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Sobotta
Flashcards
Muscles
1st Edition
Arrangement and text by Lars Bräuer
Translation by Christian M. Hammer
142 Flashcards
München
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Unless otherwise declared – all illustrations are taken from:
Sobotta – Atlas of Human Anatomy
Edited by F. Paulsen and J. Waschke
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1st Edition 2013
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How to use the flashcards!
The cards are organised thematically to provide excellent preparation for your exams if
worked through systematically.
All cards (with a few exceptions) are structured according to the following simple and selfexplanatory concept:
•
Every card face contains a possible examination question relating to the card’s topic. On
, in a chart or as
the back of the card, the answer is displayed either in the answer box
highlighted image annotation.
•
Another way to test yourself is included in the cards that show images with numbered
structures. Here you are supposed to name the structures. The solution is on the back of
the card.
providing additional information, learning tips
Many cards also display an information box
(“mnemonics“) or pathological and clinical facts or aspects. Some of these contents are
meant to help you memorise certain facts, while others are simply “good to know“.
Of course not all of the questions will be relevant to your examination. They have, however,
been asked in a similar or even identical way in past anatomical tests or exams.
Have fun practising!
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Picture Credits
Numbers in square brackets at the end of the caption of each illustration of the flashcards
refer to the respective image source.
Graphics and illustrations – unless identified otherwise – originate from Sobotta’s Atlas of
Human Anatomy 15th Edition, © Elsevier 2011.
[1] Drake, R. L., Vogl, A. W., Mitchell, A.: Gray´s Atlas der Anatomie, Urban & Fischer 2009
Abbreviations
Singular:
A.
=
Lig.
=
M.
=
N.
=
Proc. =
R.
=
V.
=
Var.
=
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Arteria
Ligamentum
Musculus
Nervus
Processus
Ramus
Vena
Variation
Plural:
Aa.
Ligg.
Mm.
Nn.
Procc.
Rr.
Vv.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Arteriae
Ligamenta
Musculi
Nervi
Processus
Rami
Venae
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Table of contents
General Anatomy of Muscles
1– 8
Organisational principle of skeletal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Single-headed parallel-fibred muscle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Double-headed parallel-fibred muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Double-bellied parallel-fibred muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Multi-headed flat muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
Multi-bellied muscle with tendinous intersections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Unipennate and bipennate muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Architecture of a tendon sheath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
Head and Neck
9 – 38
Facial and masticatory muscles 1–2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9–10
M. masseter and M. temporalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
M. pterygoideus lateralis and M. pterygoideus medialis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
Masticatory muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Temporomandibular joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
Deep facial muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
Extrinsic muscles of the tongue 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16–17
Intrinsic muscles of the tongue 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18–19
Mouth region and floor of the mouth (Diaphragma oris) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Muscles of the floor of the mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
Extra-ocular muscles 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22–23
Facial muscles in the orbital region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
M. orbicularis oculi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
Muscles of the auricle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
M. tensor tympani. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
Platysma and M. sternocleidomastoideus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
Neck muscles and infrahyoid musculature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
Prevertebral muscles and Mm. scaleni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
Pharyngeal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
Pharynx and parapharyngeal space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
Laryngeal muscles 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33–34
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Outer laryngeal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
Larynx 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36–38
Upper Extremity
39–80
Muscles of shoulder and arm 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39–41
M. trapezius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
M. levator scapulae and Mm. rhomboidei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
M. latissimus dorsi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
M. serratus anterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
M. pectoralis major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
M. pectoralis minor and M. subclavius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
Muscles of the rotator cuff 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48–50
M. supraspinatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
Axillary spaces 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52–53
Muscles of the upper arm 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 56–57
M. biceps brachii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
M. brachialis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
M. triceps brachii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
Triceps slit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
Superficial layer of the ventral muscles of the forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
Superficial layer of the forearm flexors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
Middle and deep layer of the forearm flexors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
Deepest layer of the forearm flexors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
Middle layer of the ventral muscles of the forearm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
Deep and deepest layer of the ventral muscles of the forearm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
Superficial layer of the dorsal muscles of the forearm 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67–69
Deep layer of the dorsal muscles of the forearm 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70–72
Deep layer of the dorsal muscles of the forearm, M. supinator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
Dorsum of the hand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
Osseofibrous tunnels of the dorsal hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
Palm of the hand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
Intermediate layer of muscles of the palmar hand 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77–78
Tendon sheaths of the palmar hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
Deep layer of muscles of the palmar hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
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Trunk
81–110
Muscles of the trunk and shoulder girdle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
Deep layer of the trunk-shoulder girdle muscles 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82–83
Superficial layer of the deep muscles of the back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
Muscles of back and neck 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85–86
Deep layer of back muscles of the lower thoracic and lumbar vertebral column
87
Short muscles of the neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
Muscles of back and neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
Muscles of the thoracic and abdominal wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
Superficial and middle layer of the abdominal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
Middle layer of the abdominal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
Deep layer of the abdominal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
Architecture of the rectus sheath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
Posterior wall of the thoracic cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
Anterior wall of the thoracic cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
Diaphragm and muscles of the abdominal wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
M. psoas major and M. quadratus lumborum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
Diaphragm and diaphragmatic apertures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
100
Muscles of the male pelvic floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
101
M. bulbospongiosus and M. ischiocavernosus in men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
102
Mm. transversi perinei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103
M. sphincter ani externus and M. levator ani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
104
Female perineal region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105
Female pelvic floor 1–2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–107
Male pelvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
108
Male pelvis (CT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
109
Female pelvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
110
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Lower Extremity
111–142
Ventral muscles of hip and leg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111
Dorsal muscles of hip and leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
112
Muscles of hip and thigh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
113
M. quadriceps femoris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
114
M. tensor fasciae latae and M. sartorius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
115
Mm. adductores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
116
Ventral and deep medial muscles of the thigh 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117–118
M. iliopsoas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119
M. gluteus maximus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
M. gluteus medius and M. obturatorius externus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121
Dorsal muscles of thigh and hip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
122
Pelvitrochanteric muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
Ischiocrural muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
124
Deep dorsal muscles of hip and thigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
125
Muscles in the region of the knee joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
126
Ventral and lateral muscles of the lower leg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
127
Ventral muscles of the lower leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
128
Muscles of the lower leg and foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
Lateral muscles of the lower leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
130
Superficial layer of the dorsal lower leg muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
131
Dorsal muscles of the lower leg 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132, 134
Deep layer of the dorsal muscles of the lower leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
133
Synovial sheaths of the foot 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–136
Muscles of the dorsum of the foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
137
Plantar aponeurosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
Superficial layer of plantar muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
139
Middle layer of plantar muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
140
Deep and deepest layers of plantar muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
141
Mm. interossei dorsales and plantares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
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ta_LK_Muscles.indb 9
© Elsevier GmbH
5
5
7
2
7
1 sagittal plane
2 midsagittal plane
3 frontal plane
1
5
5
5
5
4 transverse of horizontal plane
5 sagittal axis
5
5
4
6
6 transverse plane
5 longitudinal or vertical axis
6
6
7
3
6
Axes and planes
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Main Axes
sagittal axis
is positioned perpendicular to transverse and
longitudinal axis
transverse axis
is positioned perpendicular to longitudinal and sagittal
axis
longitudinal or
vertical axis
is positioned perpendicular to sagittal and transverse
axis
Main Planes
median (sagittal) plane
symmetry plane, divides the body into two equal halves
sagittal plane
runs parallel to the median (sagittal) plane
transverse plane
any cross-sectional plane of the body
frontal plane
parallel to the forehead
Direction of Movement
extension
stretching of the torso or the extremities
flexion
bending of the torso or the extremities
abduction
moving extremities away from the torso
adduction
moving extremities towards the torso
elevation
lifting of arms above the horizontal plane
rotation
turning extremities inwards and outwards around a
longitudinal axis
circumduction
spinning motion
Radiological Section Planes
Radiological Terms
Anatomical Terms
sagittal section
sagittal plane
coronal section
frontal plane
axial section
transverse plane
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Radiology terminology in imaging procedures (computed tomography and magnetic
resonance imaging) defines the three main anatomical planes as sections with their
own nomenclature.
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© Elsevier GmbH
palmar
Linea
medioclavicularis
Linea axillaris
anterior
dorsal
Linea parasternalis
Linea sternalis
Linea mediana
anterior
distal
proximal
distal
proximal
tibial
fibular
caudal
(= inferior)
medial
ulnar
radial
lateral
cranial
(= superior)
plantar
dorsal
proximal
distal
Linea
scapularis
Linea axillaris
posterior
cranial
caudal
Linea paravertebralis
Linea mediana
posterior
Orientierungslinien sowie Richtungsund Lagebezeichnungen
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cranial or superior
towards the head
caudal or inferior
towards the sacrum
anterior or ventral
towards the front or abdomen
posterior or dorsal
towards the back
lateral
sideways, away from the midline
medial
centered, towards the midline
median or medianus
within the median plane
intermedial
positioned in between
central
towards the interior of the body
peripheral
towards the body surface
profundus
located deeply
superficial or superficialis
located superficially
external or externus
located externally
internal or internus
located internally
apical
pointed or belonging to the tip
basal
pointed towards the base
dexter
right
sinister
left
proximal
towards the torso
distal
towards the end of the limbs
ulnar
towards the ulna
radial
towards the radius
tibial
towards the tibia
fibular
towards the fibula
volar or palmar
towards the palm of the hand
plantar
towards the sole of the foot
dorsal
(extremities) towards the back (dorsum) of the hand or
the foot
frontal
towards the forehead
rostral
(literally translated: „towards the beak“) towards the
mouth or tip of the nose (exclusively used for directional
and positional information related to the head)
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Terms of Direction and Positioning of Body Parts
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Organisational principle of skeletal muscles
1
Define the “lever arm” of a muscle.
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(Origo)
Fascia
Caput
Line of force
of the muscle
Venter
Tendo
(Insertio)
Axis of rotation
of the joint
M. brachialis.
© Elsevier GmbH
Virtual lever arm
of the muscle
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Organisational principle of skeletal muscles
1
The amount of force a muscle transfers to a joint depends on the length of the lever
arm involved. The perpendicular distance of the joint’s rotation axis from the
muscle’s line of action represents the lever arm of the muscle.
As the length of the lever arm varies depending on the relative joint position, it is
also called the virtual lever arm.
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Normally, skeletal muscles link two bones and move one bone relative to the other.
Originally, the idea was to refer to a muscle’s attachment site on the fixed bone as
its origin (Punctum fixum or Orgio) and to the site on the moved bone as its insertion (Punctum mobile or Insertio). However, as bones are moved relative to each
other, the proximal attachment site is simply defined as origin and the distal one as
insertion.
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