Section 9.6 1. to test DNA to determine a person’s risk of having or passing on a genetic disorder 2. to look for specific genes or proteins that indicate a particular disorder 3. to replace missing or defective genes to treat a disease 4. inserting the correct gene into the correct cells, regulating gene expression, preventing unwanted interactions with other genes 5. inserting a gene to stimulate a person’s immune system to attack cancer cells; inserting “suicide genes” that activate drugs only within cancer cells 6. Genetic screening is the examination of someone’s genes. 7. the replacement of a defective or missing gene to treat a disease Section 10.5 1. most living things do not form into fossils after they die, and fossils have not been looked for in many areas of the world 2. Basilosaurus isis 3. They demonstrate the evolution of traits within groups as well as the common ancestors between groups. 4. The more related two organisms are, the more similar their DNA will be. Because there are thousands of genes in even simple organisms, DNA contains a huge amount of information on evolutionary history. 5. Pseudogenes no longer function but can change as they are carried along with functional DNA through generations. Similarities between pseudogenes must come from a common ancestor. 6. Homeobox genes control the development of specific structures. Similar homeobox gene clusters are evidence of a common ancestor. 7. Similarities of proteins across organisms can be revealed by molecular fingerprinting, and are evidence of a common ancestor. 8. The theory of natural selection combined with genetics 9. Comparisons of milk protein genes confirm the fossil evidence that modern‐day whales descended from land mammals 10. The basic principles of evolution are used in all the fields of biology 11. The study of fossils can provide new information and support current hypotheses about how evolution occurs. Section 11.1 1. genetic variation 2. A wide range of phenotypes increases the likelihood that some individuals will have traits that allow them to survive in new environmental conditions. 3. gene pool 4. the combined alleles of all individuals in a population 5. allele frequency 6. dividing the number of times an allele occurs by the total number of alleles 7. Can produce new alleles. Mutations in reproductive cells can be passed on to offspring. 8. Forms new genetic combinations that are passed on to offspring. 9. New genetic information can be introduced into populations when species mate with other closely‐
related species. 10. it contains all of the genes/alleles of all the individuals in a population 11. how common a certain allele is in a gene pool Section 11.2 1. graph that shows the frequency of each phenotype for a trait in a population 2. how common each phenotype is in the population; whether or not the population is undergoing natural selection for that trait 3. a normal distribution or a bell‐shaped curve Phenotypic Distribution: Graph should resemble a bell‐shaped curve. X‐axis should be labeled “range” or “range of phenotypes”; y‐axis should be labeled “frequency.” Mean phenotype should be labeled in the center of the curve, which is also the peak of the curve. 4. Favors phenotypes at one extreme of a trait’s range; graph should show a normal distribution shifted either to the right or left. 5. Favors intermediate phenotypes/selects against phenotypes at both extremes; graph should show distribution with sharp peak in center at the mean. 6. Favors phenotypes at both extremes of a trait’s range/selects against intermediate phenotypes; graph should show distribution with one peak at each extreme. 7. allele frequencies 8. stabilizing 9. disruptive 10. directional Section 11.4 1. allele frequencies 2. very large population (so genetic drift does not occur); no emigration or immigration (so there is no gene flow); no mutations (so no new alleles are introduced into gene pool); random mating (so there is no sexual selection); no natural selection. 3. biologists can (1) study the degree in which real populations are evolving and (2) better understand the five factors that can lead to evolution 4. p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 5. p2, frequency of dominant homozygous genotype; 2pq, frequency of heterozygous genotype; q2, frequency of recessive homozygous genotype; p, frequency of dominant allele; q, frequency of recessive allele 6. single‐gene traits in simple, dominant‐recessive systems 7. the phenotype and allele frequencies; specifically the phenotype frequency of the recessive homozygotes (q2), from which the frequency of the recessive allele (q) can be calculated 8. the population is not in H‐W equilibrium for the trait, which means one or more of the conditions are not met, which means the population is evolving 9. Genetic drift: in small populations, allele frequencies can change due to chance alone. Gene flow: migration of individuals results in the movement of alleles among populations, which changes allele frequencies. Mutation: new alleles can form due to mutation, which changes allele frequencies. Sexual selection: alleles associated with traits that increase mating success can increase in frequency. Natural selection: alleles associated with traits that increase survival and reproductive success can increase in frequency. 10. allele frequencies Section 13.3 1. Producers, nonliving, autotrophs 2. Consumers, eating, heterotrophs 3. Producers provide the basis for an ecosystem’s energy. 4. Most producers need sunlight to make food, and consumers are dependent on producers to provide the base of the food chain in an ecosystem. Consumers are therefore indirectly dependent on the sun for their energy as well. 5. Photosynthesis: process in which carbohydrates are formed, energy is obtained from sunlight;Chemosynthesis: process in which carbohydrates are formed, energy is obtained from chemicals; Both: process in which carbohydrates are formed 6. An autotroph makes its own food (nourishment), while a heterotroph must get nourishment from other resources 7. in photosynthesis, energy is obtained from sunlight, in chemosynthesis, energy is obtained from chemicals 8. a producer gets its energy from nonliving resources while a consumer gets its energy by eating other living or once‐living organisms Section 13.4 1. producer, consumer, ecosystem 2. herbivore 3. carnivore 4. omnivore 5. detritivore 6. decomposer 7. primary consumer 8. secondary consumer 9. tertiary consumer 10. trophic levels 11. A food web shows the complex network of feeding relationships within an ecosystem, while a food chain is simpler, showing only a single chain of producers and consumers. 12. Some energy is stored within an organism, and some energy is dissipated into the environment. 13. producer 14. a specialist is a consumer that primarily eats one specific, or particular, organism or feeds on a very small number of organisms, while generalist is a consumer that has a general, or varying diet, and doesn’t rely on any one organism on which to feed 15. herbivores eat plants, carnivores eat meat, omnivores eat both plants and meat Section 13.5 1. Description: process in which water or snow falls to Earth 2. Description: process in which water droplets reenter the atmosphere 3. Description: process in which water vapor is released from plant leaves 4. Description: process in which water vapor in the atmosphere condenses to form clouds 5. oxygen, respiration 6. photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, respiration 7. carbon dioxide 8. respiration, decomposition 9. Combustion 10. nitrogen fixation is a process in which certain types of bacteria convert gaseous nitrogen into ammonia 11. (1) Phosphate is released by the weathering of rocks. (2) Plants and some fungi take up phosphate in their roots. (3) Phosphorus moves from producers to consumers via the food web. (4) During decomposition, phosphorus is returned to the soil. (5) Some phosphorus leaches into the water supply, and may become locked into sediments at the bottom of the water body. Over time, the sediments form rocks, and the cycle starts again when phosphate is released by these rocks when they erode. 12. a biogeochemical cycle is the movement of a particular chemical through the biological (living), geological (nonliving/earth), and chemical parts of an ecosystem 13. the movement of water from the atmosphere to the surface of Earth, below ground, and back 13.6 1. biomass 2. heat, waste 3. From bottom of pyramid to top: producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers 4. an energy pyramid is a diagram that compares energy used by producers, primary consumers, and other trophic levels 5. a biomass pyramid is a diagram that compares the biomass of different trophic levels within an ecosystem 6. a pyramid of numbers is a diagram that shows the numbers of individual organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem 7. biomass is a measure of the total dry mass of organisms in a given area 8. answers will vary depending on ecosystem Section 14.4 1. immigration 2. deaths 3. births 4. emigration 5. when resources are abundant, populations can grow at a more rapid pace; when resources are lacking, populations begin to decline 6. Exponential growth: J‐shaped curve, occurs when a population size increases dramatically over a period of time Logistic growth: S‐shaped curve, a population begins with a period of slow growth followed by a brief period of exponential growth before leveling off at a stable size 7. logistic growth 8. exponential growth; the population may outgrow available resources such as food 8. competition, predation, parasitism and disease 9. unusual weather, natural disasters, human activities 10. immigration is the movement of individuals into a population; emigration is the movement of individuals out of a population 11. a density‐dependent limiting factors depends on the population density; a density‐independent limiting factor does not depend on population density 12. exponential growth occurs when a population increases rapidly over a short time; logistic growth occurs when a population grows slowly for awhile, has a short period of exponential growth, then levels off at a stable size Section 15.1 1. the part of Earth where life exists; formed by all of Earth’s ecosystems 2. all of Earth’s water, ice, and water vapor 3. the air blanketing Earth’s surface 4. the features of Earth’s surface, including continents, rocks, and sea floor, and everything below the surface of Earth 5. the biota is the collection of living things that live in the in the biosphere 6. Within the biosphere, a plant grows in the ground (geosphere), during photosynthesis, oxygen is expelled into the atmosphere, precipitation (hydrosphere) is needed for the plant to grow. 7. large outer circles should be labeled “atmosphere,” “hydrosphere,” and “geosphere,” large center circle should be labeled “biosphere,” and small inset circle in center should be labeled “biota” 8. The Gaia hypothesis explains how biotic and abiotic factors interact in the biosphere. In this hypothesis, the Earth is considered to be a sort of living organism, in which the atmosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere function together to yield a biosphere that can sustain life. 9. air 10. life 11. earth 12. water Section 16.1 1. over 6 billion 2. agricultural advancements such as the use of gas‐powered farm equipment; medical advances such as the development of vaccines, antibiotics, and medical surgery procedures 3. renewable 4. nonrenewable 5. renewable 6. renewable 7. renewable 8. renewable 9. renewable 10. nonrenewable 11. tree; cutting down trees at a slower rate or finding an alternate resource, using seeds to plant new trees 12. the amount of land necessary to produce and maintain enough food and water, shelter, energy, and waste to support each person on Earth 13. amount of resource use, efficiency of resource use, amount of waste produced, and toxicity of waste produced 14. renewable resources are resources that cannot be used up or can replenish themselves over time; nonrenewable resources are resources that can be used up and are used at a faster rate than they form Section 16.2 1. any undesirable factor, or pollutant, that is added to the air, water, or soil 2. a type of air pollution caused by the interaction of sunlight with pollutants produced by fossil fuel emissions 3. particulates, or microscopic bits of dust, metal, and unburned fuel and ground‐level ozone; forms when sunlight interacts with pollutants from fossil fuels 4. a type of precipitation produced when pollutants in the water cycle cause rain pH to drop below normal levels 5. acid rain threatens water supplies and habitat; it can cause a decline in growth rates; it also affects trees by causing leaves and bark to break down more quickly, causing trees to be more vulnerable to disease and weather 6. wavelengths of the Sun’s energy 7. it makes Earth suitable for life 8. carbon dioxide 9. a process that occurs when carbon dioxide, water, and methane molecules absorb energy reradiated by Earth’s surface and slow the release of this energy from Earth’s atmosphere 10. global warming refers to the trend of increasing global temperatures’ changes in global temperature are the result of increased levels of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, water, and methane that cause the greenhouse effect 11. A greenhouse is a glass house used to grow plants. The glass allows light to pass through to provide energy for plant growth, but prevents infrared radiation from escaping, keeping the inside of the greenhouse warm. This same effect occurs within Earth’s atmosphere as certain greenhouse gases absorb energy and slow the release of this energy from Earth’s atmosphere 12. particulates are made of small bits of dust, metal, and unburned fuel Section 16.3 1. agricultural run‐off from farms, raw sewage, chemical contaminants from industrial sites 2. an indicator species provides a sign, or indication, of the quality of an ecosystem’s environmental conditions 3. a process in which a pollutant moves up the food chain as predators eat prey, accumulating in higher concentrations in the bodies of predators 4. See Figure 16.11 for sample visual answer; concentration of pollutants increases as you move up the food chain from herbivores to top predators 5. bio‐ means “life,” magnification means “to enlarge the size of something”; biomagnification refers to the increase in concentration of toxins as you move up the food chain; what occurs in small concentrations at the bottom of the food chain magnifies into a much larger concentration at the top of the food chain Section 16.4 1. the wide array and assortment of species that are found in any ecosystem 2. a loss of biodiversity can reduce an ecosystem’s stability and make it more difficult for the ecosystem to handle future change 3. tropical rain forests; warm temperatures and plenty of precipitation all year long provides for a long growing season that can support a large number of different species 4. urban sprawl, development of roadways, forest harvesting 5. any organism that was brought to an ecosystem as a result of human actions 6. Burmese Python: feeds on small animals including endangered species; Kudzu: deprives other plants of sunshine they need to survive; Mice: devour agricultural crops 7. habitat fragmentation refers to the separation of a species’ habitat into much smaller places, where obstructions such as roads or other human development creates a barrier that prevents an organism from accessing its entire home range Section 17.2 1. the evolutionary history for a group of species 2. in a branching‐tree diagram, such as a cladogram 3. to place species on a branching‐tree diagram in the order in which they descended from a common ancestor 4. taxon being classified 5. clade 6. node 7. derived characters 8. a group of organisms that shares a common ancestor 9. Scientists must determine which derived characters are shared by which groups of organisms; the more derived characters a group of organisms has, the later it descended from the common ancestor. 10. A node is a place where a branch splits. It represents the most common ancestor shared by a clade. 11. DNA sequences/genes, amino acid sequences/proteins, hormones, etc. 12. As more research is done and the evolutionary histories of different species become better understood, evolutionary trees are rearranged to reflect the most current scientific understanding. 13. The species are very closely related; they share a relatively recent common ancestor. 14. A phylogeny shows the origins for a group, or “class,” of species. 15. Cladistics is classification based on evolutionary relationships and a cladogram shows these relationships in a branching‐tree diagram. 16. derived Section 17.3 1. models that use mutation rates of related species to estimate or measure evolutionary time 2. The more time that passes, the more mutations will have added up in each lineage, and the more different the species will be at the genetic and molecular levels. 3. Student illustration should resemble Figure 17.8, with their own unique “ancestral” DNA sequence. It should show two lineages diverging from the common ancestor, and how the DNA sequences change over time with a relatively constant mutation rate. 4. They must find a link between their molecular data and real time, using evidence from the geological or fossil record. 5. mutation 6. Mitochondrial DNA is DNA found in mitochondria, the energy factories of cells; It has a relatively high mutation rate (10 times faster than nuclear DNA) and is passed down only from the mother each generation; Useful for very closely related species or even lineages within a single species. Ribosomal RNA is RNA in ribosomes, which manufacture proteins; It has a relatively slow mutation rate, with many conserved regions; Useful for distantly‐related species, such as those in different kingdoms or phyla. 7. mitochondrial DNA 8. molecular clock 9. ribosomal RNA Section 18.1 1. respond to their environment, have genes, can be infectious, are single celled microorganisms, can reproduce on their own, classified in Linnaean system. 2. respond to their environment, have genes, are made only of a strand of DNA or RNA and a protein coat, can reproduce, but cannot reproduce on their own, small, not made of cells, not classified in Linnaean system, are infectious. 3. respond to their environment, have genes, can cause infection 4. Abilities to reproduce, use nutrients and energy, grow and develop, and to respond to the environment. 5. Virus: made of a strand of RNA or DNA and a protein coat, 50‐200 nm. Viroid: made of strand of RNA, no protein coat, 50‐150 nm, can cause disease in plants, cause infection through seeds or pollen. Prion: made of proteins that cause other proteins to misfold, no genetic material, 2‐10 nm, incubate for a long time with no effect on host. 6. prion 7. pathogen 8. viroid 9. pathogen 10. prion 11. viroid 12. virus 13. virus Section 18.2 1. Sketches should reflect spiky enveloped, helical, and polyhedral shapes of the influenza, rabies, and foot‐and‐mouth viruses. 2. genetic material, capsid, lipid envelope 3. infect living host cells 4. by fitting its surface proteins to receptor molecules on the surface of the host cell 5. They have long tails with spiky footlike fibers that help attach the virus to the host cell. The tail sheath can contract and the tail core punches through the cell wall, injecting the DNA like a syringe. 6. by endocytosis, entering the cells through vesicles made by the host cell; or by fusing with the plasma membrane of the host cell. 7. Lytic cycle, infectious pathway, detrimental to host, viral DNA is replicated, directs host to make viral parts, releases new viral particles, breaks apart (lyses) the host cell 8. Lysogenic cycle, infectious pathway, detrimental to host, viral DNA is replicated, forms a prophage or provirus, can remain as a permanent gene, does not destroy the host cell 9. infectious pathways, detrimental to host, viral DNA is replicated 10. bacteriophage 11. prophage 12. capsid 13. lysogenic infection 14. lytic infection Section 18.3 1. the skin 2. through cuts and scrapes, and through mucous membranes and body openings 3. they use surface proteins that match the cell’s receptors 4. cold viruses mutate easily, even from one person to another 5. the surface proteins on the capsids of the influenza virus have a high mutation rate 6. AIDS destroys the white blood cells of a person’s immune system. 7. Vaccines are made from the same pathogen that they protect against. They are weakened versions or parts of the virus, that will cause the body to have an immune response. A vaccine prepares the host’s immune system for a future attack. 8. retrovirus 9. epidemic 10. vaccine 11. rabies 12. West Nile 13. chickenpox 14. mumps 15. hepatitis A Section 18.4 1. bacteria and archaea 2. marshes, the bottom of lakes, digestive tracts of herbivores. Y diagram: Bacteria‐microscopic, single‐celled, prokaryotes, have cell walls and membranes, move with flagella, diverse and widespread, 3 common shapes, flagella structurally different from archaea, cell walls and membranes chemically different from archaea. Archaea‐microscopic, single‐celled, prokaryotes have cell walls and membranes, move with flagella, often live in extreme environments, many shapes, flagella structurally different from bacteria, cell walls and membranes chemically different from bacteria. Both‐ microscopic, single‐celled, prokaryotes, have cell walls and membranes, move with flagella 3. A method of reproduction in prokaryotes, meaning “division by half.” 4. During conjugation, prokaryotes can exchange parts of their chromosomes through a hollow bridge of pili formed to connect two or more cells. 5. By forming an endospore. 6. A bacterium copies its chromosome and produces a wall around the copy. This thick wall around the bacterial DNA helps it survive harsh conditions. 7. facultative aerobe 8. flagellum 9. aerobe 10. endospore 11. conjugation 12. anaerobe 13. plasmid Section 18.6 1. by invading tissues and attacking cells, or by making toxins that are carried throughout the body by blood 2. because their immune system acts to defeat the infection without the infection ever causing symptoms 3. From foods contaminated by bacteria after they have been cooked and not refrigerated, or by eating foods that were contaminated with endospores and improperly canned. 4. Antibiotics work by affecting parts of bacterial cells that animal cells don’t have. Since viruses also do not have bacterial parts, they remain unaffected by antibiotics. 5. bacteria and fungi 6. Answers include: wash hands frequently, don’t eat foods that may have spoiled, don’t touch your nose or mouth 7. Overuse: Answer should include natural selection in bacteria occurring through overexposure to antibiotics. 8. Under use: Answer should include not killing the entire population of bacteria by not finishing the prescribed dose of antibiotic. 9. Misuse: Answer should include using antibiotics for reasons other than treating illness. 10. toxin 11. antibiotic 12. tetanus 13. anthrax 14. acne 15. Lyme disease 16. tooth decay Section 19.1 1. eukaryotes 2. protists may be single‐celled, colonial, or multicellular 3. No, the size of protists range from microscopic to very large. 4. All protists can reproduce asexually. Some protists can reproduce both asexually and sexually. 5. heterotroph 6. single‐celled 7. plantlike protist 8. autotroph 9. funguslike protist 10. Protista 11. Eukarya 12. Because they are both eukaryotes, protists are more closely related to animals than bacteria, which are prokaryotes. 13. slime molds 14. algae 15. The term protist includes all eukaryotic single‐celled, colonial, and multicellular organisms that are not animals, plants, or fungi. It does not include the single‐celled bacteria or archaea, which are prokaryotes. Sketch It Out: One circle should be placed around all of the prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea. The other circle should be placed around all of the eukaryotes: Animalia, Plantae, and Protista Section 19.3 1. single‐celled 2. 2 flagella 3. single‐celled 4. salt water, fresh water 5. glasslike shell 6. water, land 7. multicellular 8. marine 9. chlorophyll c 10. multicellular 11. salt water, fresh water 12. multicellular 13. asexual reproduction 14. asexual reproduction 15. asexual reproduction 16. sexual reproduction 17. sexual reproduction 18. sexual reproduction 19. Algae are protists because they do not have roots, stems, and leaves, and they have reproductive structures that are not found in the plant kingdom. Sketch It Out: Sketch should depict and correctly label asexual and sexual reproduction of a single‐
celled green algae as shown in Figure 19.15 Section 19.5 1. single‐celled yeasts, molds, and true fungi. 2. They both have structures made of chitin. 3. absorb it directly from their environment 4. photosynthesize 5. roots, stems, and leaves 6. chitin 7. cellulose 8. sketch should be labeled and depict a sac fungus 9. sketch should be labeled and depict a bread mold 10. sketch should be labeled and depict a club fungus 11. fission, budding, sexual reproduction 12. They make an ascus, a saclike structure, during sexual reproduction. 13. within the gills, underneath the cap of a mushroom 14. sporangia 15. fruiting body 16. chitin 17. mycorrhizae 18. hyphae 19. mycelium Section 20.2 1. free‐standing water through which sperm can travel to eggs 2. They must grow close to the ground and absorb water and nutrients directly. 3. liverworts‐Hepatophyta; live in damp environments, come in two basic forms‐thallose or leafy; hornworts‐Anthocerophyta; found in tropical forests and along streams, main plant body is flat and lobed; mosses‐Bryophyta; most common type of nonvascular plant, have no true leaves or roots, anchor themselves to surfaces with rhizoids 4. They are able to grow higher up off of the ground. 5. club mosses‐Lycophyta; not true mosses, oldest living group of vascular plants; ferns‐Pterophyta; grow from underground stems called rhizomes, have large leaves called fronds 6. They can reproduce without free‐standing water; seeds nourish and protect plant embryos; and seeds allow plants to disperse to new areas. 7. gymnosperms: seeds are not enclosed in fruit; angiosperms: seeds are enclosed in fruit 8. cycads‐Cycadophyta; gymnosperms that grow in tropical areas, look like palm trees with large cones; gingko‐Ginkgophyta; gymnosperm, only one species (Ginkgo biloba), which is common in gardens and urban landscaping; conifers‐Coniferophyta; most diverse gymnosperms, have needlelike leaves and cones; flowering plants‐Anthophyta; includes all angiosperms, have flowers as reproductive structures, seeds are enclosed in fruit 9. fruit 10. pollination 11. cone 12. flower Section 20.3 1. flowers 2. pollination by animals 3. fruit 4. seed dispersal 5. 1; parallel veins in leaves, flower parts in multiples of three, vascular tissue scattered in stem 6. 2; netlike veins in leaves, flower parts in multiples of four or five, vascular tissue arranged in rings in stem 7. Other characteristics affect the outward appearance of flowering plants as well as when they should be planted and harvested. 8. woody stems: stiff, often thick stems containing the dead cell walls of vascular tissues that contain lignin and cellulose; herbaceous stems: do not contain wood 9. Annual: mature from seed, flower, and die in one year; corn, lettuce, zinneas; Biennial: complete life cycle in two years, producing leaves, flowers and seeds in second year; carrots. Perennial: live more than two years; most woody plants (including trees), grasses, dandelions 10. an embryonic leaf inside a seed 11. Monocots have one cotyledon. 12. Dicots have two cotyledons. 13. dead cells of vascular tissue, which contain lots of lignin and cellulose in their cell walls Section 22.1 1. life cycle that alternates between diploid and haploid phases 2. sporophyte: diploid, produces spores; gametophyte: haploid, produces gametes 3. during the gametophyte phase when gametes are produced 4. Diagram should resemble Figure 22.1, and include each of the terms provided in the word box as labels. May also want to divide the diagram into 2 hemispheres, showing diploid and haploid phases. 5. moss; sporophytes are stalks that grow up from gametophyte, spores produced in tiny cups at tip of stalks; gametophyte dominant 6. fern; sporophyte dominant, spores produced on the underside of leaves; gametophyte is the size of a fingernail 7. conifer; sporophyte is dominant, produces male and female spores; has microscopic male and female gametophytes, pollen grains are male gametophytes 8. sporophyte (diploid) and gametophyte (haploid) 9. Sporophytes produce spores. 10. Gametophytes produce gametes. Section 22.2 1. Diagram should resemble Figure 22.5, with all floral structures clearly labeled. Functions: sepal‐
protects developing flower; petal‐can attract pollinators; stamen‐male reproductive structure; carpel‐
female reproductive structure. 2. A pollen grain must reach the stigma of the same plant species. 3. Animal pollinators transfer pollen in a reliable way, while they are searching for food from flower to flower; wind is much more random as it may or may not blow pollen in the right direction. 4. Cells in anthers divide by meiosis into four male spores, which each divide again by mitosis to form pollen grains (male gametophytes); results in many two‐celled pollen grains 5. One cell in each ovule divides by meiosis to form female spores, one of these divides by mitosis three times to produce female gametophyte; results in seven‐celled female gametophyte ‐ one large central cell with two nuclei called polar nuclei, one cell develops into egg. 6. Two sperm from pollen grain travel down the pollen tube, one sperm fertilizes egg and the other unites with polar nuclei; results in fertilized egg and endosperm. 7. Ovule develops into seed and surrounding ovary develops into fruit; results in seed that may be dispersed with aid of fruit. 8. An ovary can contain many ovules; one egg can be produced in each ovule. 9. egg and polar nuclei Section 22.5 Study Guide 1. chemical messenger produced in one part of an organism that stimulates or suppresses the activity of cells in another part 2. normal changes in the environment; internal changes/part of life cycle 3. produce dramatic increases in size, such as rapid growth of young seedlings and rapid growth of some fruits and flower stalks 4. fruit ripening 5. stimulate cytokinesis/cell division, involved in growth of side branches 6. lengthening cells, involved in growth of primary stem 7. thigmotropism 8. rapid response 9. gravitropism 10. photoperiodism 11. phototropism 12. Phototropism is growth turning toward light, thigmotropism is growth turning in response to touch, gravitropism is growth turning in response to gravity. 13. Phototropism: Illustration should show a stem “bending” toward one side. Cells should be drawn within stem. Cells on side of stem opposite the direction stem is bending should be long and have high auxin concentration. Cells on side of stem that stem is bending toward should be shorter with lower auxin concentration. Section 23.1 1. animals range greatly in size, shape, live in a variety of different ecosystems, and have different ways to move, and different diets 2. Supporting information includes: “All animals are multicellular heterotrophs,” “Animal cells are supported by collagen,” “Animals are diploid and most reproduce sexually,” “Most animals have Hox genes.” 3. unlike the cells of plants, animal cells lack rigid cell walls; animal cells use an extracellular network of collagen for support 4. Hox genes define the head‐to‐tail pattern of development in animal embryos. 5. collagen is a three‐stranded protein unique to animals 6. homeotic genes are a class of genes that control early development in animals; every homeotic gene has a specific sequence of 180 nucleotides called homeobox genes; the homeobox genes define the head‐to‐tail pattern of development in animal embryos 7. Poster designs will vary. Section 24.1 1. exoskeleton made of chitin; series of paired, jointed appendages; segmented body parts 2. long organic molecule made of sugars that is arranged in layers 3. appendages allow for movement, sensing, and manipulating or chewing food 4. trilobites: marine arthropods that are now extinct; most were bottom feeders; trilobite; crustaceans: found in all of the oceans, freshwater streams, and on land; lobsters, pill bugs, barnacles; chelicerates: specialized daggerlike mouthparts used to tear food; horseshoe crabs, spiders, mites, ticks; insects: account for 80 percent of all known animal species, most are terrestrial and have six legs; ants, moths, bees, flies; myriapods: long bodies with many pairs of legs, live in moist environments; centipedes, millipedes 5. movement, growth, and maintaining internal and external equilibrium 6. an arthropod’s cuticle cannot grow along with the animal, so it must shed its exoskeleton to grow 7. (1) the animal secretes a new layer of cuticle underneath its exoskeleton (2) the animal secretes enzymes that begin to digest and weaken the old cuticle, allowing the exoskeleton to split open and the animal to crawl out of it (3) the new exoskeleton is filled with fluid while it is still soft, making the animal larger than it was before the molt 8. an arthropod has an open circulatory system, and a vertebrate has a closed circulatory system 9. antennae and body hairs 10. an arthropod has a compound eye, which has thousands of tiny individual lenses that interpret only a small portion of the field of view; a mammalian eye only has a single lens 11. velvet worms and water bears 12. an appendage hangs from an organism’s body 13. segment Section 24.3 1. an arthropod that lacks mandibles or antennae and has six pairs of appendages 2. eight legs, fanglike pincers that inject venom, ability to produce silk 3. spiracles 4. book lungs 5. tracheae 6. Malpighian tubules 7. Refer to Figure 24.13 for visual answer; labels should include: cephalothorax, abdomen, spinnerets, book lung, eyes, brain, poison gland, and heart 8. glands in the spider’s abdomen 9. building webs, wrapping prey and egg cases, building shelters, producing drag lines 10. a spider’s venom paralyzes its victim by attacking its central nervous system, and digestive enzymes in the venom begin to dissolve the prey item from the inside 11. spiders eat a huge mass of insects; mites are pest species that negatively impact cropland, ticks can transmit serious human diseases 12. spiracles are tiny holes in an arachnid’s abdomen that open and close to let oxygen enter, allowing the arachnid to breathe 13. cartoons will vary, share the best with the class Section 25.1 1. vertebrates, tunicates, and lancelets 2. tail 3. hollow nerve cord 4. pharyngeal slits 5. notochord 6. an endoskeleton is an internal skeleton built of bone or cartilage 7. an endoskeleton can grow as the animal grows, unlike an exoskeleton, which must be shed in order for the animal to grow 8. Description: jawless fish Example: lamprey 9. Description: cartilaginous fish, skeletons made of cartilage Example: shark 10. Description: bony fish, skeletons made of bone Example: parrotfish 11. Description: able to live on land and water Example: frog, salamander, caecilian 12. Description: can retain moisture, can live on land exclusively Example: lizard, crocodile, turtle, and alligator 13. Description: have feathers Example: raven 14. Description: have hair, mammary glands, and three middle ear bones Example: tiger 15. Burgess Shale in the Canadian Rocky Mountains 16. fish 17. lamprey and hagfish 18. an endoskeleton is on the inside of an animal’s body; an exoskeleton is on the outside of an animal’s body Section 25.2 1. gills, tissue, capillaries 2. circulatory 3. Countercurrent flow, opposite, blood 4. because oxygen dissolved in the water is at a greater concentration than in the fish’s blood, countercurrent flow maximizes the amount of oxygen the fish can pull from the water by diffusion; blood is always passing by water that contains more oxygen than found in the blood 5. labelled fins should include dorsal (top of body), pelvic (bottom of body), pectoral (on side of body), anal (bottom of body, near tail), and caudal (tail fin) 6. gill arches are structures made of bone or cartilage that function as a support for a fish’s gills; jaws developed from gill arches located near to the mouth 7. animals with jaws are able to be more effective predators than animals without jaws 8. cartilage 9. Holocephali, Elasmobranchs, chimeras, sharks, rays, skates 10. internal 11. lateral line 12. sensory, muscular, electroreceptive 13. an operculum is a bony cover over a fish’s gills Section 25.4 1. vertebrate, four 2. Amphibians, land, water 3. top row of circles, L‐R large shoulder and hip bones; mobile, muscular tongue; middle ear; bottom row of circles, L‐R more weight; food; outside of water 4. some breathe through their skin, others breathe with the use of gills or lungs 5. an amphibian’s skin is thin and wet; because water is constantly evaporating from its skin, an amphibian risks drying out if it moves too far away from a source of water 6. laying eggs directly in water or on moist ground, wrapping eggs in leaves, brooding eggs in pockets on the female’s back 7. gills are reabsorbed and lungs develop; circulatory system is reorganized to send blood to the lungs; tail fin is reabsorbed; limbs grow and skeleton, muscles, and nervous system are reorganized; digestive system is rebuilt to handle carnivorous diet 8. Salamander: have long body; four walking limbs, and a tail; walk side to side; carnivorous. Frog: largest group of amphibians; adults have tailless bodies, long muscular hind limbs, webbed feet, exposed eardrums, and bulging eyes; bodies adapted for jumping; live in nearly every environment. Caecilian: legless burrowing amphibians; live in tropics; banded bodies; predators. 9. four feet or four‐footed 10. it can be driven both on the road and in the water Section 26.1 1. gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide are able to pass through the semipermeable shell, but water is held inside, which prevents the embryo from drying out 2. allantois: holds waste materials as the embryo grows; amnion: protects and surrounds the embryo; chorion: allows gas exchange with outside environment; yolk sac: contains the nutrient supply for the growing embryo 3. the amniotic egg allowed amniotes to reproduce on land 4. body sways side to side when walking, animal cannot run and breathe at the same time because the same muscles are used for both activities, more energy is used to walk in a sprawling stance 5. legs swing forward and back like a pendulum, animals can breathe and run at the same time as different muscle groups are used for each activity, less energy is used when walking in an upright stance 6. the pulmonary circuit moves oxygen‐poor blood from the heart to the lungs, and oxygen‐rich blood back to the heart; the systemic circuit moves oxygen‐rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body 7. reptile: three‐chambered heart; two atria and one ventricle; oxygen‐rich and oxygen‐poor blood pumped into single ventricle; animal can adjust blood flow in response to oxygen needs mammal: four‐
chambered hear; two atria and two ventricles; oxygen‐rich and oxygen‐poor blood kept separate; large and constant supply of oxygen available; increased control over body temperature both: centralized heart; pulmonary circuit; systemic circuit 8. an ectotherm’s body temperature is determined by the surrounding environment and its body temperature changes with the environment, an ectotherm regulates its body temperature by changing its behavior; an endotherm uses its own metabolic heat to keep its tissues warm and it regulates metabolic activity in ways that keep its body temperature relatively constant all the time 9. ectotherm 10. endotherm 11. endotherm 12. system; the systemic circuit moves oxygen‐rich blood from the heart throughout the rest of the body systems, the pulmonary circuit takes oxygen‐poor blood from the heart to the lungs 13. an endotherm controls its temperature by regulating its metabolic energy inside its body, while an ectotherm uses the outer environment to regulate its body temperature Section 26.3 1. hollow bones; fused collarbones that form a V‐shaped wishbone, or furcula; rearranged muscles in the hips and legs that improve bipedal movement; “hands” that have lost their fourth and fifth fingers; feathers 2. Archaeopteryx, 150 million years ago 3. the “trees‐down” hypothesis suggests that birds evolved from animals that used their feathers to glide down to the forest floor; the “ground‐up” hypothesis suggests that birds evolved from running animals that used their feathered arms for balance 4. the picture should show an object that is curved downward on top and curved upward on the bottom; the curved shape makes air move faster over the top of the airfoil than underneath it, the difference in airspeed produces pressure that lifts the wing up 5. wing shape: curved airfoil shape produces air pressure differences above and below the wing that lifts the wings up muscles: enormous chest muscles are attached to the sternum, muscle contractions power flight air sacs: store air as bird breathes, provides constant source of oxygen to maintain active metabolism hollow bones: filled with air, hollow bones reduce a bird’s mass, helping with flight reproductive organs: reproductive organs only active during the mating season, shrink otherwise, reducing bird’s mass 6. differences in wing shape, differences in beak shape, and differences in foot shape 7. an air sac is a structure that stores air as a bird breathes 8. relative to body size, a bird’s sternum is much larger in size than a human’s, because a bird’s sternum is used to anchor the chest muscles necessary for flight; another name for the sternum is the breastbone Section 27.1 1. stimulus, behavior 2. Internal, body 3. External, surroundings Diagram: sensory cells detect change; information sent to nervous system; other systems activated in response to stimulus; behavior (other option is no response to change) 4. many animal behaviors are responses to stimuli that affect an animal’s well‐being; for example, if an animal gets too hot, it might move to a shaded location 5. kinesis is an increase in random movement, while taxis is a movement in a particular direction 6. internal, external 7. hormones 8. physiological 9. a daily cycle of activity that occurs over a 24‐hour period of time 10. hibernation: a behavior in which an animal avoids extreme temperatures by entering into a dormant state; migration: a behavior in which an animal moves from one location to another (often long distance) to avoid harsh climate conditions 11. a circadian rhythm is a daily pattern of activity that occurs over 24 hours; this circular pattern of activity can be likened to the circular face of a clock Section 27.2 1. instinctive behaviors are innate and relatively inflexible 2. newborns have little time to learn and must be able to perform certain behaviors soon after birth or they might die 3. innate behaviors are a mixture of genetics and environmental factors 4. imprinting 5. imitation 6. habituation 7. type of learning in which an animal learns to associate an action with its consequences 8. Left side: operant conditioning, behavior, positive or negative reinforcement; Right side: classical conditioning, previously neutral stimulus, behavior, different stimulus 9. a signal that causes an animal to run through a behavior 10. Sample answers: when an animal gets use to the habit of seeing something it may ignore it, an example of habituation; when an animal learns to imitate, or ape, the behavior of another animal, it is learning by imitation; an imprint means to fix firmly in one’s mind, an animal exhibits imprinting behavior when it imprints on another animal, most often a parent or other member of the same species Section 27.3 1. increased survivorship and reproduction rates 2. Energy costs‐Description: every animal behavior uses up ATP; this energy is therefore not available for other behaviors Opportunity costs‐every animal behavior takes time, this time cannot be used on a different behavior Risk costs‐many behaviors expose an individual to possible injury or death 3. the control of a specific area, or territory, by one or more individuals of a species 4. Cost: energy and time that could have been used for behaviors other than defense; Benef it: ability to control the resources within an animal’s territory 5. Cost: energy used to search for, catch, and eat food, the risk of capture by a predator while foraging, and time spent eating; Benefit: amount of energy gained (calories) 6. natural selection should favor behaviors that get animals the most, or optimal amount, of calories for the cost 7. Survivorship is the number of individuals that survive from one year to the next; territoriality refers to behavior in which an individual or group defends its territory. 8. drawings will vary Section 27.4 1. Benefits: improved foraging, reproductive assistance, reduced chance of predation; Costs: increased visibility, increased competition, increased chance of contracting diseases 2. visual: gestures or postures; sound: calls or other vocalizations or other noises; touch: any behavior that involves touching another individual; chemical: release of chemicals such as pheromones 3. behaviors most often used by male members of a species to attract females, such as dances by jumping spiders or bower‐building by bowerbirds 4. females use courtship displays to judge the condition of their potential mate or the quality of his genes 5. aggressive behaviors used to protect the individual and/or the group, such as mobbing or keeping watch 6. reciprocity 7. inclusive fitness 8. cooperation 9. kin selection 10. altruism 11. eusocial species live in large groups made up of many individuals, most of whom are members of non‐reproductive castes; all of the young are offspring of one female called the queen of the colony 12. haplodiploid means that an individual’s sex is determined by its number of chromosome sets; males are haploid and females are diploid 13. a chemical released by an animal that affects the behavior of other individuals of the same species 14. answers will vary, examples may include going into a burning building to save someone, volunteering Section 28.2 1. The sensors may continue to send a signal, but homeostasis could not be maintained. 2. sensors‐gather information on internal/external conditions. control center‐receives information from sensors, compares to set points; sends messages. communication system‐nerves and hormones carry signals to targets. targets‐organs, tissues respond to messages to restore homeostasis 3. The sensors may continue to send a signal, but homeostasis could not be maintained.. 4. Diagram “A”‐negative feedback; diagram shows change away from a set value is counteracted. Diagram “B”‐positive feedback; diagram shows change away from a set point is increased, then returns to normal 5. Negative‐it is counteracting a change away from a set point for internal body temperature by releasing fluid from the sweat glands to cool the body. 6. As activity increases, sensors send messages to the brain. The brain detects low oxygen levels and sends messages to the heart and lungs to work harder and bring more oxygen into the body. 7. negative feedback loops counteract any change away from set points; positive feedback loops increase change away from set points until a certain result is achieved 8. Sample answers: pilot or navigator on plane keeping it on course; thermostat on furnace or air conditioner; guidance system on a space craft; building sprinklers turning on when a fire starts Section 28.3 1. Sample answers: members of a sports team, or an orchestra, or a touring rock band, or a construction crew, or a movie production working together; each individual has a job to do, but all must work together for the enterprise to succeed 2. Skin‐absorbs UV light to make an inactive form of vitamin D; Liver‐changes inactive form of vitamin D into another compound; Kidneys‐converts compound into active vitamin D 3. Hypothalamus acts as a control center that receives data about body temperature and sends messages to target organs in the skin, respiratory, and circulatory systems. 4. Any of the following: external or internal conditions change too rapidly, serious injuries overwhelm homeostatic mechanisms, sensors fail to detect internal or external changes, wrong messages are sent or targets fail to respond, viruses or bacteria change the body’s internal chemistry 5. Long‐term disruptions over time affect more and more organs and organ systems, resulting in greater damage to the body. 6. short term 7. little lasting damage 8. common cold 9. long term 10. diabetes 11. Sample answer: a thermostat or closed circuit or a balance tray that is returned to a center point. Section 29.1 1. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. 2. Communication systems allow the body to detect and respond to stimuli. Comic Strip: Students’ drawings should show the body sensing a stimuli and producing a response. Y diagram: Nervous system‐students’ answers might include any of the following: quick rate of reaction; connected tissues; central nervous system; peripheral nervous system; brain; spinal cord; nerves; electrical signal; chemical signal. Endocrine system‐students’ answers might include any of the following: slow reaction rate; isolated organs; chemical signals; longer‐term processes. Both‐students’ answers might include any of the following: communication system; stimulates other tissues; produces responses to stimuli. 3. stimulus 4. endocrine system 5. peripheral nervous system 6. nervous system Section 29.3 1. to gather information about the world around you 2. Students’ answers will vary. 3. photoreceptors, light, answers will vary 4. mechanoreceptors, sound waves, answers will vary 5. chemoreceptors, airborne chemicals, answers will vary 6. chemoreceptors, chemicals dissolved in saliva, answers will vary 7. thermoreceptors and pain receptors, temperature heat cold and pressure, answers will vary 8. the retina 9. The eardrum and the three bones in the ear amplify the sound waves. These amplified waves move fluid in the cochlea. When the fluid moves, the hair cells bend, generating impulses. 10. They must be dissolved in fluid. 11. pain receptors 12. What Does It Do: Detect light intensity; Detect color; Detect vibrations. Where Is It Found: Retina; Retina; Inner Ear Section 29.4 1. brain and spinal cord 2. motor neurons and sensory neurons Cause and Effect Diagram stimuli; the spinal cord; the spinal cord; brain; brain; produces a response 3. to process information relating to the senses 4. cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem 5. Somatic: voluntary; muscles. Autonomic: involuntary; digestive organs, glands, heart, blood vessels. Sympathetic: involuntary; heart, brain, lungs, muscles. Parasympathetic: involuntary; heart, lungs, arteries. 6. A reflex arc is a pathway that moves in the shape of an arch from the sensory neuron, through the spinal cord, and out a motor neuron. 7. Functions controlled by the autonomic nervous system are those that are automatic, involuntary, and occur without thinking about it. 8. The cerebral cortex is the outer most layer of the cerebrum. 9. The sympathetic nervous system is favorable for maintaining homeostasis. Section 29.6 1. by traveling through the bloodstream 2. the receptors on and in the cell 3. Steroid hormones enter the cell, but nonsteroidal hormones do not. 4. brain; growth, stimulates reproductive maturity 5. pituitary; growth, water balance in the blood 6. thyroid; neck 7. thymus; maturation of white blood cells 8. adrenal glands; above the kidneys/abdomen 9. pancreas; between the intestines and stomach/abdomen 10. reproductive development and functions 11. TRH and TSH 12. increase in body temperature 13. When the body warms, TRH and TSH will stop being released. Without these releasing hormones, the thyroid will not be stimulated. 14. Hormones are sent to the bloodstream throughout the body. If a gland produces too much or too little hormone, it will over stimulate the target cell, causing illness. 15. Students’ answers will vary. 16. Students’ answers will vary. 17. Students’ answers will vary. Section 30.1 1. transports blood and other materials; carries away wastes from cells; separates oxygen‐rich blood from oxygen‐poor blood 2. brings in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide and water vapor; exchanges gases in blood with gases in the atmosphere 3. it moves down the trachea, into the bronchi and the lungs, then into the bronchioles, and finally to the alveoli 4. to absorb enough oxygen to supply the body and to expel excess carbon dioxide and water vapor 5. rib cage muscles relax and the rib cage becomes smaller, the diaphragm relaxes and rises, and air flows out 6. Heart: muscular pump that keeps blood moving to all parts of the body. Arteries: blood vessels that move blood away from the heart. Veins: blood vessels that move blood to the heart from the rest of the body. Capillaries: tiny blood vessels that transport blood to and from the cells 7. Hot weather ‐ The heart pumps harder and blood vessels dilate to bring excess heat to the skin. Cold weather ‐ blood vessels constrict to conserve heat 8. The diaphragm is a dome‐like muscle located in the midriff of the body. 9. Samples answers: river and streams network, major and smaller highway network, communications networks Section 30.2 1. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried by the blood; gases move by diffusion; the alveoli lining must be moist to help gases diffuse. 2. They provide a huge surface area to bring in enough oxygen to meet the body’s needs. Diagram A capillary and alveolus walls‐ Oxygen diffuses from alveolus into the capillary; Capillary‐oxygen binds to hemoglobin in the blood and is carried to the cells. Diagram B alveolus‐ carbon dioxide and water vapor separate and are exhaled; capillary walls and alveolus ‐ carbon dioxide and water vapor diffuse into alveolus. 3. each molecule of hemoglobin binds with four oxygen molecules 4. Sensors send information to the brainstem, which sends messages to the muscles of the rib cage and to the diaphragm to work harder 5. Smoking: Chemicals in smoking cause mutations that may lead to lung cancer and damage the alveoli so that gas exchange is impaired. Emphysema: The alveoli are so damaged or destroyed that the lungs can no longer bring enough oxygen into the body; eventually the lungs fail. Asthma: Muscle spasms cause bronchioles to constrict, reducing air flow and gas exchange. Cystic Fibrosis: Lungs produce thick, sticky mucus that can block airways and lead to lung infections. 6. In an asthma attack, airways are restricted and people literally pant for air. 7. It is an iron‐based protein that binds with oxygen molecules; iron gives blood its reddish color. Section 30.3 1. right atrium; tricuspid valve (filled in) 2. right ventricle, pulmonary valve 3. left atrium, mitral valve 4. left ventricle, aortic valve 5. cardiac muscles work continuously; valves prevent back flow; muscles exert a strong force on the heart’s relatively small size; the speed and force of pumping can change as needed 6. The signal spreads through conducting fibers to the AV node, which stimulates the ventricles to contract. Process Diagram: oxygen‐poor blood flows into the right atrium, then is pumped into the right ventricle Æ from the right ventricle, blood is pumped to the lungs to pick up oxygen, Ærelease CO2 and water vapor Æoxygen‐rich blood returns first to the left atrium, then is pumped into the right ventricle Æ oxygen‐rich blood is pumped out of the left ventricle to the rest of the body 7. pulmonary: to carry oxygen‐poor blood to the lungs, pick up oxygen and release CO2 and water vapor, then bring oxygen‐rich blood back to the heart. Systemic: to carry oxygen‐rich blood to the rest of the body and bring oxygen‐poor blood back to the heart. 8. blood first enters the heart through the atrium; in the heartbeat, the atrium is the first to contract 9. Students might make a table showing word origins and the definitions of the two types of circulation or draw a diagram of the two circulations and use the word origins in the labels Section 30.4 Y Diagram: Arteries‐carry oxygen‐rich blood away from heart; made of 3 layers with thick muscle, elastic f ibers; smaller arteries called arterioles connect to capillaries; Veins‐carry oxygen‐poor blood back to heart; made of 3 layers, larger diameter, thinner walls; valves and skeletal muscles keep blood moving; smaller veins called venules connect to capillaries; Both‐carry blood throughout the entire body; made of same three layers of tissues; have smaller vessels that connect to capillaries 1. capillaries are much smaller than veins and arteries and have only one layer; walls are one cell thick; materials diffuse easily into and out of them; form dense networks 2. the force with which blood pushes against an artery 3. systolic: the pressure on the artery wall when the left ventricle contracts; diastolic: the pressure in the artery when the left ventricle relaxes 4. untreated, it can lead to heart attack and stroke 5. thickened artery walls (or arteriosclerosis), blocked arteries (or atherosclerosis), hypertension 6. lifestyle choices; medication 7. balloon angioplasty 8. bypass surgery 9. heart attack 10. stroke 11. Systolic pressure = the ventricle contracts; diastolic pressure = the ventricle relaxes or expands Section 31.1 1. microscopic particles caused disease 2. germ theory 3. Joseph Lister 4. antiseptic technique 5. Robert Koch 6. he could make a healthy animal sick by injecting it with the pathogens from a sick animal 7. Koch’s postulates 8. pathogen must be present in every case of the disease 9. pathogen must be isolated and grown out of the body 10. healthy animal infected with pathogen must develop the disease 11. pathogen must be re‐isolated and must be identical pathogen to the first one 12. releasing toxic chemicals 13. reproducing in body cells, causing them to stop their activities 14. taking nutrients from body cells 15. taking nutrients from body cells 16. taking nutrients from the host 17. direct contact 18. Students’ answers may include: shaking hands, kissing, sexual intercourse, breast feeding 19. indirect contact 20. Students’ answers may include: touching an infected surface inhaling a pathogen in the air, a vector 21. pathogen 22. transmits a disease from one host to another Section 31.2 1. The body system that protects the body from infection 2. skin‐physically blocks pathogens from entering; mucus membrane‐traps pathogens so they cannot enter through the nose or mouth; circulatory system‐transports white blood cells to the infection site 3. Basophil cells release chemicals that attract phagocytes to the infection site. 4. They fight infection by causing pathogens to clump, by making them ineffective, or by activating complement proteins. 5. passive immunity 6. DNA 7. genetic immunity 8. mother’s milk 9. inherited immunity 10. active immunity 11. a pathogen enters the body 12. getting sick by the same pathogen 13. Students’ answers will vary. 14. A phagocyte is a cell that eats other cells. 15. Interferons interfere with viral reproduction. Section 31.3 1. Specific responses are unique for every pathogen. Nonspecific responses are the same for every pathogen. 2. redness, swelling, itching, burning; causes leaky blood vessels which allow white blood cells to squeeze out of the circulatory system and toward the infection site 3. increased body temperature; causes white blood cells to mature faster 4. The immune system detects antigens. 5. Memory cells are the cells that respond quickly when a pathogen invades a second time. Y Diagram: Humoral Immunity‐students’ answers may include: T cells destroy infected cell; memory T cells produced; phagocyte activates T cell. Cellular Immunity‐
students’ answers may include: antibodies; T cells activate B cells; memory B cells produced. Both‐
Students’ answers may include: memory cells produced; T cells important; phagocytes important; produces active immunity. 6. few 7. weaken 8. antigen on pathogens that have invaded previously 9. Rejection means refusal to accept. When the body rejects a tissue, it will not accept it. 10. Antigens are proteins on a pathogen, and pathogens destroy living cells. Section 31.4 1. outside of the body 2. soap 3. vinegar 4. rubbing alcohol 5. inside of the body 6. weakening cell membranes 7. antibiotic resistance 8. mutation of pathogens so that they are no longer affected by antibiotics 9. A substance that can produce active immunity 10. produce memory cells 11. Memory cells do not need to be activated to fight pathogens. They work right away. 12. dead, whole pathogens; weak pathogens; pieces of dead pathogens; bacterial toxins 13. Antiseptics are chemicals that destroy disease‐causing particles that are outside of the body. 14. An antibiotic resistant bacterium is one that opposes antibiotics and can survive in their presence. Section 31.5 1. antigens 2. They produce histamines and chemicals which cause inflammation. 3. Food: anaphylaxis = airways tighten and blood vessels become porous; milk, eggs, nuts, soy, wheat, fish, shellfish. Airborne: asthma; pollen from ragweed, dandelions, and grass; spores from mold; dander; animal saliva; feces of dust mites. Chemical: rashes, anaphylaxis; metals like nickel; venom from insects; drugs such as penicillin 4. The immune system destroys cells in the pancreas. The pancreas stops producing insulin, a chemical that breaks down sugars. 5. by lessening effects or slowing the progression of the disease 6. a disease in which the immune system attacks its own body cells 7. an immune response that is triggered by something that is not a pathogen 8. swollen airways, difficulty breathing, poor circulation Section 31.6 Leukemia: abnormal white blood cells → cannot mature→ producing other blood cells → fight off pathogens 1. sharing needles, sexual intercourse, from a mother to her unborn baby through the umbilical cord HIV Infection: T cells →reproduce HIV; start dying→ replace the dying T cells→ infect the body → AIDS 2. human immunodeficiency virus; the immune system has a deficiency 3. acquired immune deficiency syndrome; a syndrome is a condition or a disease 4. A pathogen that causes an opportunistic infection causes disease whenever there is an opportunity, in this case, a weak immune system. Section 32.1 1. water‐fluid balance, chemical reactions 2. carbohydrates, simple and complex‐energy 3. proteins‐growth, repair, enzymes, hormones 4. fats, saturated and unsaturated‐energy, used in many structures 5. minerals‐homeostasis, building, repair tissues 6. vitamins, water‐ and fat‐soluble‐regulate cell functions, growth, development 7. you lose about this much each day through sweat, urine, and respiration 8. vegans must combine plant foods such as beans and rice to obtain all eight essential amino acids 9. saturated fats are solid at room temperature; unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature 10. carbohydrates and fats 11. to provide adequate amounts of all six nutrients for the rapid growth that occurs during these years 12. these foods, unlike high‐sugar or processed foods, are rich in fiber, vitamins, and minerals 13. the number of Calories and Calories from fat must be multiplied by the number of servings per product to get an accurate Calorie count 14. It helps you to compare the number of Calories, type and amount of nutrients among products and choose the best one. 15. calorie is the amount of energy required to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius; Calorie is a measure of energy from food and equals 1000 calories 16. vitamins are necessary to support the many life functions of cells, the smallest unit of life Section 32.2 1. to break down large complex molecules in food into smaller molecules that can be used by the body 2. mechanical digestion: chewing food, smooth muscles churning and mixing food; chemical digestion: enzymes breaking down food, stomach acid digesting protein, or other chemicals such as bile breaking down fats 3. smooth muscles contract and relax to keep food moving, and sphincters prevent food from backing up. 4. nutrients are absorbed and distributed to the cells; undigested materials are eliminated as liquid and solid wastes 5. salivary amylase, amylase: break down starches into simpler sugars; pepsin, peptides: break down proteins; lipase: breaks down fats Process Diagram: Mouth‐salivary amylase break down starches into simple sugars; Stomach‐HCl and pepsin break down proteins; chyme forms; Small Intestine‐pancreas helps finish digestion of sugars and break down fats; liver and gallbladder release bile to digest fats 6. Pepsin is active only when there is food in the stomach; a layer of mucus keeps stomach acids from digesting the lining 7. esophagus “carries food” from the mouth to the stomach 8. Examples: two hands squeezing dough out of a plastic tubing; squeezing toothpaste out of a tube Section 32.3 1. Absorption is the process by which nutrients move out of the digestive system and into the circulatory and lymphatic system. Without absorption, nutrients cannot reach the cells. 2. lining of the small intestine, villi, microvilli 3. the lining is ridged and folded, thousands of villi cover the lining, and thousands of microvilli cover each villi, greatly increasing surface area 4. to allow more time for nutrients to be absorbed 5. Materials absorbed‐ simple sugars, amino acids, minerals; Distribution‐ circulatory and lymphatic systems Part of intestine: jejunum; Materials absorbed: glucose, amino acids, vitamin C, B vitamins, some water Part of intestine: ileum; Distribution: circulatory and lymphatic systems 6. Enzymes use some of the nutrients to build more complex molecules that cells need; the liver stores some nutrients for future use. 7. by absorbing some water and salts 8. undigested plant fiber, bile pigments, dead bacteria, traces of undigested fat and protein 9. helpful‐some bacteria synthesize vitamins K and B12; harmful‐if some harmless bacteria overgrow other bacteria, they can reduce water absorption and cause severe diarrhea 10. the rectum stores the feces; feces pass out of the body through the anus. 11. they can help students remember that the microvilli are very tiny, hairlike projections on the villi. 12. Sample answers: Students might sketch a paper towel absorbing a spill or think of clothes absorbing liquids spilled on them, paper absorbing ink, or chemicals absorbing oil spilled on a beach Section 32.4 1. lungs, skin, kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra 2. through sweat, urine, and exhalation 3. carbon dioxide and water vapor 4. the cortex, medulla, nephron, renal artery and renal vein 5. They remove waste products from the blood and help to maintain electrolyte, pH, and fluid balances 6. to filter the blood and remove smaller molecules, which produces the filtrate Process Diagram: answer given → most materials in filtrate are reabsorbed into the capillaries → urine moves into loop of Henle; water is reabsorbed; urine moves into collecting duct 7. They can damage the capillary walls in the glomerulus, making them more porous. As a result, the nephrons lose their ability to filter the blood. 8. The blood circulates through the dialysis machinery, which cleans and chemically balances the blood just as the kidneys do. 9. excrete‐excretory; urinate‐ureter 10. dialysis “breaks apart” the blood by separating smaller molecules from the blood to filter and clean it before returning the blood to the body. Section 33.1 1. protect, support, and move the body 2. appendicular skeleton 3. legs, arms, feet, hands 4. axial skeleton 5. skull 6. spine 7. ribs and breastbone 8. protect the spinal cord and support the body’s weight 9. Cartilage is soft and flexible. It protects the ends of bone. Bone is hard, rigid, and protects the internal organs. 10. A place where two bones meet. 11. in the spinal column and between the ribs 12. They connect bones loosely together so that the bones can move. 13. gliding, pivot, ball‐and‐socket, saddle, hinge 14. compact and spongy 15. Haversian canals transport blood through bones. Red bone marrow produces red blood cells. 16. by adding or removing calcium from the bones and the blood stream 17. The appendicular skeleton is the one that includes the arms, legs, and other parts the allow for movement. 18. The axial skeleton is the one the goes down the center or axis of the body. 19. Calcification is the process by which calcium is added to bone. 20. They’re all found between bones and aid in movement. Section 33.2 1. bones; bones; voluntary, some involuntary 2. digestive organs, blood vessels; moves food/changes the size of the organ; involuntary 3. heart; blood; involuntary 4. a sarcomere 5. myosin 6. actin 7. at the end of the sarcomere 8. a neuron 9. It allows myosin to grab onto and pull actin. Diagrams: See Figure 33.9 for reference. 10. The myosin lets go of the actin, and the actin slides to its original resting position. 11. skeletal attaches to bone; cardiac is in the heart; smooth is in the digestive tract and blood vessels 12. Answers will vary. Section 33.3 1. the body system that surrounds all others and prevents infection 2. maintain homeostasis, protect other body systems 3. by creating a physical barrier to keep germs and pathogens out Sketch: See Figure 33.13 for reference. 4. dead skin cells, oil, sweat, protective proteins; to provide an extra layer to block pathogens 5. glands, sensory receptors, hair follicles; Glands release sweat and oil; sensory receptors gather information form the environment; hair follicles help protect the body from the outside world. 6. fat cells; to protect and cushion blood vessels and neurons and to insulate the muscles and internal organs 7. Keratin protects the skin by making it tough in some areas. Melanin blocks and absorbs harmful sun rays. 8. elastin and collagen 9. The epidermis is the layer of skin above the dermis. 10. Student’s answers will vary. 11. It is a cavity of cells that produces hair. Section 34.1 1. collection of specialized organs, glands, and hormones that help to produce a new human being 2. When follicle‐stimulating hormone and lutenizing hormone are released, they begin the process of sexual maturation. 3. produce eggs, provide place for fertilized egg to develop 4. controls female characteristics, makes eggs develop, prepares the uterus for pregnancy and helps maintain a pregnancy 5. ovaries‐produce eggs and release one during ovulation; fallopian tube‐provide place for egg to travel to be fertilized; uterus‐place where fertilized egg is protected and developed 6. produce sperm; deliver them to the female reproductive system 7. controls development of male sexual characteristics; needed for sperm to develop 8. testes‐produce sperm cells; epididymus‐store and mature sperm; vas deferens‐mix sperm with fluids to form semen and move semen into urethra 9. Sample answer: Students can use the initial letters of epididymus and vas deferens to remember they are part of the male reproductive system, such as EVeryDay, sperm is matured in the epididymus and moved through the vas deferens. EVeryDay. E = epididymus, V and D = vas deferens. For fallopian tube, students might simply remember the three F’s. Females have fallopian tubes where eggs can be fertilized. Section 34.2 1. Female: meiosis I and II; Male: meiosis I and II 2. Female: before birth; Male: at puberty 3. Female: FSH, LH, estrogen; Male: FSH, LH, testosterone 4. monthly changes in the female reproductive system that includes producing and releasing an egg and preparing the uterus to receive an egg 5. Flow phase, the endometrium detaches and is expelled from uterus; follicular and luteal phases, it thickens again. 6. When one sperm penetrates the membrane, the egg changes so that no other sperm can enter. 7. the 23 chromosomes of the sperm unite with 23 chromosomes of the egg 8. Identical twins are genetically the same, developing from the same zygote; fraternal twins develop from two different zygotes. 9. Any of the following three answers: too narrow a vas deferens, low sperm count; damaged reproductive organs due to injury or disease; defective eggs 10. It must be passed from person to person through sexual contact. 11. Bacterial Infection: Examples‐chlamydia, syphilis, gonorrhea; Effects‐attacks reproductive organs causing infertility; Treatment‐antibiotics cure infections Viral Infections: Examples‐hepatitis B, genital herpes, HPV, HIV; Effects‐attacks body cells; Treatment‐medications control symptoms; no cures available 12. Menopause is when a female stops menstruating. 13. Transmitted means “to pass,” and an STD is a disease that is passed through sexual contact. 14. Fertile means “can reproduce.” If a person is infertile, he or she cannot reproduce. Section 34.4 1. Labor‐Oxytocin induces contractions in uterus as true labor begins 2. Dilation of the Cervix‐amniotic sac usually breaks; walls of cervix are pushed apart 3. Emergence of Baby‐baby turns head first toward vaginal canal; baby is pushed out of the mother’s body 4. Expulsion of Placenta‐placenta detaches and is expelled; contractions help control bleeding 5. A Caesarian section is performed in which an incision is made in the mother’s abdomen to remove the baby. 6. It is clamped and cut, leaving a scar called the naval. 7. It increases the rate of fat metabolism and protein synthesis, which cause all body cells to divide and the body to grow. 8. infancy, childhood, puberty, adolescence, adulthood, aging 9. An infant’s homeostatic mechanisms are not completely developed at birth. 10. infancy and puberty 11. During these times, children’s muscles, nerve and sensory connections, and coordination improve, allowing them to learn large‐motor skills such as walking. 12. sexual maturity achieved, rapid physical growth continues, greater strength and coordination, rearrangement of neural connections, greater ability to reason 13. healthy diet, regular exercise, continued learning 14. both terms refer to groups that share the same ages and levels of development 15. In adolescence, you are more “grown up” because your growth is more complete than in puberty.