ECE 2A Lab #1 Lab 1 Voltage, Current, and Resistance Overview In this lab you will learn to about two basic lab tools - the Digital Multimeter (DMM) and the DC power supply – and to use these tools to investigate simple resistive circuits and devices. In particular you will examine the non-idealities of current (ammeter) and voltage (voltmeter) measurements, and then use the DMMs to characterize series and parallel resistor combinations, voltage dividers, and the current-voltage relationship of some simple nonlinear devices like light bulbs and motors. You will also examine a simple variable-resistance device called a potentiometer, and (for extra credit) a photocell. Table of Contents Background Information Resistors Solderless Breadboards Digital Multimeters Further Reading Pre-lab Preparation Before Coming to the Lab Required Equipment Parts List In-Lab Procedure 1.1 Power Supply and Voltmeter 1.2 Resistance Measurements Ammeter and Voltmeter Internal Resistance Continuity Testing 1.3 Series and Parallel Resistor Combinations 1.4 Voltage Dividers and Potentiometers 1.5 Current-Voltage Characteristics Extra Credit: Photocell 1 2 2 4 5 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 10 10 11 12 14 15 © Bob York 2 Voltage, Current, and Resistance Background Information Resistors There are a number of different types of resistors depending on the application. All obey Ohm’s law with a specified resistance, of course, but the electrical behavior can also vary in terms of power handling or current handling, temperature dependence of the resistance, size/shape, and manufacturing tolerances. All factors must be considered in circuit design. In ECE 2 we use so-called “through-hole” components which have long metal leads. Figure 1-1 shows four common families of through-hole resistors. The carbon-film resistors are the most ubiquitous by far, and dirt cheap: in large quantities, these resistors are priced in fractions of a US cent (e.g. $0.004 per resistor in quantities of 1,000). They are so cheap that the primary cost of using them in a product nowadays is associated with the insertion time in the robotic assembly and not the cost of the part itself (the robotic “labor” cost is usually about 1-2 cents per part). Carbon Film • ±5%, ±10% • Cheap • General purpose Metal Oxide Metal Film Wirewound • Higher Power • Precision ±1% • High Performance • High Power, High Current Figure 1-1 – Here we show a few of the most common types of “through-hole” resistors. In ECE 2 we will use the cheap carbon-film type almost exclusively. Probability Density Carbon-film resistors are made by 0.25 depositing a thin carbon film on a small ±5% ceramic cylinder, and then etching the 0.20 film into a narrow helical pattern. It is 0.15 difficult to precisely control the thickness and conductivity of the carbon 0.10 film so there are always some random ±10% manufacturing errors. The statistical 0.05 distribution of resistor values is characterized by the specified 0.00 “tolerance”. Although manufacturers do -10 -5 0 5 10 not usually share the details of their % Deviation from Nominal processes it is generally assumed that Figure 1-2 – Probability density function describing the resistor values can be described by a resistor statistics, assume a 3 tolerance. Gaussian (normal) distribution with a standard deviation such that the tolerance is around 3 . This effectively means that 99.7% of the resistors will fall within the specified tolerance range, clustered near the nominal value. Figure 1-2 shows the probability-density functions computed for two commonly-encountered tolerances, ±5% and ±10%. © Bob York 3 Background Information When companies make electrical components they try to avoid testing each part individually; that would take too much time and would add significantly to the cost of each component. Instead the engineers work to characterize the process statistics very well, and then can test a few sample parts periodically to insure that components remain within the acceptable range of values. That brings us to component values. There are a HUGE range of values to cover: resistances can be anywhere from tiny fractions of an ohm to tens of mega-ohms (mega=million). The resistor values that are selected for production are based on a system that is tied closely to the expected manufacturing tolerances. The basic idea is to select discrete values that cover as much of the full range of resistance as possible without having the statistical distributions overlap too much. Consider two successive values of resistance, r1 and r2 . If the component tolerance is defined as t , then the largest possible value of r1 would be r1 (1 t ) . Similarly the smallest possible value of r2 would be r2 (1 t ) . Equating those limiting values give a ratio of successive resistor values as: r1 1 t (1.1) r0 1 t For example, if the tolerance is 20% ( t 0.2 ), then (1.1) gives a ratio of consecutive resistances of 1.5. Figure 1-3 illustrates a set of six values in the range of 1-10 that are commonly used to describe components with this tolerance, and you can verify that the ratio of successive values is indeed close to 1.5 in each case. 1.0 1.5 2.2 3.3 4.7 6.8 10 Figure 1-3 – Illustration showing values appropriate to a ±20% tolerance (E6), with expected normal distributions shown around each nominal value. You will see that the ratio isn’t exactly 1.5 for every pair of adjacent values. One reason is that we want the pattern of numbers to repeat for each successive decade of values (e.g. 10,15,22,33…..100,150,220,330….etc.). In order for the pattern to repeat after N discrete values, the ratio x must satisfy x N 10 x 101/ N (1.2) So for N 6 the ideal ratio would be x 1.468 . But there are also some rounding errors that come into play, so the set of numbers in Figure 1-3 represent a reasonable compromise. It’s not hard to figure how many values are needed to cover the range 1-10 for a different tolerance. For ±10% we need N 12 ; for ±5% we need N 24 , and so on. This has led the EIA (Electronics Industry Association) to standardize a set of values designated as E6, E12, E24, etc. The first three are shown in Table 1-1. Table 1-1 – Standard EIA Decade Values for E6, E12, E24 E6 E12 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.2 1.5 2.2 1.8 2.2 3.3 2.7 3.3 4.7 3.9 4.7 6.8 5.6 6.8 8.2 E24 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.5 8.2 9.1 4 Voltage, Current, and Resistance A tighter tolerance typically costs more so there is a tradeoff between precision and cost. As a future circuit designer it will be up to you to determine the sensitivity of your circuit in order to choose the appropriate tolerance. In certain types of frequency-selective filter circuits, for example, precision ±1% metal-film components are often required. In the circuits we will use in ECE 2, ±10% tolerances will be fine so you should familiarize yourself with the values available in this range (E12). Another practical issue is how to READ component values. Ideally the value would just be printed on the side of the device, but most through-hole resistors use a multi-band color code, described in Table 1-2. It is simple but takes a little getting used to, and you will only figure it out with practice. Some common examples are shown on the right. Table 1-2 – Resistor color-code and examples Color Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White 1st Stripe (1st digit) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2nd Stripe (2nd digit) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3rd Stripe (Multiplier) 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 A final practical issue: the carbon-film resistors come in different SIZES depending on power-handling. An illustration of the relative sizes is shown in Figure 1-4. When a current flows in a resistor some electrical energy is dissipated, and this manifests itself as a rise in temperature (heat). Ordinarily the resistors are mounted in a PC board or breadboard where the only mechanism for getting rid of that heat is convection to the surrounding air. Convection heat transfer is enhanced by increasing the surface area, so resistors that must handle higher powers have a larger surface area. For very high power the resistors may have an integral metal heatsink with fins for extra surface area. In ECE 2, the resistors are almost always ¼ Watt resistors. Examples of Common Values: Brown-Black-Red 10×102 = 1kΩ Yellow-Purple-Red 47×102 = 4.7kΩ Brown-Black-Orange 10×103 = 10kΩ Orange-Orange-Orange 33×103 = 33kΩ Brown-Black-Yellow 10×104 = 100kΩ Red-Red-Yellow 22×104 = 220kΩ Aluminum fins Figure 1-4 – Size for power! Solderless Breadboards The most common method of experimenting with through-hole or “leaded” components like resistors is using a solderless “breadboard” to simplify electrical connections. These get their name from the early days of radio when it was common to build vacuum tube circuit prototypes on a wooden surface. Today's breadboards are a grid of insulating plastic atop a © Bob York 5 Background Information pattern of conducting metal strips. Figure 1-5 shows the top view of a typical breadboard used in ECE2, and a close-up of the pattern of connection points. Power/Ground terminals Rails (lines denote internal connection) Groove isolates holes on either side Each group of 5 horizontal holes are electrically connected internally by a metal clip Figure 1-5 – Solderless breadboard used in ECE 2 Component leads and wires are inserted into the holes to make contact with conducting metal strips inside. On either side of the long channels or grooves, each perpendicular group of five holes are electrically connected. There are also long groups of connected holes called “rails” running the length of the breadboard, marked by colored lines. These are normally used for power and ground connections. Breadboards come in a variety of sizes and shapes but most have the same basic pattern of holes and rails. Digital Multimeters The digital multimeter (DMM) is a versatile measurement tool for electrical circuits. It is capable of multiple types of measurements, including at least the three in Table 1-3: Table 1-3 – Basic Multimeter Measurements Function Symbol Voltmeter V Ammeter A Ohmeter Ω Description Measures voltage between terminals, ideally with zero current draw (infinite resistance) Measured current flowing through the meter, ideally with zero voltage drop (zero resistance) Calculates resistance between terminals by applying a known current and measuring the terminal voltage At first glance the use of the DMM seems trivial: just hook it up and read the data, right? But like all measurement instruments a real DMM is not perfect, and a clear understanding of those non-idealities is essentially in order to use it properly. 6 Voltage, Current, and Resistance Consider the voltmeter function: we want to measure the voltage between two points in some circuit, but we don’t want to the act of measuring to change the circuit in any way. That means the voltmeter should not draw any current away from the circuit under test; it should appear to the circuit as an infinite resistance. But a real voltmeter must draw some current in order to make the measurement. So real voltmeters will always affect the circuit to a certain extent; they always have a finite resistance. This could be an issue if we are probing circuits with tiny currents or extremely large resistances. Similarly the ammeter is designed to measure the current flowing in some part of a circuit. To do that we break the circuit at some point and insert the so that the current will passes THROUGH the ammeter. To minimize the impact on the circuit the ammeter should not introduce any additional voltage drops, which means it should appear like a perfect shortcircuit (zero resistance) to the circuit. But real ammeters necessarily have a non-zero resistance, because the resulting voltage drop across the internal resistance is used to calculate the current. When measuring small currents a rather large internal resistance may be necessary to create a measureable voltage drop. In most DMMs there are three terminals: one common terminal, one for voltage or resistance measurements, and one for current measurements. The user then manually attaches the leads to the appropriate terminal, and manually selects the appropriate measurement function. Some meters also require you to manually select the measurement range, whereas others are “autoranging” and choose the range for you. The circuit behavior of the DMM (how much current it draws, or equivalently its internal resistance) usually depends on the Figure 1-6 – Handheld DMM measurement range. A common and often destructive mistake by beginners is to configure the DMM for use as an ammeter (zero internal resistance) and then attach the test leads across a carrying component or voltage source. The ammeter then shorts the circuit and a large current may flow through the DMM, causing an internal fuse to blow. The fuse will then have to be replaced before any further measurements can be made. In the little hand-held DMMs like that in Figure 1-6, the enclosure must be taken apart to replace the fuse. Lastly, note that most multimeters can be used for both AC and DC measurements. In the AC measurement mode where the currents and voltages are presumed to vary sinusoidally with time, the instrument compute an RMS (root-mean-square) value for the waveform, NOT the peak voltage or current. Further Reading Read the relevant sections of the Equipment Tutorial posted on the class website to familiarize yourself with the details of the specific DMM and power supply in the ECE 2 lab. Some useful/relevant Wikipedia Links: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor and also http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Electronics/Resistors http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadboard http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimeter © Bob York Pre-lab Preparation 7 Pre-lab Preparation Before Coming to the Lab □ Read the “Equipment Tutorial” on the course website to familiarize yourself with the bench power supply and DMM. □ Read through the details of the lab experiment to familiarize yourself with the components and testing sequence. □ One person from each lab group should obtain a parts kit from the ECE Shop. □ Fill in the color-codes in Table 1-4 usign the information in the background section. □ Calculate the “Theory w/Nominal Values” column in Table 1-5 Required Equipment ■ Provided in lab: Bench power supply, Bench DMM, Decade Resistor Box ■ Student equipment: Hand-held DMM, Solderless breadboard, and jumper wire kit Parts List Qty Description 1 4 4 1.5 1.5 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Handheld DMM Banana plug (red) with set screw Banana plug (black) with set screw 18AWG wire (per foot), Black, 16x30 stranded 18AWG wire (per foot), Red 16x30 stranded 1.0 k -Ohm 1/4 Watt resistor 2.0 k -Ohm 1/4 Watt resistor 3.0 k -Ohm 1/4 Watt resistor 4.7 k -Ohm 1/4 Watt resistor 10 k-Ohm 1/4 Watt resistor 10k trimpot (Bourns 3/8" thumbwheel type) 3V @ 45mA DC motor 6V lamp with PC pins (T1 3/4 bi-pin) CdS photocell 8 Voltage, Current, and Resistance In-Lab Procedure Read the instructions carefully. If you skim through the text too quickly you may miss something important. □ Each critical step begins with a check box like the one at the left. When you complete a step, check the associated box. Be sure to document all steps and results in your notebook for inclusion in your lab report. 1.1 Power Supply and Voltmeter We’ll start by using the bench DMM to probe the output voltage of the bench power supply. This step is easy and should not take much time: □ First set the bench DMM to measure DC Volts on the 20V full-scale range. Using one of your cables, connect the V/Ω terminal of the DMM to the +18V output of the power supply, and with a second cable connect the COM terminals together. These connections are shown schematically in Figure 1-7. A common convention in microelectronics is to use black wires for the ground or “common” lead, but of course the color of the cable doesn’t really Power matter much here.1 DMM Supply □ Turn on the DMM and the power supply. Be sure V Vout the “METER” switch on the power supply is set to correctly display the output of the +18V terminal, and be sure to note which scale is appropriate for this setting. Then adjust the power COM supply to get a reading of +7.0V on the DMM. Figure 1-7 – Voltmeter test. To which full-scale range must the DMM be set if the display only shows one digit past the decimal? (i.e. 7.0 and not 7.00 or 7.000) What is the lowest range that can be used to measure 7V? How does the DMM display an outof-range measurement? When properly calibrated, DMMs are usually more accurate than the cheap indicators on the power supplies, so in case there is a disagreement between what the power-supply says and what the DMM says we will usually trust the DMM! □ Repeat the steps above to set the +20V output on the power-supply to +10.0V. Be sure the “METER” switch on the power supply is set to correctly display the output of the +20V terminal. Repeat again to set the -20V output to -5.0V, and then double check that the three output terminals on the power supply are still at their desired values: o +18V terminal: should be set to +7.0V, o +20V terminal: should be set to +10.0V o -20V terminal: should be set to -5.0V. In each case above we have defined the voltages at the various output terminals with respect to the common terminal on the power supply. 1 It’s a different story with the AC electrical wiring you find in buildings like your home. In that case, white is always the “neutral” lead, black is the “hot” lead, and green is usually used for ground. © Bob York Resistance Measurements 9 Let’s now use the DMM to make measurements with respect to other reference points: □ Using the DMM, record the following measurements between power-supply terminals: o +18V terminal with respect to the +20V terminal o +18V terminal with respect to the -20V terminal o +20V terminal with respect to the -20V terminal o COM terminal with respect to the +18V terminal Clearly the voltage recorded by the DMM is critically dependent on the reference point. You may have noticed that in addition to the COM terminal on the power supply there is also a “ground” terminal. The ground terminal is electrically connected to the physical Earth through the AC distribution system in the building, usually via a large copper pipe driven into the ground outside the building somewhere. In some electrical instruments the “ground” terminal is electrically connected to a metal case or enclosure to avoid hazardous shocks if there is a wiring fault in the instrument. But it is important to note that COM and ground are not the same. This is because power supplies are designed so that they can supply power to a variety of loads, some of which may not be referenced to ground (so-called “floating” loads). The COM terminal is the point of reference for the output terminals in ALL situations, so that any current flowing from one of the output terminals should return to the power supply via the COM terminal. There are times when it makes sense to electrically connect COM and ground, in which case we will add a little jumper wire between the terminals. In fact there may already be a jumper installed on your bench supply; it is usually considered good practice to keep that jumper wire there unless you have a specific reason not to use it. □ If there is a jumper wire connecting COM and ground, remove it and measure all of the the voltages at the output terminals with respect to this ground terminal. The add the jumper wire and repeat the measurement. The key takeaway from this section is that voltage is always measured as a difference in potential between two points, and that the choice of reference point is critical. 1.2 Resistance Measurements Now let’s explore the DMM as an Ohmeter for resistance measurements. For convenience we will use the bench decade box as an adjustable resistor in this step. Again these measurements are quite simple, but we want to pay close attention to the characteristics Bench of the meters themselves: DMM R Ω □ Configure the DMM for resistance measurement by pressing the “Ω” button. Select the 20k range. Connect the V/Ω terminal of the DMM to a red terminal on the decade resistor box, and the COM COM terminal of the DMM to a black terminal. The Figure 1-8 – Ohmmeter setup. connections are shown schematically in Figure 1-8. □ Set R to 5kΩ. Record the actual value of R as measured by the DMM. Adjust the range setting on the DMM to understand its effect on the measurement resolution and record this in your notebook. 10 Voltage, Current, and Resistance Ammeter and Voltmeter Internal Resistance □ Now add your small handheld DMM to the circuit as shown in Figure 1-9. Configure the handheld DMM as a voltmeter by selecting one of the DC Volt ranges with the rotary switch. Does the resistance measurement change when the voltmeter is added? What can you conclude about the internal resistance of the voltmeter? Your hand-held DMM should indicate the presence of a small voltage across the resistor. In order to sense the value of the resistance the ohmmeter must pass a small current through it! Bench DMM Handheld DMM R Ω V COM Figure 1-9 – Voltmeter across the resistor under test (parallel resistance). □ Make a table in your lab notebook and record the measured resistance and the voltage across the resistor for R=1k, 2k, 5k, and 10k, using the 20k measurement range on the benchtop DMM. Using Ohm’s law with the measured resistance and voltage values, calculate current that must be flowing in the resistor each time. Repeat using the 200K measurement range on the ohmmeter. What is the average current supplied by the ohmmeter for each measurement ranges? □ Remove the handheld DMM from the circuit and reconfigure it as an ammeter by selecting the DCA 200μA range. With the bench ohmmeter on the 20kΩ scale and R at 5k, add the ammeter into the circuit as in Figure 1-10. Is the measured current close to the current you calculated in the previous step? What is the measured resistance now? What must the series resistance of the ammeter be for this setting? □ Handheld DMM Bench DMM A Ω R COM Set R to 0 so that only the resistance of the Figure 1-10 – Break circuit and add ammeter is being measured. Change the ammeter (series resistance). ammeter to the 2mA scale. Record the ammeter resistance for each scale, and then move the lead from the ammeter’s V/Ω/mA input to the 10A input and record its resistance. □ Remove the handheld ammeter and reattach the test lead on the handheld DMM back to the VΩmA input and put it in ohmmeter mode. This is a good precaution after making current measurements! A key takeaway here is that the meters will always perturb the electrical state of the system to some extent, and we must always consider the possible influence of the meter itself on the measurement. Continuity Testing A continuity test is done to confirm that things are electrically connecting in the manner we want. We can use the ohmmeter to explore continuity in a circuit in the following way: if two points are electrically connected (by a wire, for example) then the measured resistance will be very low. If the two points are NOT connected, the measured resistance should be very large (ideally infinite). It may sound trivial, but continuity testing is a very important © Bob York 11 Series and Parallel Resistor Combinations tool in debugging malfunctioning circuits: in ECE 2, the most common reason for a malfunctioning circuit is a simple wiring error! □ □ Move the red test lead back to the Using the ohmmeter and some jumper wires, check for continuity between the sockets in and around a sample row in your breadboard to confirm the connections described in the background section. For example, using the row and column designations shown in Figure 1-11, draw lines through the sockets which are connected in row 6, for example. Is their any continuity between rows 5 and 6, or 6 and 7, or across the gap between columns e and f? Figure 1-11 – Section of a solderless breadboard. Similarly confirm continuity between the ends of one the red and blue bus-bar strips. 1.3 Series and Parallel Resistor Combinations Now find the small ¼ Watt resistors in your parts kit. We will first measure the resistances of these components and then explore the resistance of simple combinations of them □ Create a table in your notebook like Table 1-4, and for each resistor value in the table, find the corresponding component in your parts kit and record the color-code in the appropriate place. The use your ohmmeter to measure the actual resistance and determine the % error in comparison to the nominal value (to save time you can do the calculations later, outside of lab). It is convenient to mount the resistors on the breadboard and use the pointed probes of your handheld meter for this measurement. Table 1-4 – Summary of Measurements on Individual Resistors Nominal Color Code (e.g. red-orange-brown) Measured [Ω] % Error 1kΩ 1kΩ 1kΩ 2kΩ 3kΩ 4.7kΩ 10kΩ □ Next, create a table like Table 1-5 in your notebook. For each row, interconnect the selected resistors on your breadboard in the desired configuration and measure the net resistance between the terminals (open-circles in each figure) with the ohmeter. Then compare your measured data. 12 Voltage, Current, and Resistance Table 1-5 – Summary of Measurements on Resistors Combinations Resistor Configuration R1 R1 R2 Theoretical Net Resistance R1 R2 R1 1 R2 1 1 R1 R2 R2 R3 R1 1 1 1 1 R1 R2 R3 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 1 1 1 R1 R2 R3 Nominal Values Theory w/ Nominal Values Theory w/Actual Values Measured Resistance R1=1kΩ R2=1kΩ R1=2kΩ R2=3kΩ R1=1kΩ R2=1kΩ R1=4.7kΩ R2=10kΩ R1=1kΩ R2=1kΩ R3=1kΩ R1=1kΩ R2=1kΩ R3=1kΩ R1=1kΩ R2=1kΩ R3=2kΩ 1.4 Voltage Dividers and Potentiometers In lecture we have discussed (or will soon) the fact that the voltage supplied to a circuit by a battery or power supply will divide among the circuit components in proportion to the relative resistances of the components. □ □ Verify that the +20V output of the power supply is still set at +10V and make the connections shown in Figure 1-12, where the two resistors are mounted on your solderless breadboard. Begin with R1 R2 1k . R1 Power Supply +10V DMM 1 kΩ R2 Vout V With the DMM set to measure DC Figure 1-12 – Simple voltage divider. volts, measure the voltage across R2 . Here the voltage is indicated by the variable, Vout , and the polarity of the variable is defined with + and – signs. For DMM measurements the – corresponds to the reference node where the COM terminal is to be © Bob York 13 Voltage Dividers and Potentiometers connected. Enter this result in your notebook using a table like that in Table 1-6, where the theoretical expectation in this case is given by R2 (1.3) Vout 10 V R1 R2 □ Repeat for the remaining resistor values in Table 1-6, keeping R1 fixed at 1kΩ in each case. Table 1-6 – Voltage Divider Measurements R2 Vout (Theory) Vout (Meas.) 1kΩ The voltage divider circuit thus provides a simple way reduce an applied 2kΩ voltage by a desired amount, but it would 3kΩ be nice if we could adjust the output 4.7kΩ voltage more easily and continuously. The potentiometer (“pot” for short) allows us 10kΩ to do this. A potentiometer is a resistor with a third terminal called the “wiper”. The wiper rubs along the length of the resistor material internally, creating a self-contained adjustable voltage divider network. Figure 1-13a illustrates one particular type of potentiometer (a “thumbwheel” type), and Figure 1-13b shows ones very simple voltagedivider configuration using a potentiometer configuration. These kinds of circuits are often used in audio volume controls to adjust the level of the audio signal before it is fed into a preamp or power amp. R1 10 kΩ +10V +10V 1 kΩ Vout R2 10 kΩ Vout “Wiper” (a) (b) (c) Figure 1-13 – Potentiometer and its use in simple voltage-divider circuits. Potentiometers are specified in terms of the total resistance between the outer terminals. In your parts kit you should have a 10kΩ potentiometer. Figure 1-13c shows another common configuration where the wiper is intentionally shorted to one of the other terminals. This creates a two-terminal variable resistance. □ Construct the circuit in Figure 1-13c on your breadboard. Monitor the output voltage using the DMM as the thumbwheel is varied over its extremes. 14 Voltage, Current, and Resistance There are many other types of potentiometers on the market, the one in our kit is just one example. Some must be adjusted with a screwdriver and may allow for multiple turns for better control over the resistance. Some have large rotating shafts that can be fitted with a knob for instrument panels. Potentiometers are sometimes used to tweak a circuit after production to compensate for other component errors; in this application they are sometimes referred to as “trimpots”. 1.5 Current-Voltage Characteristics Resistors are engineered to obey Ohm’s law over a wide range of voltages and currents. The relationship between voltage and current is not always as simple in other devices, but knowing this relationship is critical for circuit design. We will examine the I-V characteristics of two simple devices: a DMM 50Ω small incandescent bulb, and a small A DC “toy” motor. DMM To determine the current-voltage Power (“I-V”) characteristics of a device, we V D.U.T. Supply apply a certain voltage and measure the resulting current, or vice versa. Figure 1-14 illustrates the basic experimental Figure 1-14 – Measuring I-V curves setup. An adjustable DC power supply provides the stimulus, and we use two DMMs to monitor the current through the device and the voltage across it. To protect both the device and ammeter from accidental excessive currents it is advisable to include a small “current-limiting” resistor in series with the device as shown. □ Set up the circuit shown in Figure 1-14 using the decade-box for the 50Ω current-limiting resistor. Set the power-supply output to zero volts initially. □ In your notebook, create a table for the voltage-current measurements. The first data point is of course (0 V, 0 mA). □ With the handheld DMM, measure the “cold” DC resistance of the lamp prior to putting it in the circuit. □ Now add the lamp to the circuit. Slowly raise the power supply voltage until the voltage across the lamp increases by about 0.1V and record the current in [mA]. Repeat this until you reach +0.5V across the bulb (five data points). Note that the voltage across the bulb is what we want to record, not the power-supply voltage. Also, your voltage increments do not need to be exactly 0.1V, just something close (within 10%) Continuing from where you left off, raise the voltage in larger increments of 0.5V and keep recording the currents in this fashion until you reach +6V (the recommended voltage for this particular bulb). You should now have enough data to make a nice plot in your lab report. Can you tell that the data is not linear? Incandescent bulbs have a tiny resistive tungsten filament inside, but when the filament gets really hot its resistance increases substantially, changing the slope of the I-V curve. □ □ Now replace the lamp with the toy DC motor and repeat the measurement to characterize its I-V curve. The motor is a +3V device, so you will need to choose your voltage increments differently. Note that at low voltages and currents the motor does nothing, © Bob York Current-Voltage Characteristics 15 and there is a particular threshold at which the motor begins to turn. To get an accurate representation of the I-V behavior near this threshold you may need to use finer increments. In your lab report, make a nice plot of the I-V curves for the lamp and the motor, and contrast with Ohm’s law. There is a short tutorial on the course website for making plots in Microsoft Excel, but you can also use MATLAB, Mathematica, or any other program of your choice. NO HAND-DRAWN PLOTS WILL BE ACCEPTED. Extra Credit: Photocell For students who finish early or want an extra challenge, there is a cadmium-sulfide (CdS) photocell included in your parts kit (the data sheet is on the course web site). Characterize the I-V curve for the photocell under bright light and dark conditions. Can you think of a way to pair the lamp and photocell to make an electronically-variable resistor? Congratulations! You have now completed Lab 1 Note: keep all your electrical components! Over the course of the year you will accumulate a number of parts and we will make use of parts from prior labs in order to save you some money on lab kits.