Patricia Anawalt
The Ethnic History of the Toltecs
as Reflected in their Clothing*
Guiado
por
el interés
en
señalar la i m p o r t a n c i a
q u e el
análisis de las vestimentas tiene para la r e c o n s t r u c c i ó n cultural,
este a r t í c u l o considera la historia étnica de l o s t o l t e c a s a través de un e x a m e n de sus prendas de vestir. Para este p r o p ó sito se ha e s t a b l e c i d o la hipótesis q u e la historia y las relac i o n e s sociales de un p u e b l o p u e d e n ser reconstruidas gracias
a determinadas características en sus vestimentas. La investigación
se ha c e n t r a d o en el xicolli.
Resulta q u e este traje
t í p i c o e x p e r i m e n t ó una cierta t r a n s f o r m a c i ó n d e s d e el clásico
y p o s t c l á s i c o t e m p r a n o y u c a t e c o , d o n d e c o n s t i t u í a una p r e n d a
de guerra, hasta su u s o c o m o traje ritual y distintivo de la clase
alta en el p o s t c l á s i c o t a r d í o de la región central de M é x i c o .
Este c a m b i o p a r e c e haberse o r i g i n a d o en la región huasteca,
c o n c r e t a m e n t e en el área desde el cual l o s n o n o a l c a s , representantes de la antigua t r a d i c i ó n t e o t i h u a c a n a , e m p r e n d i e r o n
la migración hacia T o l l a n . La ausencia del traje c a r a c t e r í s t i c o
de
los n o n o a l c a s en los t e s t i m o n i o s a r q u e o l ó g i c o s
toltecas,
p e r m i t e s u p o n e r q u e una f r a c c i ó n militar t o l t e c a s u b y u g ó el
s e g m e n t o intelectual-religioso de T o l l a n .
*
Paper delivered in the s y m p o s i u m , " P r o b l e m s in the I c o n o g r a p h y o f Postclassic
M e s o a m e r i c a n A r t , " at the X L I I I International Congress o f Americanists, August
1 1 - 17, 1 9 7 9 , V a n c o u v e r , British C o l u m b i a , Canada.
129
For scholars involved in the reconstruction and interpretation o f Mesoamerican social and cultural systems, depictions o f Prehispanic clothing
provide a rich repository o f valuable and revealing ethnographic data. The
development o f a system o f costume analysis to utilize such information
has been the thrust o f my research f o r a number o f years. As a result o f
developing a typology based on garment construction, 1 have been able
to organize the clothing data from the Mesoamerican pictorial codices
so as to demonstrate what was being worn in Middle America at the time
o f the Spanish conquest (Anawalt 1975; 1981).
Having reconstructed this Late Postclassic pan-Mesoamerican costume
repertory, a base has been established from which to investigate the earlier
diffusion o f certain distinctive Prehispanic garment types. It can be
demonstrated that evidence f o r historical contacts between diverse ethnic
groups often exists in their costume repertories. This is particularly true in
the case o f special-purpose ritual garments. These esoteric costumes often
contain clues as to their probable place o f origin and the rationale underlying their adoption by other peoples.
Demonstration o f the possibilities for historical reconstruction inherent
in certain Prehispanic garment depictions is the primary purpose o f this
paper. T o that end, the ethnic history o f the Toltecs will be reconstructed
o n the basis o f an examination o f depictions o f their clothing. For the
sake o f brevity, the f o c u s will be o n one specific costume, a male garment
k n o w n in Nahuatl as the xicolli.
Analysis o f the xicolli must begin with what is known about the garment at the period o f Spanish contact, and then proceed backward in
time. Fortunately, an actual xicolli was in the collection o f the Museum
für Völkerkunde in Berlin until 1945, when it was destroyed by fire.
From a study o f the Museum catalog card (Figure 1), it can be determined
that it was a sleeveless jacket with a distinctive fringed area at its hem.
A short version o f this garment is found on the A z t e c Churubusco idol in
the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City (Figure 2). An examination o f this sculpture reveals that a sleeved effect was created when the
garment draped o f f the shoulder, creating a fold in front and back o f the
shoulder joint. This sleevelike effect is very evident in all o f the depictions
o f the xicolli found in the codices.
A m o n g the Aztecs, the xicolli was a special-purpose garment worn only
b y gods, god impersonators, sacrificial slaves, certain administrators, and
the priests (Anawalt 1974). Since priests in particular wore the costume,
it is often found in association with specific accouterments connected
with their o f f i c e : incense bags, incense burners, and t o b a c c o pouches
(Figure 3). Priests also wore the xicolli when they performed sacrifices,
as did some sacrificial slaves, w h o were dressed as the particular gods to
130
w h o m they were being offered. A m o n g the Aztecs, the jacket was also
worn by certain administrators: emissaries on official missions and the
emperor's executioners, the achcacauhtin.
In the Late Postclassic the xicolli appears to have had pan-Mesoamerican distribution. Whereas it was a special-purpose garment among the
Aztecs, to the Mixtee o f Oaxaca it was the principal item o f apparel
f o r the aristocratic males w h o appear in Mixtee codices (Anawalt 1980).
As Barbro Dahlgren ( 1 9 5 4 : 110) makes clear, the Mixtee xicolli was indeed the same sleeveless, fringed garment worn by the Aztecs. A m o n g the
Mixtee, however, predominantly red xicolli were worn b y the nobles
(Figure 4 ) ; the priests are often f o u n d depicted in white-with-black-design
xicolli (Figure 5). The Mixtee also utilized these costumes as offerings.
Although the Maya codices contain no depictions o f personages wearing xicolli, the Yucatec "Relaciones Geográficas" mention them being
worn in the area in the 1570s (Asensio 1898 - 1900, I: 81, 2 4 5 ; II:
29, 154). Also, " C o d e x Madrid" ( 1 9 6 7 : 8 4 ) s h o w s x / c o / / / b e i n g presented
as offerings. In the Michoacan area, the Tarascan men wore a short, wide
tunic which Sahagún ( 1 9 5 0 - 6 9 , Book 10: 189) calls a ''cicuilli, the socalled sleeveless j a c k e t " .
Returning to the Valley o f Mexico, the xicolli appears to have had c o n siderable time depth on the Mesa Central. One o f the wall murals f r o m
Teotihuacan shows a figure carrying an incense bag and making an o f f e r ing o f incense. This personage wears a garment with a scalloped or fringed
hem which Seler ( 1 9 6 0 , V: 4 1 5 ) refers to as xicolli.
Since this distinctive costume appears in the costume repertories o f
both the Central Mexican Aztecs and the Teotihuacanos, it can be anticipated that the intervening people, the Toltecs, would also have worn it;
indeed, two o f the early chroniclers make reference to a T o l t e c xicolli.
Fray Diego Durán ( 1 9 6 7 , I: 78 — 79), one o f the foremost Spanish
missionary-ethnographers, when discussing the Toltecs, mentions the
xicolli as worn by the disciples o f Topiltzin Quetzalcóatl at the time o f his
exodus f r o m Tula. Four o f these disciples are depicted in Durán's Atlas
( 1 9 6 7 : Plate 2) wearing tunic-like garments reaching to the ankle, costumes which Durán defines as xicolli.
The colonial Indian historian, Alva Ixtlilxóchitl ( 1 9 6 5 : 4 1 ) , also mentions the xicolli in relation to the Toltecs. When commenting o n the lives
o f Toltec rulers, he speaks o f the kings using "great shirt-like xicole
which reach to the knees and are the same type [ o f material?] as their
capes and loincloths".
The Spanish friar Torquemada was also aware o f the xicolli. He writes
o f it being worn in Tlaxcala and describes the garment as a cloak o r
gown which was open in front ( 1 9 7 5 , II: 290). The friar, in discussing
131
the early Toltecs, makes a further interesting observation involving costume. He speaks o f the early migrations o f a group o f people w h o subsequently became one c o m p o n e n t in the multiethnic composition o f Tollan
(Tula), Hidalgo. Torquemada ( 1 9 7 5 , I; 2 5 4 - 2 5 5 ) states that this group
wore long tunics that resembled a priest's cassock, opened in the front,
with wide sleeves that did not reach the elbow. This description o f the
tunic precisely fits Durán's depiction o f the Toltec xicolli. In light o f
Mesoamerican costume patterns, the xicolli must be the garment in
question.
Nigel Davies ( 1 9 7 7 ) , in his recent b o o k " T h e T o l t e c s " , points out that
Ixtlilxóchitl and Torquemada, when mentioning these xicolli, could not
have been referring to the clothing o f the Tolteca-Chichimeca, since
they emerged from the northern deserts as a semi-barbarous people w h o
are frequently depicted wearing animal skins. Davies ( 1 9 7 7 : 148) thinks
the passage o n early Tollan in Torquemada's description clearly refers to
the more sophisticated Nonoalcas, westward-moving migrants f r o m
Panuco o n the Gulf Coast. Since elaborate tunics are hardly typical o f the
inhabitants o f the wilder northern and western zones o f marginal Mesoamerica, such clothing must have been worn by peoples coming f r o m the
east and enjoying a more complex level o f civilization. Davies' speculation
will be investigated through an examination o f the T o l t e c costume repertory.
TOLTEC COSTUME D A T A
The extant contemporary data on Toltec costume c o m e f r o m the site
o f Tula, Hidalgo, and Toltec period monuments o f Chichén Itzá in the
Yucatan. Toltec clothing depictions are f o u n d o n stone sculptures, bas
relief wall panels, painted murals and scenes f o u n d on portable objects.
This latter category includes the metal disks f o u n d in the Sacred Cenote
o f Sacrifice at Chichén Itzá. In the case o f the Yucatec figural images,
it is not always easy to distinguish between Toltecs and Mayas. In making
such distinctions, I have followed Tozzer ( 1 9 5 7 : 148 - 184) and L o t h r o p
( 1 9 5 2 : 3 1 , 3 5 , 3 7 - 44).
Since the xicolli essentially covered only the trunk o f the b o d y , no
ornamentation f o r the head or limbs will be considered. As a result, the
Toltec costume charts (Tables 1, 2) are confined to items that clothed
only the torso. The b o d y coverings o f male Toltecs fall into eight categories: belts, loincloth, hipcloth, aprons, quechquemitl, feathered capes,
skirts, and tunic/armor.
132
Belt: Almost all male Toltecs are depicted wearing some type o f belt.
Sometimes it is just a simple band that encircles the waist one o r more
times (Table 1, examples a, c ) o r a long, tasseled cord that wraps around
several times (example b). Toltec males are occasionally depicted wearing
a back mirror or shield tied at the waist by two ribbons which produces
a belt-like effect (example d). These depictions are all f r o m Chichón Itzá:
examples a and c f r o m metal disks recovered from the Cenote o f Sacrifice,
b and d from wall panels.
Loincloth: In the Toltec costume repertory the loincloth does not
appear as frequently as in the Aztec (Anawalt 1975; 1981). It was, however, a definite part o f the Toltec costume repertory as is evident in Table
1, with depictions from a vase at Tula (example e), an atlantean figure
from Tula (example f ) , and wall panels at Chichón Itzá (examples g and
h).
Hipcloth: This garment appears repeatedly in the Late Postclassic panMesoamerican costume repertory. Judging f r o m modern ethnographical
analogues, it was a square piece o f material folded on the bias into a
triangle and tied at the waist so that the point fell over one hip or at the
back. It was occasionally worn in the latter manner by the Toltecs, as can
be seen on example i, a depiction f o u n d on a bas-relief from Tula. Far
more often, however, the point o f the hipcloth was worn at the front,
giving the effect o f a short triangular apron.
A p r o n : The apron is perhaps the most distinctive Toltec b o d y garment.
It seems most probable, however, that it was indeed an early Postclassic
variant o f the later hipcloth (Guzmán 1959: 968). Example j is an atlantean
figure found in Tlaxcala; examples k - m are f r o m Chichón Itzá; example
n is an atlantean column f r o m Tula.
QuechquemitI: The first category o f Table 2 is the quechquemitl, a
distinctive garment which the Atztecs used only f o r goddesses and their
human impersonators. As a result, it is surprising to find this female
costume o f the Late Postclassic on Early Postclassic male figures. However, such androgynous implications are not without precedence in Late
Postclassic Mesoamerican iconography. Three o f the Borgia G r o u p codices
("Fejérváry-Mayer", " L a u d " , and "Vaticanus B " ) contain female figures
w h o wear both quechquemitl and the quintessential male garment, the
loincloth. Also the " T o v a r Calendar" (Plate VII) contains a depiction o f
a male celebrant at the festival Hueytecuilhuitl w h o wears what appears
to be a quechquemitl, although this may have been a mistake o n the part
o f the colonial artist (Anawalt: 1982). On Table 2 the quechquemitl
examples all c o m e f r o m Tula: example a, a Tlaloc statue f o u n d in the ball
court; example b, a stone idol; example c, stela 1 at Tula.
133
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Feathered cape: A cloak o f overlapping feathers was obviously a part
o f the Toltec costume repertory. It appears to have been a single rectangle
o f material with feathers attached. Example d c o m e s f r o m Tula; e - g
are f r o m Chichén Itzá.
Skirt: What appear to be short skirts or kilts cover the hips o f males
engaged in activities such as ball games and warfare. Examples h
k are
f r o m Chichén Itzá.
Tunic/armor: In all o f the extant costume data, I have been able to find
only three examples o f garments that might possibly be considered
xicolli. However, none o f these has the xicolli front opening and each
appears to be some form o f battle dress. The first is an atlantean figure
f r o m Tula w h o wears what looks like a quilted tunic very similar to the
ichcahuipilli, the quilted c o t t o n armor o f the Aztec period. Note that the
garment o n the atlantean figure is not open in the front.
The second example, f r o m a scene o n one o f the metal disks f r o m the
Sacred Cenote at Chichén Itzá, is a warrior rowing a boat in a battle scene.
He, t o o , appears to be wearing quilted armor. The final example is also
f r o m a battle scene on a cenote disk. He wears what appears to be a
feathered tunic with a feather trim at the hem. A very similar martial
garment, the ehuatl, was part o f both the Tlaxcalan and Aztec costume
repertories. The ehuatl was a tunic-type garment and did not open in the
front.
This constitutes the range o f Toltec b o d y garments but the anticipated
xicolli is missing. According to modern acculturation theory, clothing is
o f t e n very sensitive to ethnic assimilation. Retention o f a people's distinctive costumes usually depends upon whether that group is in a subordinate
o r dominant position in the acculturative process. In the case o f the
sophisticated Nonoalcas, however, their reputed superior intellectual
position in Toltec society should logically have preserved their unique
dress. What explanations can be offered f o r this inconsistency?
The lack o f the reported xicolli in the T o l t e c archaeological record
could perhaps be dismissed as a data problem: through a fluke o f fate no
evidence o f the garment survived. However, this explanation is difficult
to accept because, at the time o f Toltec occupation in northern Yucatan,
the xicolli was being worn, although apparently not b y Toltecs. Evidence
f o r this anomaly occurs at t w o sites. At Chichén Itzá, o n one o f the disks
f r o m the Sacred Cenote, the xicolli is worn b y a Maya captive w h o is
being interrogated b y a Toltec warrior (Figure 6). The captive wears one
o f the principal diagnostics used by Tozzer ( 1 9 5 7 : 153 f . ) and Lothrop
( 1 9 5 2 : 3 9 ) to identify the Early Postclassic Maya: a long bead inserted
through the septum o f the nose. In contrast, the Toltecs o f t e n wear one
or m o r e button-like beads attached to the side o f the nostril.
136
The second occurrence o f the xicolli in Yucatan appears o n a wall
panel at the site o f Kabah (Figure 7). Again, it is worn b y warriors w h o
have a long bead inserted through the septum o f the nose. The appearance
o f the xicolli at these t w o Yucatec sites furnishes evidence o f the garment
being worn in a Toltec-occupied area and time period. As a result, the
explanation f o r the apparent absence o f the jacket in the T o h e c costume
repertory as a lack o f data is greatly weakened. An alternative explanation
must therefore be sought. In so doing, it is instructive to consider the
contrast between the use o f the xicolli in Central Mexico just before
Spanish contact and its prior use in Yucatan in the Early Postclassic
period.
The Aztecs wore the xicolli only as a special-purpose garment for
religious or other important ceremonial events; it never appears in Aztec
martial contexts (Anawalt 1974; 1981). This is also true o f the Mixtee,
f o r w h o m the jacket was the standard dress o f the noble class but was
never worn as military costume (Anawalt 1980). However, among the
twelfth century Maya o f Yucatan, the xicolli appears o n warriors engaged
in active battle. This association o f the jacket with martial activity is long
standing. It dates back to the Classic period where xicolli are worn b y
certain Jaina figures w h o carry rectangular shields ( e . g . Houston 1966:
153).
From this brief review, it is obvious that the contexts in which the
xicolli is found changed dramatically between Early Postclassic Yucatan
and Late Postclassic Central Mexico. What happened, and where? There is
evidence that this transformation may have been generated in precisely
the area f r o m which one c o m p o n e n t o f the future multi-ethnic Toltec
society reputedly came.
According to Torquemada ( 1 9 7 5 , I: 2 5 4 ) , the xico///-wearing peoples
w h o migrated to Tollan came f r o m the Panuco area o f the Gulf Coast,
heartland o f the Huastec Indians. Since the chronicler, when speaking o f
the early migrations to Tollan, makes particular mention o f the westward
moving group's unique costume, the inference is that these people were
wearing a distinctive garment that was typical o f their Panuco homeland.
Although archaeological data f r o m the Huasteca are sparse, evidence does
exist that the xicolli was indeed worn at the Early Postclassic Huastec
center o f Tamuin (Figure 8). Also, the elaborate red frescos o f this site,
like most o f the art in the area, exhibit strong Toltec influence.
Davies ( 1 9 7 7 : 148 f . ) contends that the westward migrating group
mentioned by Torquemada were the Nonoalcas, latter-day bearers o f the
intellectual and religious tradition o f Teotihuacan. With this in mind, it
is o f particular interest that Du Solier (Marquina 1951: 4 1 5 ) considers
the frescos at Tamuin to represent a religious procession involving a multi-
137
tude o f attributes connected with Quetzalcóatl in his different personifications. The Nonoalcas are suggested "by Davies ( 1 9 7 7 : 122, 170, 177)
to have introduced the Quetzalcóatl cult at Tula.
Suggesting that the elite Nonoalcas may have contributed to the transformation o f the xicolli's symbolism f r o m martial to religious answers
one set o f questions but raises another. If the distinctive xicolli was indeed
the Nonoalcas' prestigious costume, why does it not appear somewhere in
the Toltec remains o f Central M e x i c o ? The answer to this question may
lie in the militaristic nature o f Toltec society.
The clothing information represented in the archaeological record
emphasizes, not the intellectual or religious side o f T o l t e c life, but rather
its strongly martial focus. It can be assumed that a mihtaristic state would
have possessed a nobility dedicated mainly to war, and that hence this
emphasis would be reflected in the archaeological remains o f the society.
However, considering the nature o f Mesoamerican culture, o n e would also
expect the role o f the Toltec intellectual and religious elite, the priesth o o d , to be represented. Perhaps the oft-told tales o f a schism between
the military and religious factions o f Tollan are not so apocryphal. If the
intellectual elite were indeed overrun, then their uniqe garment should not
b e expected to necessarily appear in the archaeological record.
SUMMARY
In the interest o f demonstrating the value o f costume analysis to
cultural reconstruction, this paper has considered the ethnic history o f the
Toltecs through an examination o f their clothing. T o this end, an h y p o thesis has been posed that the history and social relations o f a people can
be reconstructed through the appearance o f certain distinctive garments
in their costume repertory. The investigation has been carried out b y
focusing o n the xicolli.
It has been f o u n d that this distinctive jacket underwent a transformation f r o m Classic and Early Postclassic Yucatec use in warfare to use as
ritual and upper class apparel in Late Postclassic Central Mexico. This
change appears to have been generated in the Huastec region, precisely
the area f r o m which the Nonoalcas, bearers o f the ancient Teotihuacan
tradition, migrated to Tollan. The absence o f the Nonoalcas' distinctive
costume in the archaeological record lends credence to the speculation
that a Toltec military faction overpowered the intellectual-religious
segment o f Tollan.
In conclusion, it is hoped that the speculations emerging f r o m this
investigation can serve as a point o f reference f o r future research, as well
138
as alerting scholars to the multiple values o f costume analysis. Certainly
one o f the most intriguing aspects o f Middle American research is the
appearance in the present o f remnants o f the past. This is particularly
true in the case o f certain Indian garments, the xicolli being a case in
point. Not only were Nahuatl speakers still wearing a version o f the
jacket in the Valley o f Mexico in the 1930s (Figure 9), but the garment
occasionally appears today in certain dances as well. This is o f particular
interest because Fray Torquemada, w h o gathered his data in the late
1590s, speaks o f certain Indians o f his day dancing in the costume o f
Panuco, "imitating," he states, "those nations [from which they originally
c a m e ] " ( 1 9 7 5 , I: 255).
Inasmuch as modern xicolli was worn during the dance "Prominade o f
Negritos" in Los Reyes in the state o f Hidalgo (Figure 10), heartland o f
the ancient Toltecs, Torquemada surely would continue to be impressed
with the amazing tenacity o f this distinctive garment!
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141
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