Group 2, Topic 5:
The Human Figure
Marlana Petro, Amanda Eskins, Jared Nichols, Allison Heinz, and Derek DeMaiolo
Survey of Art History I (AH1541)
Dr. Leo
November 5th, 2007
2
Group 2, Topic 5
Unit 2: Archaic Greek-Late Roman Empire
11/5/07
Perhaps one of the strongest, conceivable subjects in art, the human figure, has left an extremely powerful
influence on every civilization to date. Beginning with the Paleolithic age and continuing through today, paintings,
monuments, and other artistic forms of expression have included the human form to intensify their artistic
expression. The representation of the human figure has been so detrimental to art because it often symbolizes the
cultural values, viewpoints of expression, and diversity during that era. The depiction of the human figure
dramatically changed as it traveled in Greek, Etruscan, and Roman civilizations. Throughout time, the human body
has been a key symbol in recreating the rational thoughts and emotions of artists. Without it, many themes and
images would be sorely lost. Over the ages, however, it has dramatically changed from the rigid and static stances
the Egyptians used to a more descriptive and dynamic body in motion that the Greek, Etruscan, and Roman cultures
exemplified. For the Greeks, “humanity was what mattered, and humans were, in the words of the philosopher
Protagoras, ‘the measure of all things.’” 1 Rebelling against their predecessors, all three cultures used the antithesis
of what was known as Egyptian sculpture to help illustrate a more animate and realistic human being. In fact,
“Greeks made their gods into humans and their humans into gods.” 2 As historians have proven repeatedly, art is a
dynamic field that is always evolving and rebelling against the period beforehand. In this case, the situation is no
different because of the incorporation of classical elements such as contrapposto, or a shift in weight, changing
previous representations in the human form. Before understanding why each civilization decided to depict the
human body in the manner they did, researchers should first understand what was going on culturally during the era.
Through analysis of the Greek, Etruscan, and Roman cultures, the monument’s history and descriptive qualities, and
the approaches to the human form utilized by each culture, researchers can better understand the significance of the
human figure in art and society.
As the past has shown, a culture’s history is very reflective of the society’s artistic perspective. Without an
understanding of a culture’s background, art historians would have a difficult time understanding the context behind
each distinct human form. Only after examining each culture’s past, can researchers begin to formulate how each
1
Fred S. Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, Gardner's Art Through the Ages, 12th ed. (Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 2005), 107.
2
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 106.
3
society arrived at their own unique style of the human form.
Analyzing the Greek and Roman culture during the era, researchers can see how the individual’s role,
relationships, and interests in art and society influenced their ideal of the human figure. Composing of a diverse
group of people, Greek culture was a mix of the Aegean people and the Indo-European invaders. Greeks never
consolidated and formed a single country; instead they preferred to form smaller city states. After rule by kings,
nobles, and tyrants, democracy was finally instituted in Athens. With philosophers such as Socrates and Plato, the
Greeks, or Hellenes (as they would call themselves), were interested in the intellectual life. Complimenting this
interest, physical activity also played a major part in the culture. Although not largely based off individuals’ roles in
society, Greek and Roman artists used mythological heroes to inspire mainly Greek men to aspire after. Among one
of the most important aspects in art, relationships in Greek and Roman society largely influenced human portrayal.
Predominately mythological, Greek and Roman artists depicted muscular athletes as well as divine, masculine
deities such as Herakles and Zeus. Although the Greeks deserve merit for their “contributions to art, science, and
politics, [art historians] should not, however, obscure the enormous debt Greek civilization owed to the earlier great
cultures of Egypt and the Near East.” 3 The ancient Greeks actually recognized where their culture’s roots were and
gave credit to the previously mentioned contributors. Although the government was a supposed democracy, war
was a familiar thing among the separate city states. This weakened the Greeks to the point that they fell to the
stronger Macedon and Romans. 4 Because of this, Roman culture was roughly based on that of the Greeks they
conquered.
The Etruscans were early Romans, who were also known as Etrusci and Tusci. They were located in
central Italy in the area linking Arno and Tiber rivers. Currently, this area is now known as Tuscany, which is
where Renaissance art originated. 5 Although there are several different background theories on the Etruscan people,
no one really knows for sure which is true. Some historians believe that “the Etruscans were driven by famine from
their homeland in Lydia in Asia Minor in the thirteenth century B.C.” while others still believed that “the Etruscans
were not migrants from foreign parts but native to their land.” 6 It seems possible that “the Etruscan people of
3
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 106.
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 106.
5
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 233.
6
Maja Sprenger and Gilda Bartoloni, The Etruscans: Their History, Art and Architecture (New York: H.N.
Abrams, 1983), 11.
4
4
historical times were very likely the result of a gradual fusion and immigrant populations.” 7 Despite the many
theories, the most likely, however, seems to be people integrating together to form one specific group. Although
strikingly similar to the Greek and Roman cultures, the Etruscan civilization varied heavily in gender roles. Even
though the male role in society repeated that of Greek and Roman life, Etruscan civilization varied in many of the
social barriers between men and women giving them an allowance of equality in art. Stepping away from typical
mythological subjects, Etruscan art magnified the social roles between the two genders and the focus on everyday
life.
In addition to understanding the three cultural histories, it is also essential to grasp each individual
monument’s affluent past. Similar to the history behind culture, each monument's construction was for very
different means and for very different reasons. Only after analyzing its age, background discovery, and context will
researchers fully grasp the significance each work had on the human figure.
At the beginning of Greek development in the human figure, the Kroisos sculpture (Figure 1) marked a
significant rebellion against Egyptian art. Created approximately in 530 B.C.E., the Kroisos was located near
Anavysos, Greece. This dates the statue of Kroisos back towards the beginning of Greek development in the human
form. Although its discoverers are unknown, the Kroisos figurine remained behind in a small village of Anavysos in
Attica. Upon its discovery, the statue of Kroisos indicated a revolution from the Egyptian style of human statues.
This statue (Figure 1) was used as a funerary statue of a soldier named Kroisos, as stated by an inscription at the
base, “whom raging Ares destroyed one day as he fought in the foremost ranks.” 8 Ares, the Greek god of war, was
personified to have taken the soldier’s life that apparently was on the frontlines in combat.
Among Greek cultural history, the classical bronze statue, Zeus (Figure 3), also had an opportune history.
Upon its discovery in 460-450 BCE, the Greek sculpture’s origins remain unknown. Although it is uncertain of its
discoverers, the statue believed to be Zeus, Poseidon, or an athlete was reclaimed from the wreckage of a ship near
Cape Artemision. Unfortunately, however, the most important part of the sculpture was missing: the thunderbolt or
trident. With this in mind, historians have associated the identity of the figure to either Zeus or Poseidon because of
its legendary weaponry. Constructed in the Archaic Period, the figurine depicted a nude man of high power.
Similar to Zeus, or Figure 3, a majority of figures made in this era were shown of such characteristics. Believed to
be Zeus for holding a thunderbolt or Poseidon for holding a trident in the hand, many interpretations to its unique
7
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 233-234.
5
athletic pose and empty grip have baffled historians. According to some theories, the “pose could be employed
equally well for a javelin thrower.” 9
Prominent among Etruscan art, the Sarcophagus of the Spouses (Figure 4) held a rich history that was
unique on its own. Etruscans were a highly talented and skillful group of individuals. Throughout the seventh and
eighth centuries B.C., the Etruscans enhanced their lives by using their skills to increase their prosperity during this
era. The land of Etruria was rich with natural resources such as iron, tin, copper, and silver which the Etruscans
mined and became very prosperous through trade with foreign cities. 10 In order “to satisfy the demand, local
artisans, inspired by imported goods, produced magnificent objects for both homes and tombs.” 11 This was the time
period when the orientalizing of art really began to have an effect on their art. Dating to about the fifth century (520
BCE), the Sarcophagus of the Spouses revealed much about the Etruscan culture. Upon its discovery near Cerveteri
Necropolis, Italy, the precious sarcophagus traveled to its new residence in the Museo Nazionale di Villa Guilia,
Rome. Perhaps the most prominent reason, the Sarcophagus reflected the cremation ceremonies of the Etruscan
people and illustrated the importance of equality between man and woman---a belief often disfavored by the Greeks
and Romans.
Among a wide collection of other sculptures, the Weary Herakles (Figure 6) in Classical sculpture had a
rich history as well. In the Roman culture, artists focus highly on the anatomy of the human figure by creating
elaborate detail. Many of the sculptural works done in Rome are copies from Greek sculptures. A famous sculpture
that displays the human form well is the Weary Herakles (Figure 6). Crafted around 320 B.C. by the Late Classical
sculptor, Lysippos, the Weary Herakles located in the Baths of Caracalla, also known as Thermae Antoninianae,
also became a replica and signed by Glykon of Athens in the late second or early third centuries. Creating detailed
work and a unique style different from the fifth-century sculptor Polykleitos, Lysippos’ figures have a “different set
of proportions with small heads and slender bodies.” 12 After the excavation, the Baths of Caracalla had 41
remaining statues. Discovered among these 40 other statues, the Weary Herakles emerged in 1546 with the loss of
his legs and head. In order to revive it to its intended state, “sculptor Guglielmo della Porta, a pupil of
Michelangelo, worked on the restoration” by replacing the original head and giving it new legs to allow it to stand
8
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 106.
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 130.
10
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 234.
11
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 234.
12
Marilyn Stokstad, Art History, vol. 1 (New York: Prentice Hall, Inc., and Harry N. Abrams, Inc.
9
6
fully erect. 13 Years after its original discovery, the authentic legs were discovered, and in 1787, Carlo Albacini
placed them back in their rightful place. Currently, it now resides in the Farnese collection in Naples---hence the
title the Farnese Herakles. 14 In addition, there have been studies of “sculptural decoration of public baths in Rome,”
indicating its popularity to have “muscular athletes, and powerful heroes like Herakles” to be viewed by the
Romans. 15 Symbolic to the Romans who attended these public baths, these muscular athletes and powerful heroes
such as Herakles promoted persistence, health, and obviously power. The statues would be placed in the largest
center area of the baths, which was called the frigidarium. Creating a theme, the sculptural layout in this bathing
house exhibits healing gods, athletes, and heroes---in other words, a place to regenerate one’s stamina through
therapeutic techniques.
As the human form began to change, the Greek, Etruscan, and Roman sculptors began to include a highly
defined detailing in clothing and the muscular structure by carving the abdomen and making every muscle and
stance very well articulated as seen in Kroisos (Figure 1), Zeus (Figure 3), Sarcophagus of the Spouses (Figure 4),
and Weary Herakles (Figure 6). Through investigation of the material, size, and figural narrative, viewers begin to
understand how every civilization had a different interpretation on the human figure.
Setting the standard for most Classical sculptures, Kroisos had a significant impact on the use of medium,
size, and background story. As of all Greek statues of the time, the statue of Kroisos was accented with an encaustic
wax. 16 Originally painted over with encaustic wax, the Kroisos statue originated from white marble. The flesh of
Kroisos was left the natural color of the stone while his eyes, lips, and hair were colored. Using this challenging
technique, encaustic wax is created by mixing a color pigment with wax and applying this solution to the statue
while hot. 17 Larger than most individuals, this sculpture rises six feet, four and a half inches. Revolutionary for its
time, the block of marble used to create this giant sculpture was carved into deeper than most previous sculptures
which give it a greater three-dimensional look. 18 Beyond the artistic expression, the Kroisos purpose as a grave
Publishers, 1995), 203.
13
Luca, Leoncini, “Farnese Hercules,” in The Dictionary of Art, vol. 10, ed. Jane Turner (New York:
Grove, 1996), 812.
14
Diana E. E. Kleiner, “Decorative Sculpture in Rome,” in Roman Sculpture (New Haven & London:
Yale University Press, 1992), 338-339.
15
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 338-339.
16
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 114.
17
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 288.
18
John Griffiths Pedley, Greek Art and Archaeology, 2nd ed. (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1993), 179.
7
marker for the young solider “invites visitors to ‘stay and mourn at the tomb of dead Kroisos.’” 19 The face also
includes the infamous archaic smile, which is “not an attempt at representing an emotional state but an index of
vitality.” 20
Extending beyond the very limited stance of the Kroisos, the Classical bronze of Zeus added very
revolutionary concepts to the human figure visually. Standing as one of the most influential sculptures of the
Archaic Period, Zeus consisted entirely of bronze with the exception of “copper for the lips and nipples and the eyes
and eyebrows were inlaid with ivory, bone, and stone.” 21 Accordingly, the statue stands about 6 feet, 10 inches
high---a little larger than actual human size. Carved out carefully, viewers can see an extremely defined stomach,
leg, and arm muscles. In addition, the sculptor defined the hair and beard to increase the realism as seen in Figure 3.
Many art historians, such as John Griffiths Pedley, believe “identification of the god depends on the weapon held in
the right hand: Was it a thunderbolt (Zeus) or a trident (Poseidon)?” 22 Although still uncertain, many scholars
believe the statue represents Zeus with his right arm arched backward as if hurling a lightning bolt more likely than
his brother Poseidon wielding a trident. Author H.W. Janson believes that his “pose is that of an athlete, yet it is not
so much the arrested phase of a continuous succession of movements as an awe-inspiring gesture that reveals the
power of the god.” 23
Similar to the statuary of the Greeks, the Etruscan sarcophagus used a wide variety of techniques in its
creation. Constructed mainly of stone, the Sarcophagus of the Spouses acted as a tomb made of painted terracotta
raised above the ground. Comparable to the size of the Kroisos, the four-sectioned tomb (Figure 4) measured a lifelike size of approximately three feet, nine inches by six feet, seven inches. 24 Even though “ life-size terracotta
statuary was known in Greece, this medium was especially favored in Etruria.” 25 In fact, there are many striking
resemblances between the art work and temples of the Etruscans and the Greeks. Additionally, it is believed that
many works of art were modeled after the Greek style. Even though their styles were similar, Etruscan artists still
rebelled against the standards of Greeks, such as in the Etruscan Sarcophagus of the Spouses (Figure 4), which
harbored the ashes of the married couple; moreover, the Etruscans not only portrayed husband and wife as equals
19
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 114.
Pedley, 179.
21
Pedley, 234.
22
Pedley, 234.
23
H.W. Janson, History of Art, 5th ed. (New York: H.N. Abrams, 1995), 145.
24
Bernard Andreae, The Art of Rome, Translated by Robert Erich Wolf (New York: H.N. Abrams, 1977),
20
41.
8
but as an affectionate and happy couple By looking at their art, many Etruscan religious beliefs and ceremonies
could be understood. Serving as a prime example of this, the sarcophagus with the reclining couple (Figure 4),
located in Cerveteri, Italy, serves as a testament to their gender roles
Beyond the vivid history behind the Roman sculpture, the overall descriptive quality of Weary Herakles
communicates a message about the human figure as well. Following its predecessor, the Kroisos, Weary Herakles
portrayed the deity through the elegance of marble. Measuring over double life-size, the Weary Herakles towers at
an impressive 3.17 meters. Because it is so large, many art historians refer to this as a colossal statue. Designed to
offer inspiration to those exercising, Herakles’ exhausted posture offers therapeutic relief by alluding to the nearly
impossible Twelve Labors of Herakles. When viewing the statue, one can see quite easily the over-exaggerated
muscles and his fatigue in his stance. This indicates the perfected man and an inspiration for the Romans who came
to the baths to exercise. Ironically, the statue displays an exaggerated, muscular man, but he appears so tired that he
must lean up on his club for support. Upon completion of some of the impossible 12 Labors, his fatigue is not only
obvious but unable to be hidden. By having multiple statues of Herakles in the baths and “intertwining his figure in
the architectural décor, it indicates that he was important not just as a god with therapeutic powers but as a god of
the state and as the personal protector of Caracalla.” 26 Also, if viewers were to walk around the statue, one would
see that the weary warrior is holding the apples of the Hesperides in his right hand---another great allusion to the
mythology behind Herakles. Besides the Weary Herakles, there was a second statue of Hercules in the baths: a
“variation of the Farnese type but with the club resting of a bull’s head.” 27 Also relocated, the second Herakles is
now in Bourbon Palace at Caserta. Both Herakles are set up so they could be viewed from the front and the back.
In decorating the baths, other statues were inserted in niches so that they could only be seen from one side and
unfortunately lose the full effect. In any other placement, “the message of the[se two] statues would have been lost
because Herakles grasps the apples of the Hesperides, a reference to the last of his twelve labors, in his right hand,
hidden behind his back.” 28 Because Herakles served as an inspiration within these baths, it made people view the
great and powerful gods more human and capable of having flaws. In depicting the meaning of the statue, “some
scholars, noting the apples that Herakles clutches in his right hand, have seen him as resting after taking them from
25
26
27
28
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 236.
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 338-339.
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 338-339.
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 338-339.
9
the Hesperides, while others have supposed that the hero was depicted after killing the Nemean lion.” 29 According
to myth, these two items, the pelt of the Nemean Lion and the Golden Apples of the Hesperides, found in the statue
retells the feat Herakles had to accomplish to obtain his immortality. With the help of Athena and Hermes, Herakles
had to complete six labors inside the Greek land and then six labors in foreign land. The first task he had to do was
kill the Nemean Lion whose pelt later becomes his cloak. Later on, he was to “obtain the golden apples from the
Tree of Life in the North African Garden of the Hesperides.” 30 In exchange for Atlas’ help in receiving the Golden
Apples, Herakles agrees to hold the world on his shoulders until he returns. Although Atlas is reluctant to return to
his burden, Herakles is able to recover the Golden Apples and return Atlas to his place in holding the world. Eager
to capture the emotion, Lysippos wanted to recreate what Herakles would have appeared after accomplishing those
labors: exhausted and forlorn. That is why the prevailing man appears drained and weary in representation.
Finally, the Greek, Etruscan, and Roman cultures all adopted their own styles and methods in representing
the human figure in art. Often, it resulted because of cultural philosophy in such topics as gender, or in other cases,
influence from another culture. Although all three civilizations bare a similar background, they all approached
human representation differently. In choosing to do so, these cultures frequently moved toward figures that are
more realistic but remained true to their unique style.
Although the statue of Kroisos (Figure 1) rebelled against the Egyptian style of sculpture, its approach to
the body was still every unique. In the Kroisos, the depiction of the body steps away from the geometric style of
Egyptian art and begins to define correct proportions. Although still nude like Egyptian art, the Kroisos was
interesting because of its beardless face and mysterious Archaic smile. Using closer accurate depictions of the
human form, the Greek sculptor used slightly correct proportions in creating the figure. Improving upon previous
representations, the Kroisos’ “head is no longer too large for the body, and the face is more rounded, with swelling
cheeks replacing the flat planes of earlier work. The long hair does not form a stiff backdrop to the head but falls
naturally over the back.” 31 Unlike the Egyptian artists who utilized sharp edges and minimal details, the Kroisos
included many flowing lines and “countless anatomical details.” Kroisos (Figure 1) “shows advances toward more
naturalistic proportions and more supple contours.” 32 Contrasting female statuary, such as the Peplos Kore figurine,
male bodies are almost always constructed nude while the females were entirely covered to demote sexuality.
29
Leoncini, 812.
Laurie Schneider Adams, Art Across Time, vol. 1 (Boston: McGraw-Hill College, 1999), 165.
31
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 114.
30
10
Although it did not entirely reject the Egyptian style, the Kroisos’ mysterious Archaic smile and naturalistic
depiction symbolized unique dynamics in the statue’s personality. Depicting some common beliefs in gender roles,
Greek approaches to the human body predominately remained often contained. In the Archaic Period, most statues
depicted nude and muscular men in power in a very dynamic pose. Unlike most sculptures of women, and like most
sculptures of men, Kroisos was depicted in the nude showing the viewers the sculptor’s ability of portraying the
human figure in an amazingly realistic way. The musculature of the Kroisos statue is greatly increased to show the
image of the perfect youth, more so then the Egyptian sculpture of Mentuemhet (Figure 2).
Similar to Romans and opposite to Etruscans, Greeks set the standard for exclusively displaying males,
either deities or athletes, in their sculpture because of their belief in a male dominated world. For example, Greeks
had a fascination with the power of their gods and to help portray this power, they would select powerful deities
such as Zeus, king of the gods. In looking at the Zeus statue in Figure 3, viewers are able to see the dynamics of the
contrapposto stance. This “disposition of the human figure in which one part is turned in opposition to another part
(usually the hips and legs one way, shoulders and chest another), creat[es] a counter position of the body.” 33 Upon
looking at the statue itself, researchers can see how the body is turned differently than his legs with back foot off of
the ground showing movement.
Although all three cultures bore a similar approach to the human form, the Etruscan influence dramatically
leveled equality for women as well as men in art. Because Etruscans were strong believers in cremation, the
sarcophagus with the reclining couple was used as a tomb to hold the remains of the deceased couple’s ashes. 34
Used as a way to celebrate the death of wealthy couples, “they liked to place an image of the reclining figure of the
deceased couple on the lid.” 35 On the lid, the couple is shown as if they enjoyed their life together with the male’s
arm embraces his loving wife while she her hand remains underneath his. This was unique that the Etruscans
showed a female with the male embracing her especially because it stood out against Greek and Roman philosophy
on gender roles. In stark contrast, however, during the Egyptian era, the statue Menkaure and His Wife Queen
Khamerenebty (Figure 5) from Giza, shows no affection towards one another. The wife is embracing the man and
he shows no affection towards her at all. 36 In conclusion, the Etruscan culture significantly opposed male
32
Pedley, 179.
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 522.
34
Andreae, 41.
35
Andreae, 41.
36
Janson, 97.
33
11
dominance and rather favored an equal relationship between both husband and wife in art.
Expanding upon the Greek style of the human body, Romans replicated their style and added a flare to the
dynamics of the human structure. Glancing upon Weary Herakles (Figure 6), the viewer sees a sense of despair and
fatigue communicated through the figure’s contrapposto stance by looking at the leaning of his entire massive body
on his club. This is perhaps one of the first times that statuary became asymmetrical. Symbolically representing
many concepts, Weary Herakles became one of the first testaments to humanizing the great gods and deities and
further rejecting the typical stability and balance of human statues. Revolutionary during the period, “Lysippos and
other fourth-century BCE artists rejected stability and balance as worthy goals for statuary.” 37 In other words,
although Herakles was not completely balanced in perfect stance, it was now acceptable to represent deities and
humans in a more natural manner. This countered early Greek and Egyptian sculpture.
As the human figure radically changed from Egyptian to late Roman sculptures, a connection between the
human figure and the trends of art help relate the significance of the human form by analyzing the history behind the
cultures of the Greek, Etruscan, and Romans, the monuments’ background, their stylistic depictions, and the
approach taken in depicting them. The human figure was perhaps the best vehicle in expressing thought patterns
and opinions on topics such as gender roles and societal norms during this era. Every civilization has their own take
on the organization and presentation of the human body whether it is through posture or story. By understanding the
changing human form, art historians could possibly learn more about the Greek, Etruscan, and Roman cultures than
they could have known from just surviving documentation.
37
Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, 148.
12
Bibliography
Adams, Laurie Schneider. Art Across Time, vol. 1. Boston: McGraw-Hill College, 1999.
Andreae, Bernard. The Art of Rome. Translated by Robert Erich Wolf. New York: H.N. Abrams, 1977.
Janson, H.W. and Anthony F. Janson. History of Art, 5th ed., 119-120. New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc., 1997.
Kleiner, Diana E. E. “Decorative Sculpture in Rome,” in Roman Sculpture, 338-339. New Haven & London: Yale
University Press, 1992.
Kleiner, Fred S. and Christin J. Mamiya. Gardner's Art Through the Ages, 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2005.
Leoncini, Luca. “Farnese Hercules,” in The Dictionary of Art, vol. 10, ed. Jane Turner, 812. New York: Grove,
1996.
Pedley, John Griffiths. Greek Art and Archaeology, 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1993.
Sprenger, Maja and Gilda Bartoloni. The Etruscans: Their History, Art and Architecture. New York: H.N. Abrams,
1983.
Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History, vol. 1, 203. New York: Prentice Hall, and Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, 1995.
13
Figures 1-7
Figure 1
Kroisos
Anavysos, Greece in 530 B.C.
http://employees.oneonta.edu/
Figure 2
Mentuemhet
Egyptian sculpture
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl
=http://individual.utoronto.ca
Figure 3
Zeus
Cape Artemision in 460-450 B.C.E. (Archaic Bronze)
http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/greeks/religion/myths/pictures/zeusartemesium.jpg
14
Figure 4
Sarcophagus of the Spouses
Cerveteri Necropolis, Italy in 520 B.C.
http://www.ancientworlds.net/aworlds
_media/ibase_1/00/01/62/00016253_000.jpg
Figure 5
Menkaure and His Wife Queen
Khamerenebty
Egyptian statue
http://www.edu.pe.ca/rural/class_webs
/art/images/MenkaureandQueen.jpg
Figure 6
Weary Herakles
Baths of Caracalla in 320 B.C. (Late Classical Sculpture)
http://traumwerk.stanford.edu/philolog/Glykon%20Herakles%20back.jpg