly wooded to the proposed site of the mini
Kabaale Thermal Power Plant up on the escarpment.
viii.
Kasemene Field Development Project
This area has been considered for development of an Oil Processing Facility. The
Kasemene area is wholly in an unreserved area, although some of the wells that may
be tapped into for oil may be in MFNP. In the event that Oil is processed in this area,
there would arise issues of its evacuation that may involve upgrading the Bulisa-Hoima
road (see v above).
ix. Where ever oil has been found such as in the three wells of Buffalo 1,
Hartebeest 1 and Giraffe 1 in the Delta area of Murchison NP or the Mpuuta wells in
Kabwoya WR, it is conceivable that they will be linked through a pipeline network to
a central processing facility where-ever this shall be located. The installation of the
network of pipelines is here also considered as a standalone potential development in
the area.
x. Geothermal Exploration and Development
Map 7 shows the distribution of areas with potential for Geothermal energy
exploration and development. A good number of these are within the Albertine Rift
area.
36
Map 7 Locations of the geothermal areas of Uganda (source: Bahati and Natukunda
2009)
Bahati & Natukunda (2009) reviewed the geothermal potentials in Uganda and noted
that in three areas (Katwe, Buranga and Kibiro), its investigation had reached
advanced stages of surface exploration and that geothermal models were available for
these. The investigations they reported showed that subsurface temperatures of 140200°C, 120-150°C and 200-220°C had been inferred by geothermometry for Katwe,
Buranga and Kibiro respectively. These temperatures according to these authors, if
confirmed are high enough for electricity production and for direct use in industry and
agriculture.
37
The list above is by no means exhaustive, to it could be added other already existent
developments/projects such as Para Lodge, Red Chilli Rest Camp, Sambia River lodge,
Chobe Lodge and Nile Safari Camp all found within Murchison Falls National Park.
These and several other developments, present real direct issues for ecosystem
integrity as well as long time biodiversity sustenance in the areas where they are
located or where they may be located.
38
7. Potential Impacts on biodiversity
Ecosystem and environmental degradation from the oil sector could happen at
different points such as from exploration, extraction, processing and transportation.
Exploration in this case refers to the seismic activities leading to test drilling, the test
drilling as well as the tests (including flaring) on the discoveries. Impacts of this will
be associated with; habitat destruction and land take for drill, pads workers camps
and equipment storage camps. The current practice however is that no camps are
allowed to be located within the Protected Area.
Extraction and production forecast a future scenario, where oil will have to be
evacuated from the various well sites and channeled presumably through pipes to a
central processing facility. Due to the viscous nature of the product, it is now
understood that this evacuation which would happen through pipes may require
heating to maintain the oil fluid enough to flow through the pipes. This long term has
potential impacts on water sources, for amounts that may be required in the
extraction of the resource and heating the piping. It is also conceivable that the
pipeline will require long term access routes for purposes of maintenance and quick
response in cases of emergences.
The processing facility would presumably be located outside any Protected Area
boundaries and therefore relieve the pressure of further land take, extended periods
of human presence in the park (with its attendant problems) and any risks of spills
and other oil disasters in a PA. Where ever the processing facility will be, there will
be need for considerable amounts of storage facilities for both crude and finished or
semi-finished products before onward shipment to the market.
In addition to ecosystem and environmental issues, the associated socio-economic
developments (e.g., in-migration of people, new infrastructure, businesses and
housing) can result in the loss of livelihoods, displacement and poverty with inevitable
consequences on land cover and biodiversity. Well as it is conceivable that socioeconomic developments might accompany the oil sector in the AR area, it is not likely
that these will be within the boundaries of protected areas. There might instead be
39
increased pressure at the PA boundaries from population buildup due to the socioeconomic developments.
Plumptre et al. (2003) reviewed the variety of threats that sites within the Albertine
Rift were faced with, the major ones of which included forest loss, hunting, timber
exploitation, mining for minerals and oil. Even without oil exploration, the growing
human population and accompanying demand for natural resources will see further
impacts on the survival of ecosystems and wildlife.
In areas outside the Protected Area system, the vegetation formations are very much
derived (Plate 2) with many of the original elements lost either due to overgrazing,
fuel wood extraction, pole extraction or other forms of use.
40
Plate 2: Locations within the Oil exploration area to show how much the current vegetation cover is derived due
to overgrazing and extraction of woody vegetation
41
Although largely derived, where ever the vegetation cover such as in plate 2 survives,
it provides refuge for some elements of the wildlife as well as corridors and stepping
stones for others that may disperse through the areas.
Fig 1 summarizes trends in populations of four mammal species for Murchison Falls
NP. The figure shows drastic reductions in populations for all species from 1970 to
1995 and a suggestion of population recovery albeit very slow there after 1995.
Fig 1: Fig. 1 Population trends in four species of mammals in MFCA, 1973-2006
(Data from Rwetsiba & Wanyama 2005)
With wildlife already in situations such as reported by Plumptre et al (2003) and as
shown in Fig 1, new impacts will have to be managed carefully to mitigate for those
negative ones on the wildlife.
In this section potential impacts to biodiversity are presented in the context of
different operations/components relating to oil exploration. In general terms, work
associated with exploration and developing oil could result into variety of direct and
indirect impacts to wildlife. These could include: •
Fragmentation of populations and/or their habitats
42
•
Disruption and/or blockage of dispersal and/or foraging routes
•
Habitat destruction due to restricted movement of animals and forcing them to
over use of one area
•
Increased poaching and other illegal activities
Other potential impacts are enumerated here under in some detail.
i.
Seismic surveys
Before any decisions are made about where exactly to drill, seismic surveys have been
and will be conducted in the prospect area. Well as the drilling operations impacts
may be/are usually localized, seismic survey impacts have a much broader scope of
impact
Fig 2: A Bouguer Gravity map of Semliki basin showing the seismic grid (source
Kashambuzi and Mugisha (undated)
43
Fig. 2 shows an example of the extent of the direct impact that oil exploration can
have on an area. In the example here a grid line system is established along which
equipment for collecting seismic data are operated. On land each of the straight lines
on the ground would represent an access route used to set the lines for the explosives
used in acquisition of the seismic data. In 2D seismic surveys (which does not collect
very high resolution quality data) , these lines are place 200m apart while in the 3D
surveys the intensity of the lines is even higher with line spacing at 100m intervals.
Fig. 2 demonstrates the network of lines that were used for seismic surveys in the
Semliki area. Where ever a seismic survey is to be conducted, such a network of lines
is established and for each of these a track is established along which: a.
b.
c.
d.
Cables for capturing and transmitting the data are laid.
Flags are placed to mark locations for placing explosives
Holes for the explosives are dug
Explosives are placed and finally detonated to start the data capture process
Plate 3 Seismic lines through landscapes (source Hansen 2007)
44
The tracks (Plate 3) so created are used by heavy duty tracks for access and delivery
of staff and equipment as well as access for removal after the data acquisition is
completed.
The seismic data acquisition process is a short time operation that has mostly short
term direct impacts for biodiversity but may also have long term impacts if not
properly managed. Some of the short term impacts would include among others
a. Habitat fragmentation
b. Extending the edge into natural habitats in areas traversed by the seismic lines
c. Destruction of critical habitats that may be crossed by the lines (eg. Lekking
grounds, breeding grounds for amphibians and other ground nesting animals,
etc)
d. Water channel destruction and siltation if the lines crossed such channels - this
would have consequences for aquatic biota
e. Behavioral disruption for wildlife in areas that are actively being worked for
data acquisition.
f. Potential for actual killing of slow moving animals by the trucks
ii.
Oil Pad and Workers Camp construction –
In the earlier days when oil exploration was resumed in the Albertine area, a land
clearing of 200 x 200 m, the amount of area that would be required for construction
of the workers camp and a storage yard. The drill pad area had a shorter life time (2 –
3 months) than the workers camp and storage yards which would then be one drill
site. Some of the direct impacts would therefore be shorter on drill sites than on a
camp and storage yard site. Drill pad areas have subsequently been reduced to an
area of direct impact of only 100 x 100m.
To construct a drill pad in all the exploration areas in the Albertine Rift piling and
compacting of earth (soil) is essential to form the bed upon which rig site and
campsite operations will be managed. Plate 4 shows such a pad in the Bulisa area,
exemplifying the impacts of soil piling and compaction in one location. This particular
45
pad was located in an area of impeded drainage, and seems to have blocked channels
of flows for the surface water whose amount rises in the wet seasons.
The resultant standing water could have positive impacts such as providing a temporal
habitat for species such as water birds, amphibians and reptiles and a watering point
for mammals.
Plate 4 Views into the Wahirindi Well site Bulisa, in an area of impeded drainage- Filling up of
the operational area resulted into blocking the flow direction of the water resulting into
standing ponds of water.
Plate 5 An area enhanced for use by wildlife through providing a watering point in
Kabwoya WLR (note the bare ground a result of over-trampling by large congregations
of wildlife)
46
Plate 5 shows impacts to habitat that could result by creating a water body in an area
where it previously wasn’t. With a sure supply of water the area could attract large
numbers of game to congregate in one location causing denudation of the vegetation
cover and massive erosion.
Creation of new bodies of water as shown in Plate 4, could also result into negative
impacts including die off of vegetation not adapted to standing water.
Works to prepare the drill pad and access to it result in vegetation clearance, physical
destruction of habitats, generation of huge amounts of sewage waste, spillage of oil
waste, non-target killing of wildlife and compaction of soil.
iii.
Drill waste and waste pits
Open unprotected pits for drill waste or oil (Plate 6 & 7) pose real threats to wildlife
that may fall into them trapping them and/or causing death to them. If birds were to
fall into such an open unprotected pit full of oil, it would result in greasing of their
feathers making it difficult if not impossible for them to fly with potential dire
consequences.
If the landscape is not restored, that these pits remain open, they could collect water
that would draw water birds to such a water body. There is a possibility of such water
being contaminated with heavy metals and other toxic substances that could be
dangerous to the survival of the species.
47
Plate 6 Open non-flared oil pit at Waraga (Source: AmanigaRuhanga et al 2009)
Birds might mistake such open (uncovered) drilling effluent pits for watercourses and
this could have far reaching consequences for the species.
Plate 7 Chelonians (one trapped but alive the other dead) in an emptied drill
waste pit.
48
Drilling waste could outrightly contaminate the park with dire consequences. It has
been reported about the drilling sites in Murchison Falls National Park, that some of
the past waste treatment at other drilling sites has been found inadequate
The solid waste itself continues to pile up from all the drilled well sites, these wastes
have heavy metals and toxic chemicals that Uganda and the oil industry are as of now
not well equipped to deal with or dispose off. A pile up of these solid wastes
continues to build up in place such as the waste holding site next to the Total Ltd
Camp near the Tangi gate of MFNP.
iv.
Direct animal impacts
In the event of fires intentional or accidental as may happen as a result of increased
human presence in oil exploration areas, a number of impacts not so obvious and not
so easy to quantify could affect several species.
Slow moving species such as Chelonians (Plate 8), ground nesting species such as
Plovers, Thick-knees, Pratincoles etc would be affected by direct killing of adults in
the fires or destruction of nests by the fires.
49
Plate 8 Slow moving species bound to be affected by fires. (Photo was taken in the
Kasamene Operational area in Bulisa March 2010)
Cases of increased poaching have been reported in Murchison Falls National Park and
Kabwoya WR, supposedly attributable to workers in camps of the oil exploration firms
Overall increased movement and presence of humans either directly involved with oil
enterprise of not, makes the risk of increased poaching higher in the PAs.
Other potential impacts due to increased human presence and traffic would include: a. Increased incidents of road kills - (Plate 9 shows a marrum road in the rift
Valley from Bulisa to Hoima where it crosses the Bugungu WR. All connecting
roads in the oil exploration areas in the AR are of the nature as shown in this
plate or lesser quality gravel. To evacuate the oil from the AR it may require
that these roads get upgraded to bitumen surfaces or higher quality marrum.
Better quality roads because they won’t only be limited to oil tankers, could
see faster speeds of other motorists, which could heighten the risk of road
kills.
Plate 9:
Present day good class marrum Bulisa – Hoima road- could get
bituminized increasing traffic and traffic speed with increased risks of road kills.
50
b. Disruption of animal behaviors
c. Fragmenting animal habitats
d. Blocking routes of movement
v.
Oil Spills
An oil or fuel spill on site would result into an ecological disaster, destroying wildlife
grazing rangelands and wildlife. In the event of an oil spill, each such spill will have a
different impact on wildlife and the surrounding environment depending on:
•
the type of oil spilled,
•
the location of the spill,
•
the species of wildlife in the area,
•
the timing of breeding cycles and seasonal migrations, and
•
if on the lake, the weather during the oil spill.
Oil affects wildlife by coating their bodies with a thick layer. Many oils also become
stickier over time (this is called weathering) and so adheres to wildlife even more.
Since most oil floats on the surface of the water it can affect many aquatic animals.
Unfortunately, birds and marine mammals will not necessarily avoid an oil spill.
Elsewhere, some fish have been observed to be attracted to oil because it looks like
floating food. Such a situation would endanger water birds, attracted to schools of
fish and may dive through oil slicks to get to the fish.
Oil that sticks to feathers can cause many direct problems for the species such as:
•
hypothermia in birds by reducing or destroying the insulation and waterproofing
properties of their feathers;
•
birds become easy prey, as their feathers being matted by oil make them less
able to fly away;
•
birds could sink or drown because oiled feathers weigh more and their sticky
feathers cannot trap enough air between them to keep them buoyant;
51
•
birds would lose body weight as their metabolism tries to combat low body
temperature;
•
birds become dehydrated and can starve as they give up or reduce drinking,
diving and swimming to look for food;
Similar negative impacts could also be experienced by aquatic mammals and reptiles.
Other potential oil spill impacts on wildlife could include:
•
poisoning of wildlife higher up the food chain if they eat large amounts of other
organisms that have taken oil into their tissues;
•
interference with breeding by making the animal too ill to breed, interfering
with breeding behaviour such as a bird sitting on their eggs, or by reducing the
number of eggs a bird will lay;
•
damage to the airways and lungs of marine mammals and turtles, congestion,
pneumonia, emphysema and even death by breathing in droplets of oil, or oil
fumes or gas;
•
damage to a aquatic animals’ eyes, which can cause ulcers, conjunctivitis and
blindness, making it difficult for them to find food, and sometimes causing
starvation;
•
irritation or ulceration of skin, mouth or nasal cavities;
•
damage to and suppression of a marine mammal's immune system, sometimes
causing secondary bacterial or fungal infections;
•
damage to red blood cells;
•
damage to a bird's adrenal tissue which interferes with a bird's ability to
maintain blood pressure, and concentration of fluid in its body;
•
damage to fish eggs, larvae and young fish;
•
contamination of beaches where crocodiles and chelonians breed causing
contamination of eggs, adults or hatchlings;
vi.
Potential Golf course impacts
52
At the present time no concrete evidence has been found that a golf course will be
constructed in the Chobe area of Murchison Falls National Park. The Chobe sector of
the Park is a largely woodland landscape, which would require a lot of biomass
removal to create the required areas for the greens.
A major initial impact here will be habitat destruction and loss of at least 150 acres of
park, this could destroy critical habitats of various species, an assessment and
checklist of which would need to be conducted before any such development is
permitted.
The Chobe Sector is only one of the 3 areas in Uganda that have Giraffe (which
although considered by IUCN 2010 – as a species of least concern, is noted to have
declining populations), besides other species whose long term survival could be
compromised by such an amount of land take and conversion.
Other golf course impacts would affect: a) Water demand/ supply
The amount of water golf courses use varies greatly depending on the region, but on
average they use about 10 800 000 litres of water per year (The Golf Course
Superintendents Association), For the Chobe area, this would mean abstracting that
much water off the River Nile, which is already going to be impacted by water
abstraction for Karuma Dam and may further be impacted in similar manner if Ayago
Dam ever gets built.
Direct water abstraction from the river could however be mitigated by using recycled
sewage effluent to water the greens and fairways, it is not obvious though whether
the Chobe establishment would generate sufficient effluent water to support this. If it
did however, there are other negative environmental impacts to be considered
including: i. Pollution through pesticides and fertilizers
53
The addition of any nutrients to the system, for example through using fertilizers,
impacts upon surrounding ecosystems. Increased nutrients may encourage alien
species to invade and discourages indigenous vegetation. Eutrophication of water
bodies may also occur as a result of a proliferation of plant life, especially algae,
which reduces the dissolved oxygen content and often causes the local extinction of
other organisms. While the use of sewage water for irrigation may solve the water
problem, it adds even more nutrients to the system, compounding the negative
environmental impacts of using fertilizers.
Pesticides and herbicides kill off insects and weeds within the confines of the golf
course estate. However these can spread into nearby ground water or river systems.
The use of pesticides may affect species higher up the food chain by either reducing
the amount of food available, or through the accumulation of persistent poisons in
their bodies. Insects also provide important ecosystem functions such as pollination
and seed dispersal. Their removal may have serious long-term implications for habitat
viability.
ii. Non native species of plants
Golf estates may facilitate the spread of invasive non native plants through increased
disturbance and nutrient levels. Building a golf course would require introduction of
non native grass species for making the green. The introduction of such a grass
whichever the species would be could have tremendous effects on the vegetation in
surrounding areas.
b) Concentration of grazers onto the green
The greens with low cropped grasses may draw grazing species onto the course to
access the young usually nutritious grasses. This would expose such animals to
poisoning from pesticides and herbicides used on the greens. It could in addition
-
lead to behavioral disruption for the animals from the golfers,
54
-
heightened incidences of animal attacks and
-
perhaps killing what may then get be considered rogue animals;
-
Ground nesting birds and reproductive success loss
Parts of the golf course will inevitably start to be used by birds both for foraging and
nesting. The foraging would expose such bird to poisoning from the pesticides and
herbicides used in maintaining the greens. For the ground nesting species, if any nests
get established on the green which would be very likely to happen, this could lead to
heightened nest failure to due to continued disturbance and direct unintentional nest
destruction.
Other cumulative impacts
Other and by no means lesser in importance, cumulative ecological impacts could
include impacts on the air, water and soil pollution, communicable diseases,
destruction of the terrestrial integrity, and a decline in the tourism and fishing
industries.
The cumulative effects of ongoing oil and gas development around the globe are
having disastrous consequences on our climate, and this situation will only worsen
before it gets better - reliance solely on hydrocarbons would be missing the vast
opportunity that Uganda has in her hydro, geothermal and solar potential.
55
8. Recommendations and Advocacy Proposals
This section presents some recommendations and proposals for advocacy 1. Section 5 summarizes some of the legal instruments available in Uganda to
regulate and manage the access to oil. These legal instruments provide vital
yardsticks upon which the key players in the enterprise can and should be caused
to account. This could form the primary focus of advocacy action.
2. Assessment to determine if mitigation actions are sufficient and successful in
reducing the impacts.
3. Awareness campaigns of the oil exploration issue through public outreach and
education as well as coalition building
4. Lobbying the natural resources committee of parliament to push for openness for
disclosure of oil exploration agreements and operations
5. Local community sensitization on the various legal instruments governing oil in
Uganda to enable them to build a forum that can demand/push for accountability
from the various players.
6. Work up mechanisms to ensure that District authorities responsible for
environmental protection are not undermined by “top-down” management of oil
industry, eroding public confidence in administrative system.
7. A golf course in the Chobe Sector of Murchison Falls National Park is not an
absolute necessity. Kinyara sugar Estate which is not that far from Murchison Falls
National Park and to which the big spending golfing tourist can be flown to and
from the Chobe airfield, has a 9 hole golf course that could be used instead. The
webpage for the lodge http://kabiza.com/Chobe-Lodge-Murchison-Falls-Park.htm,
boasts of it being the nearest safari lodge to Kampala (3 ½ hr) where other golfing
facilities are available.
8. Because oil will be mined for anyway, it will be essential to keep the
infrastructure with PAs to the absolute minimum (the drill pad and absolutely
necessary access routes). Camps – both support and residential camps should be
located outside the boundaries of the PA.
56
9. With camps outside the PA it would mean increased vehicular traffic into and out
of the PA to deliver and collect workers and equipment. Regulation of and
enforcing the speed limits with PAs will be essential as well as properly managing
the Rota of vehicular movements to avoid overly interrupting the normal animal
behaviors and movements.
10. Opening up new access routes should be discouraged and the firms encouraged to
using existing tracks and routes. The areas traversed by any tracks that are no
longer needed should be restored as quickly as possible to avoid spread of invasive
or illegal access for non-permitted activities.
11. Any open drill pits need to be protected to avoid wildlife falling and getting
entrapped in them.
12. Drill waste will need to be carefully and thoroughly treated under supervision of
NEMA and District environment managers in the areas affected to ensure that no
toxic waste are introduced into the PAs.
57
References
AmanigaRuhanga I, Manyindo J, Jordahl M 2009. Maintaining the conservation &
tourism value of protected areas in Petroleum development zones of the
Albertine Rift Ensuring Win-Win Policy Approaches Oil & Gas Series #2 ©
Uganda Wildlife Society
AWE Environmental Engineers 2008. ENVIRONMENTAL & SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT of
Jobi-1(Buffalo-1) Onshore Oil Exploration Well in Murchison Falls
National Park in Amuru District, Uganda
BirdLife International 2010. Important Bird Area factsheets. Downloaded from the
Data
Zone
at
http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sites/index.html?action=SitHTMFind.
asp&INam=&Reg=14.
Bahati G and Natukunda J.F. 2009. Status of geothermal exploration and Development
in Uganda Presented at Short Course IV on Exploration for Geothermal
Resources, organized by UNU-GTP, KenGen and GDC, at Lake Naivasha,
Kenya,
Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. & Nippon Koei Co., Ltd. 2010 Project For
Master Plan Study on Hydropower Development in the Republic of
Uganda. Draft final report Japan International Cooperation Agency
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development
Hansen J.P. H 2007. Report - Visit to Oil Exploration Fields in Northwest Uganda
November 20th – 22nd 2007 - With a special emphasis on Kabwoya
Wildlife Reserve and Kaiso -Tonya Community Wildlife Area at Lake
Albert -Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management
http://www.advfn.com/nyse/StockNews.asp?stocknews=CEO&article=46271151&head
line=total-anxious-to-start-on-uganda-oil-project-executive
http://www.tullowoil.com/index.asp?pageid=282
International Alert 2009. Harnessing Oil for Peace and Development in Uganda
-
Understanding National, Local and Cross-border Conflict Risks Associated
with Oil Discoveries in the Albertine Rift Investing in Peace Issue No. 2
58
IUCN
2010.
IUCN
Red
List
of
Threatened
Species.
Version
2010.4.
<www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 30 May 2011.
Kashambuzi R. & Mugisha F. 2003. Exploration history and petroleum potential of
Uganda. Petroleum Exploration and Production Department, Ministry of
Energy and Mineral Development Republic of Uganda
Kennedy
C.
2011
Uganda’s
Oil
Potential
Arouses
international
interest.
http://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Ugandas-OilPotential-Arouses-International-Interest.html
Louise J. 2007. Assessing the Impacts of Energy Developments and Developing
Appropriate Mitigation in the Uganda portion of the Albertine Rift.
Report of findings
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (NEMA) 2009. Environmental
Sensitivity Atlas for the Albertine Graben
Plumptre A.J., Laporte N. and Devers D. 2003, Section 9: Threats to sites in Plumptre
A.J. Behangana M., Davenport T., Kahindo C., Kityo R, Ndomba E.,
Nkuutu D., Owiunji I., Ssegawa P., Eilu G. The Biodiversity of Albertine
Rift. Albertine Rift Technical Reports No. 3.
Plumptre A, Davenport T., Behangana M., Kityo R., Eilu G., Ssegawa P., Ewango C.
and Kahindo C 2004 Albertine Rift in Hotspots Revisited – Earth’s
Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions (eds
Mittermeier R.A.et al.)
Plumptre A. J., Mutungire N., Mugabe H., Kirunda B., Bogezi C., Kityo R., Behangana
M., Turyeigurira J. and Prinsloo S. 2009 Biodiversity Surveys of Kabwoya
Wildlife Reserve and Kaiso Tonya Community Wildlife Area
Steyn A. 2007. Production Challenges in the Albertine Rift Basin, Uganda - Building a
balanced portfolio of Exploration and Production Assets
59