THE BASIC PROBLEMS OF MORALITY - FOUR MAJOR THEORIES
1. Selfishness
Basics
Live a fulfilled
complete life
Virtue Theory through virtue,
(see handout) found at the
mean
Aristotle
2. Intentions/
Consequences
In excess this is a They are equally
vice, but
important, as
developing your
virtue is achieving
self is the main
good results for
aim of morality, so the right reasons.
rational selfconcern is
excellent.
Inevitable and
acceptable. It is
Hobbes Achieve mutual the reason why
benefit through moral rules exist.
Social Contract contracts and
(see handout) strategies, as in
game theory
Following duty
according to
Deontology rational
(see handout) universal
principles
Kant
Bentham
Utilitarianism
(see handout)
Maximise
desirable
consequences
Simply wrong,
because selfish
people take a
narrow view
instead of a
universal and
objective one.
Simply wrong,
because
selfishness
ignores other
people's desires
and pleasure.
3. Reason
4. Motivation
5. Relativism
6. Moral
Dilemmas
The part of the
Nature shows us Human nature and Truly virtuous
soul which makes the function and
its excellence are people are best at
virtue possible, by purpose of each
fixed, but
solving dilemmas,
controlling
thing, and hence individual abilities because they
appetite, and by
its excellence, and and local customs have the right
achieving the
excellence is
can vary the
qualities of
highest human
obviously
virtues up to a
character and
excellence.
desirable.
point.
intellect. There
are no fixed rules
7. Pleasure
8. Feelings
9. Politics
Pleasure is not the
good, but it
improves every
aspect of life, and
taking pleasure in
virtuous behaviour
is the highest
moral ideal.
It is vital for virtue
that we develop
good feelings, so
that we not only
resist bad ones,
but we also don't
have to struggle to
overcome
temptation.
A good society is
one in which
individuals can
practice virtues
such as friendship.
Democracy or
benevolent
tyranny seem the
best.
A society is a
network of
contracts built up
over generations.
Its vital element is
a strong authority
to enforce broken
contracts, thus
making mutual
trust possible.
Intentions are all The sole source of In so far as we are We have to treat The categorical
Pleasures are
Feeling has
A single universal
that matter,
all morality,
rational we are
reason as an
imperative ('what if acceptable if we
nothing to do with principle of
because we must because it rises
naturally drawn to absolute (whether everybody did
are all equally tree moral decisiongovernment,
do our duty, even above selfish
truth, principle,
it is or not), and
that?') should give to indulge in them, making, though
based on
if the
concerns.
consistency, and morality is no
some guidance. If though pleasure
other people's
individual rights
consequences are
an objective view different.
selfish desire is
can prevent us
feelings must be and corresponding
unpleasant.
of behaviour.
ignored, duty
from reasoning
treated with
duties, with all
should become
clearly and
respect, as ends rational citizens
clear.
objectively.
in themselves.
receiving due
respect.
We are driven by Society exists to
Utilitarian
A calculating
Pleasure
Natural sympathy It seems to be
Intentions are
motivates all our some feelings, but increase the
for others may
relative to the fact calculations will
irrelevant, except mechanism, for
others must be
judging probable make us value
solve most
behaviour, but
happiness of all
that humans
as habits of
overcome if we
consequences on their happiness.
problems, but
morality is an
citizens. This may
happen to want
producing good
the basis of
objective interest are to be morally involve making
We may also
pleasure, though it must be
consequences,
good.
implemented
in increasing all
ruthless or
selfishly want a
is possible that
which do matter. experience.
unpopular
pleasure, apart
concern for others without
contract that
from our own
decisions, or
creates a happy
is an absolute, or sentimentality.
The only real
selfish desires.
removing people's
society in which
the law of God.
dilemmas are
freedom if they
we can live.
unpredictable
don't use it well.
consequences
Neither matter
much, since
morality is only a
strategy for getting
whatever you
happen to want.
A calculating
mechanism, for
assessing good
strategies.
As creatures
naturally seeking
survival, security
and happiness
(and trying to
avoid war), we
have selfish
desires, but have
to live in society.
Morality is entirely
relative,
depending on
what ends we are
trying to achieve.
Dilemmas are
easy with two
people involved
(they just do a
deal), but more
difficult with many
conflicting views to
be negotiated.
Any sort of
pleasure is
acceptable if that
is what you want,
and no one
objects or
interferes with it.
Feelings are
morally neutral
features of human
nature, and
morality aims to
give us the
feelings we prefer.