Aquila heliaca -- Savigny, 1809
ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ACCIPITRIFORMES -- ACCIPITRIDAE
Common names: Eastern Imperial Eagle; Aguila Imperial; Aguila Imperial Oriental; Aigle impérial; Asian
Imperial Eagle; Imperial Eagle
European Red List Assessment
European Red List Status
LC -- Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1)
Assessment Information
Year published:
Date assessed:
Assessor(s):
Reviewer(s):
Compiler(s):
2015
2015-03-31
BirdLife International
Symes, A.
Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L.
Assessment Rationale
European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU27 regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT°)
In Europe this species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for
Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or
fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe
fragmentation). The population size may be small, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for
Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline
estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). The
population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for
Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). For these
reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.
In the EU27 the small population size qualifies for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<1,000
mature individuals), but as population size is increasing in the EU27 and in Europe, the final category is
adjusted to Near Threatened.
Occurrence
Countries/Territories of Occurrence
Native:
Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Czech Republic; Georgia;
Greece; Hungary; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Moldova; Montenegro; Romania; Russian
Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Turkey; Ukraine
Vagrant:
Belarus; Cyprus; Denmark; Finland; France; Germany; Italy; Lithuania; Poland; Slovenia; Sweden
Population
The European population is estimated at 1,300-1,900 pairs, which equates to 2,500-3,800 mature individuals.
The population in the EU27 is estimated at 190-250 pairs, which equates to 380-490 mature individuals. For
details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.
Trend
In Europe and the EU27 the population size is estimated to be increasing. For details of national estimates, see
Supplementary PDF.
Habitats and Ecology
This is a lowland species that has been pushed to higher altitudes by persecution and habitat loss in Europe. In
central and eastern Europe, it breeds in forests up to 1,000 m and also in steppe and agricultural areas with
large trees, and nowadays also on electricity pylons. In Turkey it is known to very rarely nest on the ground or
on cliffs. In the Caucasus, it occurs in steppe, lowland and riverine forests and semi-deserts (Ferguson-Lees
and Christie 2001, Meyburg and Kirwan 2013). Wetlands are apparently preferred on the wintering grounds.
From late-February to early-May adults return to breeding areas. Both sexes construct a large stick nest,
typically 100?150 cm in diameter with the nest cup lined with green sticks and other materials such as grass,
fur and wool. Clutches are usually two to three eggs (Meyburg and Kirwan 2013). It hunts small to mediumsized mammals as well as birds and carrion. In the Caucasus the main prey include hare, tortoises, lizards and
carrion (Tucker and Heath 1994). Adults in central Europe, the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey and the Caucasus
are usually residents, whilst most immatures move south. (Meyburg and Kirwan 2013).
Habitats & Altitude
Habitat (level 1 - level 2)
Artificial/Terrestrial - Arable Land
Artificial/Terrestrial - Arable Land
Artificial/Terrestrial - Pastureland
Artificial/Terrestrial - Pastureland
Forest - Temperate
Forest - Temperate
Grassland - Temperate
Shrubland - Mediterranean-type Shrubby Vegetation
Shrubland - Mediterranean-type Shrubby Vegetation
Wetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands
Altitude
0-2000 m
Importance
suitable
suitable
suitable
suitable
major
major
suitable
suitable
suitable
major
Occasional altitudinal limits
Occurrence
breeding
non-breeding
breeding
non-breeding
breeding
non-breeding
breeding
breeding
non-breeding
non-breeding
Threats
Breeding sites are threatened primarily by intensive forestry in the mountains, and by the shortage of large
indigenous trees in the lowlands. Other threats are loss and alteration of feeding habitats, shortages of small
and medium-sized prey species (particularly ground-squirrels Spermophilus spp.), human disturbance of
breeding sites, nest robbing and illegal trade, shooting, poisoning and electrocution by powerlines. Habitat
alterations associated with agricultural expansion threaten historical and potential breeding sites in former
range countries. Hunting, poisoning, prey depletion and other mortality factors are also likely to pose threats
along migration routes and in wintering areas.
Threats & Impacts
Threat (level 1)
Agriculture &
aquaculture
Threat (level 2)
Wood & pulp
plantations (scale
unknown/
unrecorded)
Impact and Stresses
Timing
Scope
Severity
Ongoing
Minority (<50%)
Slow, Significant
Declines
Stresses
Ecosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation
Biological resource Hunting & trapping
Timing
Scope
Severity
use
terrestrial animals Ongoing
Minority (<50%)
Slow, Significant
(intentional use Declines
species is the target)
Stresses
Species mortality; Reduced reproductive success
Biological resource Hunting & trapping
Timing
Scope
Severity
use
terrestrial animals Ongoing
Minority (<50%)
Slow, Significant
(persecution/
Declines
control)
Stresses
Species mortality; Reduced reproductive success
Biological resource Logging & wood
Timing
Scope
Severity
use
harvesting
Ongoing
Minority (<50%)
Slow, Significant
(unintentional
Declines
effects: (large scale)
Stresses
[harvest])
Ecosystem degradation
Human intrusions & Work & other
Timing
Scope
Severity
disturbance
activities
Ongoing
Minority (<50%)
Slow, Significant
Declines
Stresses
Species disturbance; Reduced reproductive success
Impact
Low Impact
Impact
Low Impact
Impact
Low Impact
Impact
Low Impact
Impact
Low Impact
Threats & Impacts
Threat (level 1)
Transportation &
service corridors
Threat (level 2)
Utility & service
lines
Impact and Stresses
Timing
Scope
Severity
Ongoing
Minority (<50%)
Slow, Significant
Declines
Stresses
Ecosystem degradation; Species mortality
Impact
Low Impact
Conservation
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. It is legally protected in Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Turkey and Ukraine. The
Eastern Imperial Eagle Working Group was established in 1990. A European action plan was published in
1996 and its implementation reviewed in 2010 (Barov and Derhé 2011). Regional Action Plans have been
published for the Balkan Peninsula (Stoychev et al. 2004) and for the Southern Caucasus (Horváth et al.
2006). The Eastern Imperial Eagle Management Guidelines for Hungary were published in 2005 (Kovács et
al. 2006) and for Slovakia in 2007 (Demeter and Maderič 2007).
Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct surveys to identify breeding and wintering sites, and migration routes. Improve protection of species
and sites. Implement beneficial forestry policies. Maintain large trees in open land and protect old woodland
on slopes (B. Hallmann in litt. 1999). Prevent mortality from nest robbing, nest destruction, illegal trade,
poisoning and electrocution on medium-voltage powerlines, as well as persecution in wintering grounds and
migratory routes. Maintain feeding habitats by preserving traditional land use. Increase the availability of prey
species by habitat management. Raise public awareness and involve stakeholders in conservation activities.
Bibliography
Barov, B and Derhé, M.A. 2011. Review of The Implementation Of Species Action Plans for Threatened
Birds in the European Union 2004-2010. Final report. BirdLife International For the European Commission.
Demerdzhiev, D., Horváth, M., Kovács, A., Stoychev, S. and Karyakin, I. 2011. Status and Population Trend
of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Europe in the Period 2000-2010. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica
S3: 5-14.
Demeter, G. and Maderič, B. 2007. Imperial Eagle Management Guidelines. Raptor Protection of Slovakia.
Ferguson-Lees, J., Christie, D.A. 2001. Raptors of the world. Christopher Helm, London.
Heredia, B. 1996. International action plan for the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca). In: Heredia, B., Rose, L.
and Painter, M. (ed.), Globally threatened birds in Europe: action plans, pp. 159-174. Council of Europe,
and BirdLife International, Strasbourg.
Horváth, M., Kovács, A. and Gallo-Orsi, U. 2006. Action Plan for Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in the
Southern-Caucasus. BirdLife International, Wageningen.
Kovács, A., Demeter, I., Horváth, M., Fülöp, Gy., Frank, T. and Szilvácsku, Zs. 2005. Imperial Eagle
management guidelines. MME / BirdLife Hungary, Budapest.
Meyburg, B.U. and Kirwan, G.M. 2013. Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A.,
Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2013. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx
Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/53159 on 16 January 2015).
Stoychev, S., Zeitz, R. and Grubac, B. 2004. Plan for the Conservation of the Imperial Eagle in the Balkan
Peninsula. Bulgarian Society for the Protection of Birds, Haskovo.
Tucker, G.M. and Heath, M.F. 1994. Birds in Europe: their conservation status. BirdLife Conservation
Series no. 3, BirdLife International, Cambridge.
Map (see overleaf)