ISSN-0116-7413
Cabagan, Isabela
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH
VOL. XIX
January-June, 2010
CONTENTS
Development of a Source of Materials in Teaching Study and
Critical Thinking Skills for ESL Learners………………………………….1
Boyet L. Batang
Development and Evaluation of Computer Aided Testing and
Information (CATI) for the Guidance Office of the Isabela
University, Cabagan, Isabela ……………………………………………… 14
Rosalinda B. Guiyab
Environmental Attitudes and Behavior of Students in Selected Higher
Education Institutions in Region 02 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Eileen C. Bernardo
Implementasyon ng CHED Memo Order No. 59 s. 1996 sa Mga
Programa ng Filipino ng SUCS sa Rehiyon 2 …………………………….. 44
Jaine Z. Tarun
Radical and Social Constructivism and the Performance of Students
In Mathematics ………………………………………………………...…..62
Ambrose Hans G. Aggabao
No. 1
DEVELOPMENT OF A SOURCE MATERIAL FOR TEACHING STUDY
AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS FOR ESL LEARNERS
BOYET L. BATANG1
ABSTRACT
This paper attempted to present a source material for the teaching of study and critical thinking skills for
ESL (English as a second Language) Learners. Specifically, it aimed to determine the critical thinking skills which
need to be developed among the ESL Learners and develop a sample source material for the teaching of study and
critical thinking skills. The study made use of the descriptive method of research.
The task was divided into three stages following Johnson’s model of materials preparation (Johnson, 1972,
Guilot, 2000) which included the design, development, and dissemination stages. Results of the study showed that
college students obviously have difficulties in reading the disciplines as reported by English Teachers and the
Content Area Teachers, and that the developed prototype materials based on ERICA (Effective Reading in the
Content Areas) strategies were promising instruments for attaining reading-to-learn objectives. The material
appears suitable, acceptable and effective as viewed and perceived by English teachers and the Content Area
teachers.
It is recommended that teachers of both language and content subjects are enjoined to use the material so
that students will be used to using strategies to develop critical thinking skills.
Keywords: critical thinking, content-based language instruction, ERICA (Effective Reading in the Content Areas)
Model, reading strategies, source material, prototype material
Introduction
Many would claim that a second language is learned most effectively when used as the
medium to convey informational content of interest and relevance to the learner. This claim is
the rationale underlying content-based second language instruction and, as such, is the premised
of this paper. Many years ago, the impetus has led to the development of the content-based
movement, looking carefully at past several decades, during which time language educators and
researchers argued for specific purpose
__________________________________
1
Assistant Professor IV, College of Development Communication and Arts & Sciences, College of
Teacher Education, and Technical Assistant to the Executive Officer, Isabela State University, Cabagan,
Isabela.
1
language course, developed procedures for need analyses, designed large-scale second language
immersion and bilingual education programs, and looked at language teaching in the broader
context of language across the curriculum. Moreover, these seemingly diverse trends, with
their broad-reaching pedagogical implications, have gained wide
acceptance in language teaching and have served to effectively set the stage for the emergence of
content-based instruction as an important trend in second language teaching. (Brinton, Ann
Snow, & Wesche, 1989).
Critical thinking helps the students confront the academic demands of schooling. It helps
them tackle a variety of school requirements, which require them to think and use language.
Educators through the years have recognized the importance of critical thinking in a student’s
life. It is considered as an integral part of the learning process and which may help students
realize their full potential as learners. The awareness of the utility of critical thinking that
educators, including language arts teachers acknowledge its importance, and now seek ways in
developing this skill. Hence, teachers need to have materials which may facilitate the learning
process and the development of this skill (Javier, 2000).
The Research Problem
This study aimed to present a source material for the teaching of study and critical
thinking skills for ESL learners of Isabela State University particularly of the DAT-BAT
program of the Provincial Technical Institute of Agriculture. Specifically, it aimed to:
1. Determine the critical thinking skills which need to be developed among the ESL
Learners; and
2. Develop a sample source material for the teaching of study and critical thinking skills.
Significance of the Study
With the use of content-based instruction, it is hoped that it will serve as a model of
modification in preparing instructional materials for teacher training, practicing teacher, teacher
trainer, or administrators. Furthermore, in response to the growing popularity of content-based
language teaching models in the Philippines and abroad particularly US and Canada, this study
including the materials to be developed will provide a rationale for content-based instruction and
materials preparation and adaptation.
2
In addition, this will serve as a course text for English instructors teaching Study and
Thinking skills in College as mandated by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). This
will provide the readers, teachers and practitioners information on well-grounded criteria for
making effective choices when designing and implementing a content-based instruction.
Review of Related Literature and Theoretical
Views about language and language learning served as bases of Content-Based
Instruction. Firstly, the belief that language is a tool of communication to express one’s
attitudes, information feelings, etc. Language is used to narrate an experience, to describe a
person, place, thing, or event, to complain about poor service or product, to ask for help, to
apologize, to express congratulations and condolences, and other language functions. Since CBI
gives emphasis on message or meaning, it is but natural to choose content for a meaningful
teaching and language. Based on the 1987 Bilingual education Policy, the natural content for
teaching Filipino is Social Studies, Values Education, and other subjects on Filipino Culture as
MAPE. On the other hand, English can find content in Science and Technology, not to mention
Mathematics (Mendiola, 2002). The other basis of CBI in the belief that Basic Interpersonal
Communication Skills (BICS) is different from Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
(CALP) as claimed by Cummins, 1979, cited in Mendiola, 2002). The former is termed as
‘basic’ because it is developed through socialization, conversation or personal interaction. The
learner’s BICS used greetings, engaging in small talk, expressing emotion and other everyday
use of language is inadequate to learn subjects taught in Filipino or English because the
academic skills demand a higher level of cognition such as comparison and contrast, inferencing,
analysis, synthesis, application and evaluation. For instance, a learner’s high level of
conversation skills does not guarantee his readiness to perform academic tasks such as
comparing different religions or forms of government, describing, explaining the process of
impeachment, analyzing the peso devaluation, synthesizing on the topic from different
references, and evaluating the most efficient way of waste management in one’s community.
3
Methodology
Research Design
The descriptive method of research was used in this paper. The task was divided into
three stages following Johnson’s model of materials preparation (Johnson, 1972, Guilot, 2000)
which included the design, development, and dissemination stages. In the design stage, it
included literature and studies that deal with Content-Based College ESL Instruction, Materials
Development and Adaptation in Content-Based Instruction, nature and purposes of critical
thinking including language and language teaching which were found in books, journals,
magazines, and the web.
In the attempt of the researcher to determine the needs of the ESL learners of Isabela
State University particularly at the Provincial Technical Institute of Agriculture (PTIA), a survey
of reading materials and type of text was conducted, content area Instructors were also
considered and discussed; and even observed classes on how they assess the way student handle
critical thinking and skills in the classroom. Content are Instructors were considered primary
persons who could identify the learning areas where students needed help most, hence, the
preparation of the Table of Specifications. The Development stage on the other hand included
print resources of authentic texts or ‘realias’. These were taken from an agribusiness magazine
which the students are familiar with which is not intended to teach language. The texts’ original
features, structures and organizations were retained; no modifications were as it suggested the
real passages be used so that the students will rehearse the steps they will perform in real life
(Phillips and Shettelesworth, 1978, Guilot, 2000). The materials were made up of three main
sections: the Instructor’s/Teacher’s guide the Reading-to-Learn Strategies in the form of class
exercises and the Authentic Print Resources whereby exploited texts were derived.
Instruments
The instructor’s guide included the unit topics, lesson title and source, learning
objectives, skills/strategies focused and the presentation plan with instructor’s activity notes and
some comments/remarks. Eight (8) lessons of the study were chosen with focus on agribusiness.
The sequential arrangement of the eight (8) lessons was the researcher’s discretion, there was no
strict guidelines followed. The learning objectives were focused on the knowledge while the
skills outlined were pointed to the four (4) macro skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
The four (4) stages of the Effective Reading in the Content Area (ERICA) model, the Preparing
for Reading (Stage 1) Thinking through Reading (Stage 2), Extracting and Organizing (Stage 3)
and Translating Information through Writing (Stage 4) were observed for each lesson or area of
study. The units followed similar patterns beginning with a structured overview and graphic
outline and ending with activities like translating through writing. A time allotment for each
4
strategy was provided and a strategy for a day. Finally, the dissemination stage included the
preparation of the final draft after Content area teachers and English teachers’ opinions and
suggestions have been pursued.
Results and Discussions, Presentation of Materials
Lesson 1
Topic :
Source :
Plasticulture for Commercial Vegetable Production
Granberry, Kelley, Chance, McLaurin, & Harrison, Sanders
(Agribusiness Digest, pp. 37-39, February, 1999)
Learning Objectives:
1. Define Plasticulture
2. Describe the scheduling injections
3. Differentiate mobile vs. immobile nutrients
4. Discuss fertilizer injection schedules and drip tube maintenance
Skills:
Listening
Reading
Speaking
Writing
:
:
:
:
Listening to a farmer regarding commercial vegetable production
Acquiring relevant information on commercial vegetable production
Discussing the relevance of Plasticulture for commercial vegetable production
Distinguishing between mobile vs. immobile nutrients
5
Lesson Plan Presentation
Day
Topic
1
Plasticulture
2
Scheduling
Injections
2
Scheduling
Injections
2
Scheduling
Instructor’s Activity/Notes
Stage 1- Preparing for Reading
Exercise 1- Structured Overview
To be developed by the teacher and
students prior to encountering the text
1. Begin by leading students to page 37 of
the text and go over the list of topics
discussed in the article
2. Let students pick those words related to
the topic
3. Arrange these words in a diagram and
draw lines between words to indicate
relationships. The resulting diagram is
a structured overview in reading terms
but is also called concept map, word
map or semantic map by other
disciplines.
4. The structured overview is best built up
with the students rather than simply
being presented to them. What they
build-up by themselves they think
through and internalize. Giving them a
complete model takes away this
thinking and is less productive.
Stage 1–Preparing for Reading
Exercise 2 – Graphic Outline
1. The exercise is to be done in class
2. Divide the students into groups. Some
boxes have already been filled to help
them form the outline easily
Stage 1 – Preparing for Reading
Exercise 3- Vocabulary: Context Clues
pp. 37-39
1. Allow individual reading/independent
study
Stage 2 – Thinking through Reading
6
Comments
In cases where you
can feel that students
do not have enough
background
knowledge to work
with you in creating
a structured
overview, remember
that the more you do,
the less they do. The
input should be
limited to the amount
of help, guidance and
instruction need
Injections
3
4
4
5
Exercise 4 – Cloze Exercise
1. Students complete this exercise after
they have read the entire article of
“Scheduling Nutrient Injections” pp.
37-39
Stage 2 – Thinking through Reading
Exercise 5 – Three Level Guide
1. To be given after the students have
finished reading the section on “mobile
vs. immobile nutrients”
Drip
Stage 3 – Extracting and Organizing
Maintenance
Information
Exercise 6 – Diagramming
1. Students make a diagram of the
different steps on “Drip Maintenance”
Drip
Stage 3 in- Extracting and Organizing
Maintenance
Information
Exercise 7 – Outlining
1. Outlining teaches students how to
distinguish main ideas and supporting
details
Plasticulture for Stage 4 – Translating Information
commercial
Exercise 8 – Translating Information
vegetable
1. Before students perform this exercise,
production
the “Critical Discussion” students
should have read the whole article to
be able to relate in the discussion.
Mobile vs.
immobile
7
EXERCISES
Plasticulture for Commercial Vegetable Production
Stage 1 – Preparing for Reading
Exercise 1: Structured Overview
What is Plasticulture? Is the commercialization of vegetable increase through Plasticulture? With
the members of your group decide what key words can you think of that would relate to
Plasticulture and commercial vegetable production. Connect these words to form logical ideas
about it.
Stage 1 – Preparing for the Reading
Exercise 2: Graphic Outline
Fill in the boxes with relevant information to complete the outline.
Main Heading
Sub-Heading
Sub-Topic
Scheduling of Nutrient
Injections
Drip Tube
Maintenance
Critical Discussion on Plasticulture for Commercial Vegetable Production
8
Stage 1 – Preparing for Reading
Exercise 3: Vocabulary: Context Clues
Look for the following words used and explained in the text. Copy the article’s explanation and
write your own based on what you have read. The first one is done for as example
Word
plasticulture
application
transplanted
mobile nutrients
Immobile nutrients
fertilizer injection
plant tissue testing
drip tube
particulate
Cropping
pest control
Page
37
Article’s explanation
Your explanation
a process of which frequent fertigation a process to improve
of fertilizer to soil surrounding to plant the production of
roofs to be effective
vegetable
37
37
37
37
37
38
38
38
38
38
Stage 2 – Thinking About Reading
Exercise 4
Fill in each blank in the following exercise with a word which you think makes the best sense.
Work by yourself try to remember why you chose each word.
The frequent ______ of small amounts of _____ to soil surrounding plants tools has been
(1)
(2)
shown to very effective. However, as with a conventional ______ program, the manager
(3)
must decide “what”, “how much” and “when”._______ but not excessive amounts should
9
(4)
be _______ as needed by the crop. The amount of fertilizer scheduled for ___________
(5)
(6)
during the growing _______ season should be based on a ________ soil test. _______ (7)
(8)
(9)
of small amounts at timely intervals should ______ the portion of the total recommended
(10)
amount of ________.
(11)
Stage 2: Thinking through Reading
Exercise 5: Three Level Guide
Level 1: Literal Level
Put a check mark on statements which the author explicitly mentioned. Be ready to justify
answers.
__________ 1. A successful managed fertilizer program ensures that nutrient deficiencies do not
reduce quality.
__________ 2. Nutrients such as phosphorous and certain micronutrients that do not readily
leach from the soil.
Level 2: Interpretive Level
Tick those statements which you think the text implicitly discussed. Be ready to explain your
reasons.
__________ 1.
Approximately 20 percent of the recommended nitrogen and potassium is
applied.
__________ 2. Injection of nitrogen and potassium can be delayed about two weeks.
Level 3: Applied Level
10
Mark those statements which you think the authors would agree with. Br ready to explain why>
__________ 1. Leachable nutrients such as nitrogen and potassium can be effectively provided
by drip fertigation.
__________ 2. If no preplant nitrogen and potassium is applied fertigation should begin
immediately after transplanting.
Stage 3 – Extracting and Organizing Information
Exercise 6: Diagramming
Make a diagram of the four (4) steps in Drip tube Maintenance.
Steps
Description
Stage 3 – Extracting and Organizing Information
Exercise 7: Outlining
Outline the different steps in Drip tube Maintenance. Write down main concepts about each and
their corresponding details.
I. Particulate Matter
Main Idea
1_____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Supporting Details
a. _____________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________
II. ________________
Main Idea
1. _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Supporting Details
a. _____________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________
11
III. _______________
Main Idea
1. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
Supporting Details
a. _____________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________
IV. _______________
Main Idea
1. _____________________________________________
Supporting Details
a. _____________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________
Stage 4 – Translating Information
Exercise 8: Translating through Writing
You have read the entire article entitled “Plasticulture for commercial vegetable production on
pages 37-39. Give a short description on the processes involved. Why do you think these
processes are important?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________
Conclusions:
Based on the assessment made, the college students have difficulties in reading the
disciplines as reported by English teachers and content area teachers; that the developed
12
materials based on ERICA strategies are promising instruments for attaining reading-to-learn
objectives. The materials appear suitable, acceptable, and effective as viewed by English and
Content Area teachers.
Recommendations
Based on the conclusions made, it is recommended that the English teachers should make
use or adapt these materials to suit the learning needs of his/her students. The students may
endeavor to think and how to think when they study a text or a situation. Teachers of both
language and content subjects are enjoined to use these materials so that the students will be used
to using strategies to develop critical thinking skills.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brinton, D. M., Snow Ann, M., and Wesche, M. B. 1989. Content-Based Second Language
Instruction. Newbury House Publishers.
Granberry, K. Chance, M, & Harrison, S. 1989. Plasticulture for Commercial Vegetable
Production Agribusiness Digest, pp. 37-39.
Guilot, C. D. 2000. Development of ERICA (Effective Reading in the Content Areas) Based
Prototype Materials. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Philippine Normal University, Manila.
Javier, M. M. 2000. Sample Exercises for the Development of Student’s Ability to Read
Critically. Unpublished Special Project. Philippine Normal University, Manila.
Johnson, F.C. 1972. The Design, Development, and Dissemination of Instructional Materials
University of Papua New Guinea. Regional English Language Centre. Singapore.
Mendiola, C.M. 2002. Assumptions, Research Bases, and Models of Content-Based Instruction.
Paper read during the In-service Training Program on Making Connections through
Content-Based Language Instruction in English and Filipino. Philippine Normal
University, Manila.
13
DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF COMPUTER AIDED TESTING
AND INFORMATION (CATI) FOR THE GUIDANCE OFFICE AT
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY, CABAGAN, ISABELA
ROSALINDA B. GUIYAB1
ABSTRACT
The study Development and Evaluation of Computer Aided Testing and Information (CATI) for the
Guidance Office at Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela aimed to develop and evaluate a Computer Aided
Testing and Information (CATI) for the Guidance Office at Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela. The
development phase of this study included the design of the CATI, used the Waterfall Model, together with Unified
Modeling Language or UML. Specifically, the Use Case Diagram (UCD) to model the interaction between the
system and its users. On the other hand, the evaluation phase utilized two methods: technical evaluation with system
testing and humanistic evaluation with acceptability of the system. A stratified random sample of ninety two (92)
ISUC – CDCAS students and twelve (12) IT experts including the guidance counselor served as respondents of the
study. The respondents highly accepted the accuracy, efficiency, reliability and security features of the CATI system.
Across all features, the CATI system was consistently adjudged as “highly acceptable”. This information confirmed
the need to automate the process used to administer, check and score the university entrance examination as well as
keeping the students record. It is recommended that the developed system will be implemented to improve the quality
of the present admission system of the university and eventually, managing its students record.
Keywords: Computer Aided Testing and Information, System Testing, Acceptability
Introduction
With the current technological advances in the field of information technology, society
has to continually adapt the changing demands such advances has brought to it. Communities
have become increasingly dependent on computers, systems analysts, programmers, as well as
on more reliable and efficient systems. Due to these advancements, productivity demands from
employees in any given work setting have dramatically increased to a point that it is intolerable
without technological intervention. The Guidance Office of the Isabela State University (ISU) at
Cabagan, Isabela is not an exemption.
____________________
1
Faculty, College of Development Communication and Arts & Sciences, Isabela State University, Cabagan,
Isabela.
14
In order for ISU to cope with these demands, it is necessary that it adapts itself to the use
of available technologies to aid its operations—more specifically, the application of CATI in the
general management of its admission system, and eventually managing its students’ information.
Currently, the Office of the Guidance Counselor at Isabela State University is using the
paper-based form or the traditional written examination in administering the University Entrance
Examination and manually keeping the Students’ Information in the filing cabinet. After the
examination, the guidance counselor corrects the examination manually and the result is given to
the student which takes up to two (2) weeks after the examination. This kind of set-up is found to
be time consuming and inevitably, there are errors in checking the examination. As a
consequence, the guidance counselor cannot do other guidance services which may be deemed
important to clarify issues and academic concerns about the welfare of the students.
With the cited problems above, the researcher developed the Computer Aided Testing
and Information (CATI) for the Guidance Office at the Isabela State University, Cabagan,
Isabela. This system aimed to automate the process use to create, administer, check and score the
University Entrance Examination as well as keeping the Students’ Information. It is geared
towards improvement of the traditional written entrance examination and the manual keeping of
student’s personal information. It also aimed to evaluate the CATI system as to its congruence to
its intended use as well as to its acceptability by its intended or potential users with a survey of
the perception with regard to the features of the system based on the software criteria used in
System Testing that will further validate the effectiveness of the CATI.
The Research Problem
Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:
1. What are the features of the Computer Aided Testing and Information (CATI) in
terms of the following software criteria used in System Testing: (a) Accuracy, (b)
Efficiency, (c) Reliability and (d) Security;
2. What is the perception of the respondents in the CATI system with respect to the
software criteria used in System Testing? And
3. Is there a significant difference in the perception of the IT experts and students on the
CATI system with respect to the software criteria used in System Testing?
15
Hypothesis of the Study
There is no significant difference in the perception of the IT experts and the students on
the CATI system with respect to the software criteria used in System Testing.
Significance of the Study
With the sector-wide embrace of ICT and IT initiatives in the Philippines, this study
encourages in part through government directives the use of electronic transactions in
educational institutions. Moreover, the study may also help the school administrators to realize
the importance of the need to integrate the use of computerized assessment to improve the
quality of the admission system in the country. It will help them maximize the use of their
resources to cope with the pace of technology by fast tracking the processing of documents
through automation.
It is noted in literatures that the increased use of computerized assessment in higher
education is an international phenomenon. Hence, this study goes with the trend and is
apparently conceived at the right time. Hopefully, the Isabela State University will improve the
quality of its admission system by considering the recommendations of this study.
The guidance counselor or the examination in-charge will also be benefited by facilitating
their work thus, providing accurate, efficient, secured and reliable examination results. There
will be an easier and faster generation of examination report. Hence, reports will be provided and
or submitted on-time.
To the students who will take the entrance examination, they will experience an
atmosphere of being in touch with the use of technology by taking the examination with the aid
of computers. This results to immediate notification of their performance in the examination.
This study may also provide system developers with inputs on how to design, develop
and evaluate the effectiveness of such software application such that their admission system will
be improved.
Finally, this study likewise contributes to the body of literature on the effectiveness of the
use of computerized assessment in higher education.
16
Literature Survey
Computerized Assessment
“The increased use of computerized assessment in higher education is an international
phenomenon.” The United States, for example, have seen a recent rise in the use of computerassisted assessment with further growth predicted in the future (McKenna, 2001). This trend is
also apparent in the Philippines with the sector-wide embrace of ICT and IT initiatives that
encourage in part through government directives particularly promoting the use of electronic
transactions in education. Moreover, the Information Technology and E-Commerce Council
(ITECC) has come up with the vision of ePhilippines as an electronically enabled society where
the citizens live in an environment that will promote access to technologies…(ITECC
Philippines, 2002).
Computer Aided Examination (CAE)
According to Ayon-Ayon (2006), CAE had provided a more accurate output than that of
the paper-based type of examination and much better in preparing test questions. It facilitates the
systematic storage, updating and retrieval of pertinent data of examinees as well as checking and
scoring of examinee’s answers to test questions from the computerized software. It is a tool for
test administration, replaces the paper-based type of examination and enables speedy checking
and scoring of the examinee’s answer data. The design of CAE is so simple that even those who
do not have any experience operating the computer can easily take the test. This is further
supported by Asuni (2008), stating the general advantages of Computer-Based Assessment
(CBA) systems over traditional Pen-and-Paper Testing (PPT) have been demonstrated in several
comparative works and includes: increased delivery, administration and scoring efficiency;
reduced costs for many elements of the testing lifecycle; improved test security resulting from
electronic transmission and encryption; consistency and reliability; faster and more controlled
test revision process with shorter response time; faster decision-making as the result of
immediate scoring and reporting; unbiased test administration and scoring; fewer response entry
and recognition errors; fewer comprehension errors caused by the testing process; improved
translation and localization with universal availability of content; new advanced and flexible
item types; increased candidate acceptance and satisfaction; evolutionary step toward future
testing methodologies.
From the foregoing literature, the idea of automating the process used to develop,
administer, and score the examination and further determining perception is no longer new and
proven to be effective. From the early days of computers in educational environment, the idea of
computer to manage exams has been explored (Hansen, et.al. 1978). The study conducted by
Cotugna & Vickery (1999) determined how examinees reacted to the computerized exam
17
experience. It examined the perception of the respondents in taking the computerized
examination for dietitians. The response rate was 61% (n=185) and average time between
completing the supervised practice program and taking the exam was 5.7 months. Most (n=125)
found the computerized format to be satisfactory even though 54.7% reported having anxiety
about taking computerized exams.
This study likewise contributed to the body of literature on the effectiveness of the use of
computerized assessment in the higher education.
Waterfall Model
The Waterfall Model was employed in the development of the CATI system. This model
was recommended since the nature of the university entrance examination was relatively stable
and the needs of the examination in-charge were already identified at an early stage. The model
was supported by Constantine that remarked at OOPSLA2005, "I created one of the first
'waterfall' approaches but I did not create analysis paralysis". Apart from these known models
are several other models that are used by the software industry depending on the project size,
time and budget. The Waterfall Model is a unique model which is followed by most of the
companies. In fact certain features of the model attract the top executives to adapt it. Some of the
unique features are: (1.) It can be implemented for all size of projects; (2.) It leads to a concrete
and clear approach to software development; (3.) In this model testing is inherent in every phase;
(4) Documentation is produced at every stage of model which is very helpful for people who are
involved. (Parida, 2010)
Methodology
The study used a two-phase process method: The development of a system (First Phase), and its consequent
evaluation (Second Phase).
A. Development Phase
Developmental Model
There are various software development approaches defined and designed which are
used during development process of software, these approaches are also referred as
“Software development Models”. Each process model follows a particular life cycle in order
to ensure success in process of software development.
This study employed the Modified Waterfall Model (Mavaddat, 2008) derived from
the Waterfall Model approach which was the first process introduced and followed widely in
software engineering to ensure success of the system to be developed. A number of variants
18
of this model exist, with each one quoting slightly different labels for the various stages
however, the model may be considered as having six distinct phases, described below.
The different phases of the Modified Waterfall Model is illustrated in Figure 1
below.
Taken from http://www.student.cs.uwaterloo.ca/~cs430/.../Chapter02-Life-Cycle.ppt
Figure 1. The Waterfall Model of the CATI System
The development process is discussed below:
1.
Requirements. This involved gathering of information about the needs of the
Guidance Counselor in administering the university entrance examination as well as
keeping the student’s personal record and defining, in the clearest possible terms, the
problem that the system is expected to solve.
2.
Analysis: Analysis included the flow of the university entrance examination and the
manual keeping of student’s personal information with context and constraints, the
functions that the system must perform and the performance levels it must adhere to.
Techniques used to obtain this understanding included interviews, used cases, and
identifying the system features. The results of the analysis were typically captured in a
formal requirements’ specification, which served as input to the next step.
19
3. Design: The Hierarchical Input Process Output (HIPO) was used to find out the
probable functions, features and relationship of these functions and features of the
study. This was also used for user interface design, including issues relating to
navigation and accessibility in which design was based on the requirements and set-up
of the university.
4.
Implementation: The system was implemented using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0 as
the programming language and the use of Data Report in generating the Student’s
Personal Information and the examination results. Databases were created using MSAccess 2003 and sample data was entered to facilitate testing and debugging process.
Thereafter, the programming process was initiated with the writing of codes based on
the requirements. The standard programming practices of data validation and error
trapping were coded into the system. As a final step, compilation of the program was
done to create an executable file. Using the package and development wizard of
Microsoft Visual Studio 6.0, the executable files of the system was produced. Files
were compressed using the package wizard after which an evaluation was done if the
system fully satisfies the requirements outlined and to ensure that they are error-free.
Prior to the pilot test of the study, the system was presented for trial - run and
demonstration to the campus where the audience consisted of the guidance counselor
and the IT experts. This included system testing of the integrated system to verify if
the system meets the specified requirements in which suggestions (e.g. user’s manual
and the video on how to take the examination) were integrated into the system. An
evaluation was conducted if the system satisfies the requirements outlined and to
ensure that they are error-free. The CATI system was pilot tested to the ISUC –
CDCAS students and the IT experts including the campus guidance counselor in
which the researcher floated the questionnaire after the live demonstration and used of
the CATI system. The system was tested and certified as fit for use by the respondents.
This was reflected in the results of the study that evaluated the output of the system as
to its congruence to its intended use as well as to its acceptability by its intended or
potential users. The system was then prepared for installation and readily available for
used in administering the university entrance examination and in keeping student’s
personal information. The user’s manual was written for documentation as user’s
reference that includes explanation of the system on how to install, how to use, and
how to take the examination.
5.
Post-delivery Maintenance: This involved making modifications to the system to
improved performance. These modifications arise either due to change requests
initiated by the university committee of the examination, or defects uncovered during
actual use of the system. Typically, every change made to the system during the
maintenance cycle will be recorded before release (called a "maintenance release" and
20
exhibiting an updated revision number) is performed to enable the university to gain
the benefit of the update.
6.
Retirement. This is the time when there is a total change or revision of the
requirements in the university entrance examination and when maintenance is not costeffective.
B. Evaluation Phase
System Testing
To evaluate the system developed, the technical evaluation using the software criteria
used for System Testing (IEEE, 2004) is utilized. This evaluation is focused on the accuracy,
efficiency, security and the reliability features of the CATI system. The terms were based on
the Standard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing produced by the ‘Glossary
Working Party’, an International Software Testing Qualifications Board (ISO 9126). This
also involved humanistic evaluation focused on the acceptability of the system with a survey
of the perceptions by its intended users and was statistically analyzed using the weighted
mean to describe the effectiveness of the CATI system and the t-test to compare the
perception of the IT experts and the students on the said system at 0.05 level of significance.
The same software criteria were emphasized by AXIA consulting agency that helped
enterprises specify and select new software systems – by providing business managers with
impartial time-saving tools and advice, to enable them to make the optimum decision. It
emphasizes that good business software has a number of essential criteria and it is crucial
that these were met when selecting new software, in order for the software to be beneficial in
the organization (AXIA Consulting Ltd., 2010).
A survey questionnaire was employed which was formulated based from the software
criteria used in system testing (IEEE, 2004) in which the parameters to measure such criteria
were requirements-driven based from the requirements needed in the admission system of the
university.
The scale has five (5) point scales which have a corresponding descriptive equivalent
as presented below.
Scale
5
4
3
2
1
Descriptive Equivalent
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
The weighted mean rating was used to get the respondents general rating on the CATI.
21
To describe the perceived features of the CATI system in terms of accuracy,
efficiency, reliability and security, the following arbitrary intervals and descriptions were
used.
Point Range
4.21 – 5.00
3.41 – 4.20
2.61 – 3.40
1.81 – 2.60
1.00 – 1.80
Descriptive Equivalent
Highly Acceptable
Acceptable
Fair
Unacceptable
Highly Unacceptable
Respondents
There were two groups of respondents in the study. The first group consisted of
students from the ISUC – CDCAS who were enrolled during the second semester of the
school year 2009-2010 and the second group was IT experts of the ISUC including the
campus guidance counselor. The stratified random sampling was used to determine the
student-respondents using the Slovin’s Formula wand finally applying proportionate
allocation while total enumeration was applied for the second group of respondents.
Out of one hundred eighty students (180), a stratified random sample of ninety two
(92) students and twelve (12) IT experts including the campus guidance counselor served
as respondents of the study.
Data Gathering Procedure
Prior to the pilot test of the study, the system was presented for trial - run and
demonstration to the campus where the audience consisted of the campus guidance counselor
and the IT experts. This included system testing of the integrated system to verify if the system
meets the specified requirements. Suggestions like the user’s manual and the video on how to
take the examination were integrated into the system.
An evaluation was conducted if the system satisfies the requirements outlined and to
ensure that they are error-free. The CATI system was pilot tested to the ISUC – CDCAS students
and the IT experts including the campus guidance counselor. For the student-respondents, the
researcher tried to get a representative from the different departments of ISUC – CDCAS (e.g.
22
Natural Sciences, Information and Communications Technology, Development Communication
and Social Sciences) with closed coordination to the different department heads. The researcher
floated the questionnaire after watching the video on how to take the examination with live or
actual demonstration and used of the CATI system.
The researcher personally collected the questionnaire to ensure a one hundred percent
(100%) retrieval.
Data Analysis
All the data gathered were collected, organized, tabulated and analyzed using the
weighted mean. For in depth analysis of data, the t-test was also employed to determine if there
is a significant difference between the perception of the IT experts and the students.
Results and Discussions
A. The Development of the CATI System
Description of the Existing System
Before the student takes the entrance examination, the student first fills-up the Personal
Data Form (PDF) for a freshman which is given by the Guidance Counselor. The filled-up
form will be submitted to the Guidance Counselor together with the report card containing
the average grade of the student. After submitting the necessary information, the Guidance
Counselor schedules the examination. The student will just wait or come on his/her
scheduled date and time of examination. After taking the examination, the student will be
notified to come back two weeks after the examination to get the examination result.
Description of the CATI System
The use of the developed CATI system will help speed-up the process of generating
reports originally prepared by the Guidance Counselor. Before the student takes the
examination, the student must have the information on his high school average grade together
with the desired course to be taken in the university. This process includes the filling-up of
the Personal Data Form which is given by the Guidance Counselor. The filled-up form will
be submitted to the Guidance Counselor who will then verify whether all the required
information where properly filled-up. The Guidance Counselor will enter into the system all
the necessary student information including the student’s examinee number. Before the
student takes the entrance examination, he will be oriented on how to take the exam by
watching the embedded video on the system. After watching the video, the student is now
23
ready to take the examination. After taking the examination, the student will be immediately
notified as to his performance in the examination which will be given by the Guidance
Counselor. The system will also generate all the necessary entrance examination reports i.e.
the student personal information, entrance examination results, list of students who took the
exam per course and college, etc.
Client-Server Configuration
The CATI system used a Client-Server configuration that allows any connected client
to the functions possible from the server interface. The systems administrator can just
"watch" what is happening at the Server from their connected computers, or actively "make it
happen". The Server computer should be secured in an area like in the office of the Guidance
Counselor or to the Executive Officer’s office, and can be administered remotely across the
network. The output of this stage is one or more design specifications, which will be used in
the next stage of implementation.
Minimum Requirements
Windows 7 or Vista Server, Pentium IV, 1.6 Ghz, 1.0GB RAM, 100 GB free Hard disk
space, 32bit colored monitor with 1024 x 768 pixels, Direct X 9.0c or higher, 52X-CD-ROM
drive.
Recommended Requirements
Windows 2003 server, Core 2 Duo, 1.6 Ghz, 2.0GB RAM, 240 GB free Hard disk
space, 32bit colored monitor with 1280 x 800 pixels, Direct X 9.0c or higher, 52X-CD-ROM
drive.
B. The Evaluation of the CATI System
This part presents the evaluation of the CATI system by getting the perception of the
ISUC – CDCAS students and the IT experts including the guidance counselor. Their
perceptions were elicited after watching the video on how to take the examination and with
the live or actual demonstration and used of the CATI system.
Accuracy of the CATI System
The perceived accuracy features of the CATI system as perceived by the IT experts
and the ISUC – CDCAS Students are summarized in Table 1.
24
Table 2. Perceived Accuracy Features of the CATI System
ACCURACY
1. The system was precise in
checking the examination.
2. The system provided correct
examination score.
3. The system generated exact test
items.
4. The system generated correct
student’s personal information.
5. The system was precise with the
time of the examination.
OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN
DESCRIPTION
STUDENTS
IT
EXPERTS
WEIGHTED
MEAN
4.85
4.92
4.88
4.77
4.92
4.84
4.75
4.92
4.83
4.74
5.00
4.87
4.75
4.77
Highly
Acceptable
5.00
4.95
Highly
Acceptable
4.88
4.86
Highly
Acceptable
DESCRIPTIVE
EQUIVALENT
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
As shown in Table 2, the perception of the ISUC – CDCAS students and IT experts on
the accuracy of the CATI system yielded the following results: precise in checking the
examination, 4.88 or highly acceptable; provides correct examination score, 4.84 or highly
acceptable; generates exact test items, 4.83 or highly acceptable; generates correct student’s
personal information, 4.87 or highly acceptable; precise with the time of the examination, 4.88 or
highly acceptable.
In general, the ISUC – CDCAS students assessed the accuracy of the CATI system at
4.77 and the IT experts at 4.95, which are both described as “highly acceptable”. The combined
perception of the two groups of respondents shows that the abovementioned accuracy features of
the CATI system are “highly acceptable”.
Efficiency of the CATI System
The perceived efficiency features of the CATI system as perceived by the IT experts and
the ISUC – CDCAS students are summarized in Table 3 below.
Table 3. Perceived Efficiency Features of the CATI System
EFFICIENCY
1. The system provided automatic
checking.
2. The system provided automatic
scoring.
3. The system provided automatic
remarks for English.
STUDENTS
IT
EXPERTS
WEIGHTED
MEAN
4.82
4.92
4.87
4.79
5.00
4.90
4.60
4.92
4.76
25
DESCRIPTIVE
EQUIVALENT
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
4. The system provided composite
scores for the four subtests.
5. The system provided update on
time.
6. The system provided update on
course.
7. The system provided update on test
items.
8. The system provided update on
student’s information.
OVERALL EIGHTED MEAN
DESCRIPTION
4.62
4.92
4.77
4.75
4.92
4.83
4.73
4.92
4.82
4.76
5.00
4.88
4.79
4.73
Highly
Acceptable
4.92
4.94
Highly
Acceptable
4.86
4.83
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
As shown in Table 3, the perception of the ISUC – CDCAS students and IT experts on
the efficiency of the CATI system are as follows: provides automatic checking, 4.87 or highly
acceptable; provides automatic scoring, 4.90 or highly acceptable; provides automatic remarks
for English, 4.76 or highly acceptable; provides composite scores for the four subtests, 4.77 or
highly acceptable; provides update on time, 4.83 or highly acceptable; provides update on
course, 4.82 or highly acceptable; provides update on test items, 4.88 or highly acceptable;
provides update on student’s information, 4.88 or highly acceptable.
In general, the ISUC – CDCAS students assessed the efficiency of the CATI system at
4.73 and the IT experts at 4.94 which are both described as “highly acceptable”. The combined
perception of the two groups of respondents shows that the abovementioned efficiency features
of the CATI system are “highly acceptable.”
26
Reliability of the CATI System
The perceived reliability features of the CATI system as perceived by the IT experts and
the ISUC – CDCAS students are summarized in Table 4.
Table 4. Perceived Reliability Features of the CATI System
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
RELIABILITY
The system can be an aid for
administering the university
examination.
The system can be used for
keeping student’s personal record.
The system runs in a stand-alone
environment.
The system runs in a network
environment.
The maximum set-up time of
administering the examination
must be 120 minutes.
The loading time of the CATI
system must be less than 10
seconds.
OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN
DESCRIPTION
STUDENTS
IT
EXPERTS
WEIGHTED
MEAN
DESCRIPTIVE
EQUIVALENT
4.68
4.83
4.76
4.82
4.75
4.78
4.63
4.92
4.77
4.68
4.92
4.80
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
4.61
4.83
4.72
Highly
Acceptable
4.71
4.69
Highly
Acceptable
4.83
4.85
Highly
Acceptable
4.77
4.77
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
As shown in the table, the perception of the ISUC – CDCAS students and IT experts on
the reliability of the CATI system are as follows: can be an aid for administering the university
examination, 4.76 or highly acceptable; can be used to keep student’s personal record, 4.78 or
highly acceptable; runs in a stand-alone environment, 4.77 or highly acceptable; runs in a
network environment, 4.80 or highly acceptable; maximum set-up time of administering the
examination must be 12o minutes ,4.72 or highly acceptable; loading time is less than 10
seconds, 4.77 or CATI system is highly acceptable.
In general, the ISUC – CDCAS students assessed the reliability of the CATI system at
4.69 and the IT experts at 4.85 which are both described as “highly acceptable”. The combined
perception of the two groups of respondents shows that the abovementioned reliability features
of the CATI system are “highly acceptable.”
27
Security of the CATI System
The perceived security features of the CATI system as perceived by the IT experts and
the ISUC – CDCAS Students are summarized in Table 5.
Table 5. Perceived Security Features of the CATI System
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SECURITY
The system was rotected with a
password.
Only the authorized users can
access the system.
Only the authorized students
can take the examination.
The system administrator or
authorized epresentative
manages the CATI system.
The examination result cannot
be changed.
OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN
DESCRIPTION
STUDENTS
IT
EXPERTS
WEIGHTED
MEAN
4.89
4.83
4.86
4.82
4.83
4.82
4.82
4.92
4.87
4.75
4.92
4.83
4.84
4.82
Highly
Acceptable
4.92
4.88
Highly
Acceptable
4.88
4.85
Highly
Acceptable
DESCRIPTIVE
EQUIVALENT
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
Highly
Acceptable
As shown in Table 5, the perception of the ISUC – CDCAS students and IT experts on
the security of the CATI system as follows: protected with a password, 4.86 or highly
acceptable; allows only authorize users to access the system, 4.82 or highly acceptable; allows
only authorize student can take the examination, 4.87 or highly acceptable; allows only
administrator or authorize representative manages the CATI system, 4.83 or highly acceptable;
the examination result cannot be change, 4.85 or highly acceptable.
In general, the ISUC – CDCAS students assessed the security of the CATI system as 4.82
and the IT experts as 4.88 which are both described as “highly acceptable.” The combined
perception of the two groups of respondents showed that the abovementioned security features of
the CATI system are “highly acceptable.”
Table 6.
Summary of Statistical Values for the Comparison of the Perceived Accuracy
Features of
the CATI System
Respondents
Students
IT Experts
Weighted Mean Perception
4.77
4.95
28
Probability associated with t-value
0.0070s
The data in the table shows that there is a significant difference between the perception of
the IT experts and the students on the accuracy features of the CATI system as indicated by the
probability associated with the computed t-value which is 0.007. This means that the IT experts
have a better perception than the students with regard to the efficiency of the CATI system.
Table 7.
Summary of Statistical Values for the Comparison of the Perceived Efficiency
Features of the CATI System
Respondents
Students
IT Experts
Weighted Mean Perception
4.73
4.94
Probability associated with t-value
0.0035s
The data in the table shows that there is a significant difference between the perception of
the IT experts and the Students on the efficiency features of the CATI system as indicated by the
probability associated with the t-value which is 0.0035.
This means that the IT experts have a better perception than the students with regard to
the efficiency of the CATI system.
Table 8.
Summary of Statistical Values for the Comparison of the Perceived Reliability
Features of
the CATI System
Respondents
Students
IT Experts
Weighted Mean Perception
4.69
4.85
Probability associated with t-value
0.1117ns
As shown in Table 7 there is no significant difference between the perception of the IT
experts and the students on the reliability features of the CATI system as indicated by the
probability associated with the t-value which is 0.1117. This means that the students and IT
experts equally perceived the system to be highly acceptable in terms of its reliability.
Table 9.
Summary of Statistical Values for the Comparison of the Perceived Security
Features of
the CATI System
Respondents
Students
IT Experts
Weighted Mean Perception
4.82
4.88
Probability associated with t-value
0.5185ns
The data in the table shows that there is no significant difference between the perception
of the IT experts and the students on the security features of the CATI system as indicated by the
29
probability associated with the t-value which is 0.5185. Thus, the perceptions of both
respondents are equally “highly acceptable.”
In general, across all features, the CATI system was consistently adjudge by the
respondents as “highly acceptable”. Moreover, even among experts, the CATI system was
perceived as highly acceptable. It is noteworthy, while the students and IT experts viewed the
system as reliable and secure, experts, who have better skills and qualifications as evaluators,
viewed the system much higher than the students. While this is so, the difference may be that
experts are able to evaluate better the features of the CATI than lay students. This should be a
positive information as even to the level of experts, the system is perceived as highly acceptable.
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
Summary
Features of the Computer Aided Testing and Information (CATI)
The findings presented were based on the survey conducted among the ISUC-CDCAS
students and IT experts including the guidance counselor.
The research provided evidence on the following:
1. That the CATI system was accurate to provide the right or agreed results or effects with
the needed degree of precision as indicated by the following features:
a. The system was precise in checking the examination.
b. The system provided correct examination score.
c. The system generated exact test items.
d. The system generated correct student’s personal information.
The system is precise with the time of the examination.
2. That the CATI system is efficient to provide appropriate performance, relative to the
amount of resources used under stated conditions as indicated by the following features:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
The system provided automatic checking.
The system provided automatic scoring.
The system provided automatic remarks for English.
The system provided composite scores for the four subtests.
The system provided update on time.
The system provided update on course.
The system provided update on test items.
30
The system provided update on student’s information.
3. That the CATI system was reliable to perform its required functions under stated
conditions for a specified period of time, or for a specified number of operations as
indicated by the following reliability features:
4.
a. The system can be an aid for administering the university
examination.
b. The system can be used for keeping student’s personal record.
c. The system runs in a stand-alone environment.
d. The system runs in a network environment.
e. The maximum set-up time of administering the examination
must be 120 minutes.
5. That the CATI system was secure on its ability to prevent unauthorized access, whether
accidental or deliberate, to programs and data as indicated by the following security
features:
a.
b.
c.
d.
The system was protected with a password.
Only authorized users can access the system.
Only authorized students can take the examination.
The system administrator or authorized representative manages
the CATI system.
The examination result cannot be changed.
Perception of the Respondents on the CATI System
This study revealed that the evaluation done by the respondents are requirements-driven.
This was supported by Lovenia (2005) in her study entitled “A Survey of Current Software
Testing Practices in Metro Manila”, which revealed that software testing done by the different
software development organizations of different sizes and levels are requirements-driven.
Moreover, this has been illustrated by the findings that revealed the accuracy, efficiency,
reliability and security features of the CATI system.
The data gathered was classified according to the respondents to see if there is a
significant difference between their perceptions towards the CATI system. It was expected that
IT experts who have better skills and qualifications as evaluators, would be more stringent in
their evaluation however, they viewed the system much higher than the students. That even on
the level of experts, the system was viewed as “highly acceptable”.
31
Finally, with the evaluation done in relation to the requirements and validation performed
using pilot testing, the respondents’ perceptions revealed in this study that the CATI system was
consistently adjudged as highly acceptable across all features.
Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn based on the results of the study:
1. The respondents “highly accepted” the accuracy, efficiency, reliability and security
features of the CATI system. This information is confirmed the need to automate the
process used to administer, check and score the university entrance examination as
well as keeping the students record.
2. The implementation of the developed system is more beneficial than maintaining the
present system. The developed system possesses the identity of generating
information at a favorable speed with accuracy and reliability. It is also secured
against unauthorized access hence; the guidance counselor will not only be benefited
but also the school administrators and the whole studentry.
3. Adopting the developed system is designed to cater even to non-computer literate.
The students were able to cope with the use of the CATI system after watching the
video on how to take the exam.
4. The high acceptability of the developed system will motivate the school
administrators, guidance counselor and other concerned officials to undertake an
action to improve the quality of the admission system of the university and
eventually, managing its students record.
Recommendations
Premised on the results and conclusions of this study, the following
recommendations were drawn.
1. That the developed system will be implemented to minimize the time consumed in
the manual manipulation of the voluminous information in the university entrance
and eliminates other problem that have been perennially observed which make the
existing system left behind in the computer world.
32
2. That proper information dissemination be conducted to the school administrators, the
guidance counselor and other concerned officials.
3. That the students should watch the CATI video prior to taking the entrance exam.
4. That the CATI system be submitted to the Executive Officer of the Campus for an
action to improve the quality of the present admission system of the university and
eventually, managing its students record.
5. That the users of the system be trained on how to install and use the system.
6. That the IT experts should be tapped to assist the guidance counselor in the initial
implementation of the entrance examination.
7. That the Guidance Office should be equipped with electronic facilities for the
implementation of the CATI system.
8. That the Guidance Counselor continually updates the content of the university
entrance examination.
9. That the CATI system will serve as a vehicle for extension project of the department
of ICT if ever other ISU campuses wish to adopt the said system.
10. That future researchers should look into the validity of the questionnaire by
integrating a cross-checking of item questions.
11. That further studies should be conducted to improve or upgrade the CATI system if
ever there are changes in the admission system of the university.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Asuni, Nicola (2008). "TCExam :: Computer-Based Assessment". Available from
http://www.tcexam.org. Retrieved on 2009-07-15.
2. Axia Consulting Ltd.,(2009). A summary of essential software criteria.
Available
from
http://www.axiaconsulting.co.uk/html/software_criteria.html.
3. Ayon-Ayon, D. (2005). Computer Aided Examination…
Philippines, Tuguegarao, Cagayan.
Saint Paul University
4. Breecher, J. (2003). Software Engineering. Chapter 16. Clark University. Modified from
the notes of Stephen R. Schach.
33
5.
Cotugna, N. & Vickery, C. (1999), Perceptions and Evaluation of the Computerized
Registration Examination for Dietitians, Journal of the American Dietetic Association,
Volume
101,
Issue
12,
Pages
1453-1455
6. Hansen, W.J., Doring, R., Withlock, L.R. (1978). Why an exam was slower online than
on paper. Int. Journal of Man Machine Studies, 10-5, 507-519, Available from
http://m0134.fmg.uva.nl/publications/1992/comp.ass.exam.pdf
7. IEEE. 2004. Guide to Software Engineering Book of Knowledge. Book on-line.
Available from http://www,swebok.org. Retrieved on 11 August 2009.
8. ITECC Philippines, 2002. Available fromhttp://www.itecc.gov.ph/ephilippines.htm
9. Lovenia, S. F. (2005). A Survey of Current Software Testing Practices in Metro Manila”.
Masters Thesis. Ateneo de Manila University.
10. Mavaddat, F. (2008). Software Engineering. CHAPTER 2. SOFTWARE LIFE CYCLE
MODELS. CS430 Notes. Page 17. Modified from the notes of Jerry Breecher of Clark
University & Stephen R. Schach, Vanderbilt University. Available from
http://www.student.cs.uwaterloo.ca/~cs430/.../Chapter02-Life-Cycle.ppt
11. McKenna, C (2001). Introducing Computers into the Assessment Process: What is the
impact upon Academic Practice? Higher Education Close Up Conference, Lancaster
University. Available from http://ahp.cqu.edu.au.index.htm
12. Veenendaal, Erik van. (The Netherlands), Standard glossary of terms used in Software
Testing, Version 1.3 (dd. May, 31st 2007). Produced by the ‘Glossary Working Party’.
International Software Testing Qualifications Board. . Book on-line. Retrieved on
Tuesday, August 11, 2009. Available from http://www.istqb.org/downloads/glossarycurrent.pdf
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The researcher would like to thank the following people who have significantly
contributed to the accomplishment of this work:
To the USL family and other members of the panel – Ms. Florida A. Mallilin, Ms.
Tomasa D. Bitanga, Dr. Delailah B. Valencia, Mr. Bernardo E. Juan, Mr. Generimo P. Siddayao,
and Ms. Luisa B. Aquino for their unpayable intelligence, quality time, efforts, support and
impressive and constructive suggestions in the improvement of this study;
34
To the ISU-C family - Ms. Judilyn G. Buraga, Dr. Virginia B. Manguba, Dr. Ambrose
Hans G. Aggabao, Mr. Heherson B. Albano, Mr. Paquito Vincent G. Soriano, Mr. Jerome
Buban, Ms. Allen M. Paz, Dr. Ma. Theresa R. Aggabao, Dr. Myrna C. Cureg, Mr. Noel
Cabauatan, Mr. Jouel B. Taggueg, Mr. Boyet Batang, Ms. Henedina Ponce, Ms. Ruth Aguilar,
and Ms. Antonia Bagunu, who were game enough to work with the researcher, for their
unpayable support and constructive insights in the improvement of this work.
ROSALINDA B. GUIYAB
35
ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR OF
STUDENTS IN SELECTED HIGHER EDUCATION
INSTITUTIONS IN REGION 02
EILEEN C. BERNARDO1
ABSTRACT
This study sought to determine the attitudes and behavior of students in Higher Education Institutions in
Region 2 on some environmental issues and concerns. The study showed that majority of the students (91.6%) are
concerned about the environment and considered themselves as environmentalists. Majority perceived that the
Philippine government is concerned enough about the environment. Likewise, most of the respondents thought that
the Filipino public and businesses and industries in the Philippines were in general, worried enough about the
current state of the environment. The students were most concerned with the decrease in the quality of drinking
water, air pollution, damage to the ozone layer, garbage disposal and pollution of rivers and they were least
concerned with global climate change and radioactive contamination. The main activities performed by the
respondents and their families to improve the quality of the environment were volunteering for an environmental
group, recycling, and cutting down the household’s use of energy. There is a need to continuously recognize the
attitudes and behavior of college students on the environment. To enrich environmental education in the Philippines,
global environmental issues and concerns, could be integrated in courses at the tertiary level.
Keywords: environmental attitudes and behavior, perceptions, environmental quality,
environmental education, environmental problems and issues
Introduction
The environment is still continuously suffering from environmental degradation. Toxic
gases enter the atmosphere. Toxic wastes threaten surface and ground waters and agricultural
lands. Environmental problems such as air, water and soil pollution, the solid waste problem,
among others, together with the social, political, and technological changes going on in the
country have brought about greater challenges to the academe, government, industries and other
stakeholders. The protection and improvement of the environment have, therefore, become
imperative educational goals.
1
Professor 6, Department of Environmental Science and Management, College of Forestry and
Environmental Management, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela
36
The urgency for Environmental Education (EE) has been recognized due to these
increasingly pressing environmental problems besetting the Philippines and the world.
Exploitation of ecosystems and the direct damage on the environment, through various kinds of
pollution, have lowered the capacity of the Earth to support mankind’s increasing population.
This has impinged on various social and economic aspects of life but most distressingly on the
basic necessities for survival - food, clothing and shelter.
The problems are so numerous and complex that no single institution can solve these
problems alone. Various sectors of society must be involved. Policy-making bodies must enact a
legislation that will ensure the protection of our environment and a program that promotes
sustainable development.
The role of formal education, in the current state of environmental efforts, however, is the
most basic: to produce a citizenry that is environmentally sensitive and ecologically aware so
that these environmental problems will be prevented.
Thus, while the environmental situation requires concerted efforts by every concerned
citizen, educators must focus on developing people whose values, attitudes, knowledge,
behavior, and skills reflect their concern for Mother Earth as their home, an ecosystem where
harmonious relationships must be preserved, whose healthy ecology must be sustained, if it is to
continue nurturing future generations.
The Philippine educational system integrates various environmental concepts in the
school curriculum at all levels - elementary, secondary and tertiary levels. There is a need for
baseline information for teachers in colleges and universities to work with to further integrate
environmental education in developing an environmentally literate and responsible citizenry who
will ensure the protection and the improvement of the environment.
Objectives of the Study
This paper aimed to investigate the environmental attitudes and behavior of college
students towards some environmental issues and concerns. Specifically, this research aimed to:
1) determine the environmental attitudes of students in selected Higher Education Institutions
(HEIs) in Region 2; 2) describe the perceptions of the college students on the environmental
concerns of the public, the government, and the industry sectors; and 3) identify the
environmental issues that are of greatest concern to the students and to describe the behaviors
they exhibit towards these issues.
37
Review of Related Literature
Environmental education has a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary nature. As such, it
may mean different things to different people. The United Nations Environment Program
(UNEP) defines environmental education as: 1) establishing sensitivity to environmental
problems; 2) raising the level of awareness, appreciation, and concern for nature; and 3)
generating commitment for appropriate action (Guzman and Guzman, 2000). The primary goal
of environmental education is to have an environmentally literate and responsible citizenry who
will ensure the protection and the improvement of the environment, and bring about
sustainability, social equity and economic efficiency in the use of the country’s natural resources.
Categories of EE objectives include not only awareness and knowledge but also attitudes, skills,
and participation (ADB, 1999). Environmental attitudes refer to the totality of an individual’s
disposition or feeling towards the environment. Environmental behavior, on the other hand,
refers to sound actions and advocacy for the environment. One’s attitude becomes the basis for
one’s actions and activities (Ragragio, 2003). Thus, environmental education goes well beyond
the acquisition of knowledge and skills, to cover also the development of appropriate values,
attitudes, life-styles, and behavior among individuals (Soriano, 1995).
A survey of environmental attitudes and behaviors can be the starting point for
educational policies and curricular development in relation to environmental education in the
tertiary level. Ragragio (2003) conducted a survey on the environmental attitudes and behavior
of 558 college students from the University of the Philippines – Manila and De La Salle College
of Saint Benilde. The survey showed a relatively moderate concern for some environmental
problems. Most were concerned with problems directly affecting them or with which they had a
personal experience, such as the quality of drinking water and air pollution. Global problems,
such as global warming and acid rain, were not so much of a concern to the students. Most of the
students were also doing activities which were household-related. They cut down on use of water
and energy, and recycled materials. Ragragio further mentioned that while the respondents were
found to be generally aware of environmental problems, most did not seem to make sacrifices to
improve the environment. She further expounded that willingness to sacrifice is a behavior that
indicates commitment.
Methodology
The questionnaire used by Ragragio (2003) was utilized in this survey study. Minor
modifications were made. The questionnaire consisted of four parts namely: personal
background information of the respondents; respondents’ perceptions on whether or not they
consider themselves as concerned environmentalists and about their attitudes towards the
government, the business and industry sectors, and the public as environmentalists; students’
attitudes towards some environmental issues; and activities the students or their families
performed to improve environmental quality.
38
The questionnaires were randomly distributed to 486 college students from nine colleges
and universities in Region 2 namely: Isabela State University (ISU)-Echague, Cabagan and San
Mateo campuses, Nueva Vizcaya State University-Bayombong, Aldersgate College, Quirino
State College, Quirino Polytechnic College, University of La Salette, Santiago City, Patria Sable
College, Our Lady of the Pillars College and Cagayan Colleges Tuguegarao. Some
questionnaires were distributed by their teachers during their class period.
Results and Discussion
Profile of the Respondents
Majority of the students (54.1%) that participated in the study are 16 to 18 years old and
only 22.6% are 19-21 years old. There are more female respondents (63%) than males. Most of
the students have annual family income of less than PhP 50,000 while very few have family
income of PhP 250,000 and above (Table 1). Most of the respondents (52.5%) are enrolled in
state colleges and universities (SUCs) while 47.5% are studying in private colleges and
universities. In the Cagayan Valley, most students in State Universities and Colleges (SUCs)
come from low income groups.
Table 1. Profile of the respondents
Attribute
Age
Frequency
Percent
263
110
39
74
54.1
22.6
8.0
15.2
150
306
30
30.8
63.0
6.2
250
136
11
8
81
51.4
28.0
2.3
1.6
16.7
16-18
19-21
22 and above
No answer
Gender
Male
Female
No answer
Annual Family Income
Below PhP 50,000
50,000-249,000
250,000-499,000
500,000 and above
No answer
39
Perceptions of the Students on their Outlook towards the Environment, Philippine
Government, the Businesses and Industries, and the Public
Most of the students (91.6%) considered themselves as environmentalists. Of these,
77.3% considered themselves as strong and committed environmentalists (Table 2). In this study,
an environmentalist is someone who is concerned about the environment.
Table 2. Perception of the respondents on being environmentalist
Perception
Frequency
Do you consider yourself as an environmentalist?
Yes
No
No opinion/answer
Do you consider yourself as a strong and committed
environmentalist?
Yes
No
No opinion/answer
Percent
445
20
21
91.6
4.1
4.3
344
54
47
77.3
12.1
10.6
Presidential Decree No. 1152 of 1977 mandates the then Department of Education,
Culture and Sports, now the Department of Education, to integrate subjects on Environmental
Education (EE) in the school curriculum at all levels. In elementary and high schools, EE aims to
orient young citizens develop their perceptions and actions towards environmental protection and
conservation. Thus, these college students should be aware of the environmental issues and
concerns that were discussed in their high school subjects.
The perceptions of the respondents on the level of worry exhibited by the national
government, local government, businesses and industries, and the public, were also gathered.
Most of the students said that the Philippine government, the business and industry sectors and
the Filipino public have the right amount of concern about the environment (Table 3).
40
Table 3. Perceptions of the students on the level of worry of the Philippine government,
Philippine businesses and industries and the Filipino public on the
Environment
Level of Worry
Too worried
Has the right amount of concern
Not worried
No opinion
National
Government
(Percent)
35
42
14
9
Local
Government
(Percent)
30
40
13
17
Businesses &
Industries
(Percent)
26
35
29
10
Public
(Percent)
37
38
17
8
Environmental Attitudes of Students to Some Environmental Problems and Issues
The results of the study showed that majority of the students are concerned about the
environment. The ranking of environmental problems and percentage of respondents who are
very concerned of these problems are shown in Table 4. The environmental problem which most
of the students are very concerned of is the quality of drinking water. This is followed by air
pollution, damage to the ozone layer, garbage disposal, and pollution of river. Drinking water, air
pollution, and garbage disposal are problems directly felt by the students. In addition, the
Cagayan Valley is traversed by the Cagayan River, the longest running river in the Philippines,
and the students seem to know that the river is now under threat against pollution. Damage to the
ozone layer is a global environmental issue and the students seem concerned about this problem.
Few respondents (38.7%) are concerned about radioactive contamination from nuclear facilities
because nuclear power is not used in the Philippines.
Table 4. Ranking of environmental problems and percentage of respondents who are very
concerned
of these problems
Environmental problem
Drinking water
Air pollution
Damage to the ozone layer
Garbage disposal
Pollution of rivers, lakes, reservoir
Toxic and hazardous waste
Calamities/disasters
Rapid population growth
Global warming
Loss of tropical rain forest
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
41
Frequency
364
300
293
279
275
263
258
240
237
221
Percent
74.9
61.7
60.3
57.4
56.6
54.1
53.1
49.4
48.8
45.5
Natural resources depletion
Loss of habitats and wildlife
Ocean and beach pollution
Global climate change
Radioactive contamination from nuclear facilities
11
12
13
14
15
213
203
197
191
188
43.8
41.8
40.5
39.3
38.7
Environmental Behavior and Activities of the Students and their Families
The behavior of the students and activities of the students and their families are shown in
Table 5. Majority (74.9%) voluntarily recycled materials while 61.3% did volunteer work for an
environmental group. Doing volunteer work for an environmental group is a noble act and
therefore, the students seem to be willing to commit their time to improve the quality of the
environment.
Sixty percent (60%) cut their household’s use of energy by limiting the use of household
appliances. Energy conservation might be related to the high cost of electricity. Note that most of
the students who participated in this study come from low income families. Few students
(27.4%) boycotted a company’s product because of its record on the environment. This means
that most of the students still buy products of companies that are not concerned of the
environment. There are also few students (28.4%) who said they are using a more fuel efficient
vehicle. In addition, there are only 31.5% who buy products that are recyclable.
Table 5. Activities performed by the students to improve environmental quality
Activities
Voluntarily recycled newspapers, glass and other items
Did volunteer work for an environmental group
Cut household’s use of energy by limiting the use of
household appliances
Avoided buying or using aerosol sprays
Used cloth rather than disposable diapers
Cut down on the use of a car by car pooling or taking public
transportation
Contributed money to an environmental group
Cut household’s use of water
Specifically avoided buying a product because it was not
recyclable
Used a more fuel efficient vehicle
Boycotted a company’s product because of its record on the
environment
42
Rank
1
2
3
Frequency
364
298
293
Percent
74.9
61.3
60.3
4
5
6
289
272
204
59.5
56.0
42.0
7
8
9
185
172
153
38.1
35.4
31.5
10
11
138
133
28.4
27.4
Conclusion
The results of the survey showed that majority of the students were concerned about the
environment. The environmental problem which most of the students were very concerned of are
the quality of drinking water and air pollution, problems they directly felt. Ocean and beach
pollution, global climate change and radioactive contamination from nuclear facilities were not
so much of a concern to the students. The students also performed activities such as recycling
and cutting down on use of energy.
Recommendations
There is a need to continuously recognize the attitudes and behavior of college students
on the environment. To enrich environmental education in the Philippines, a wide range of
environmental experiences and global environmental issues and concerns, could be integrated in
courses at the tertiary level.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ADB (Asian Development Bank). 1999. Environmental Education Guide. ADB, DECS and
EMB- DENR pp. 56-57.
Bernardo, E. C. 2003. Environmental conservation: What schools can do. Proc of the 4th
International Conference on Environment and Development. J. Van der Ploeg, E. C.
Bernardo and A. B. Masipiqueña (Eds). pp 428-443. Cabagan, Isabela, Philippines.
Guzman, R. S. and R. Z. Guzman, 2000. Environmental Education for Sustainable
Development. Wisdom Advocates Publishers, Quezon City, Metro Manila.
Soriano, L. 1995. Save Mother Earth. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. Quezon City.
Ragragio, E. M. 2003. Environmental attitudes and behavior of college students in two Manila
Universities: Implications to tertiary level environmental education. Journal Environmental
Science and Management, 6(2):16-22.
43
IMPLEMENTASYON NG CHED MEMO ORDER NO. 59 S. 1996 SA MGA
PROGRAMA NG FILIPINO NG SUCS SA REHIYON 2
JAINE Z. TARUN1
ABSTRACT
Ang isinagawang pag-aaral ay tungkol sa ebalwasyon ng implementasyon ng CHED Memorandum Order
No. 59 sa programa ng Filipino ng ilang piling State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) sa Rehiyon 2.
Kinabibilangan ang mga ito ng Cagayan State University, Isabela State University, Nueva Vizcaya State University
at Quirino State College.
Layunin ng pag-aaral na mataya at matiyak ang lawak ng implementasyon ng CMO No. 59 s. 1996 o “New
General Education Curriculum (NGEC) sa Filipino sa mga piling pampublikong unibersidad at kolehiyo sa Rehiyon
2. Sa teorya nina Kaplan at Baldauf tungkol sa ebalwasyon nakaangkla ang pag-aaral na ito.
Lumabas sa pag-aaral ang ganap na pagsasakatuparan ng SUCs sa iniaatas ng CHED Memo Order No.
59 s. 1996 / GEC Filipino sa Rehiyon 2. Ipinatutupad ng mga intitusyong nabanggit ang memorandum ayon sa
kani-kanilang interpretasyon.
Pangunahing salita: Ebalwasyon, Implementasyon, CHED Memorandum Order No. 59 s. 1996, CHED
Memorandum No. 04 s. 1997, Pampublikong Unibersidad at Kolehiyo (SUCs).
Introduksyon
Itinatakda ng Artikulo XIV Seksyon 6 ng 1987 Kostitusyon na ang Filipino bilang
wikang pambansa ay itinatadhanang opisyal na wika ng edukasyon. Bilang pagtugon, ang
Commission on Higher Education o CHED na itinatag noong 1994 sa bisa ng Commission on
Higher Education Act ay nagpalabas ng kanyang kauna-unahang kautusan noong 1996. Ito ang
CHED MEMORANDUM No. 59 s. 1996 o “New General Education Curriculum” (GEC).
Isinasaad ng kurikulum na ito na simula 1997, ang GEC-Filipino rekwayrment ay siyam (9) na
yunit katumbas ng tatlong (3) kurso / sabjek para sa Humanities, Social Sciences at
Communication o HUSOCOM na mga digri. Bago inimplementa ang memorandum nang
sumunod na taon, muling nagpalabas ang
____________________
1
Assistant Professor and Chair of the BEED Program, College of Teacher Education, Isabela State
University, Cabagan, Isabela.
44
CHED ng kautusan at ito ay ang Commission Memorandum (CM) No. 04 s. 1997, ang
“Guidelines to Implementation of CMO No. 59 s. 1996 (GEC). Dito, nakasaad ang anim (6) na
yunit ng Filipino rekwayrment katumbas ng dalawang (2) kurso/sabjek para sa mga digring diHUSOCOM.
Sapagkat magsasampung taon na ang implementsyon ng nasabing memorandum noong
2007, nakita ang pangangailangan sa pagsasagawa ng ebalwasyon. Ang ebalwasyon bilang isang
proseso ay tunay na pag-alam at pagtiyak sa lawak o ekstent kung saan ang mga tunguhin o
layunin ng nabuong estratehiya ay talagang naisasakatuparan. Sapagkat ang pagpaplanong
pangwika ay naglalayong makagawa ng mga tiyak at kaibig-ibig na pagbabago sa isang
sitwasyon o kalagayang pangwika, sa ganito naisasagawa ang ebalwasyon bilang isang proseso
sa pag-alam at pagtiyak ng lalim at lawak ng kung alin sa mga pagbabagong ito ang tunay na
nangyayari at nasusunod.
Ang Layunin at Suliranin Nito
Pangunahing layunin ng pag-aaral na mataya ang lawak ng implementsyon ng
Commission Memorandum Order No. 59 s. 1996 o ang “New General Education Curriculum sa
programa ng Filipino ng mga publikong unibersidad at kolehiyo sa Rehiyon 2.
Tinugunan sa pag-aaral na ito ang mga sumusunod na tiyak na tanong:
1. Gaano kalawak ang implementasyon ng CMO No. 59 s. 1996 sa mga programa ng Filipino
ng SUCs sa Rehiyon 2?
2. Anong mga hakbang ang ginawa ng SUCs sa pagsasakatuparan ng mga probisyon ng CMO
No. 59 s. 1996 partikular sa Filipino komponent?
Kahalagahan ng Pag-aaral
Ang pangangailangan ng ebalwasyon ay higit na binigyang-diin nina Kaplan at Baldauf
(1997). Ayon sa kanila, sa pagpaplanong pangwika ay hindi sapat na makabuo at maipagamit
ang isang estratehiya upang mabago ang isang sitwasyon o kalagayang pangwika. Kailangan ang
patuloy na pagmomonitor o pagsubaybay sa panahon ng implementasyon nito at pagkatapos ay
magsagawa ng ebalwasyon. Kailangan ang pagsasagawa ng ebalwasyon upang makita hindi
lamang ang nagaganap na tagumpay at patuloy na pag-unlad ng estratehiya sa panahon ng
45
implementasyon kundi upang matuklasan din ang kahinaan nito. Ang pag-alam sa kahinaan ng
estratehiya ay kailangan upang mabigyan agad ng karampatang solusyon at pagbabago.
Metodolohiya
Ginamit ang ebalwatib analisis sa pamamaraang kwantiteytib at kwaliteytib sa pag-aaral
na ito na ipinakikita ng figyur sa ibaba.
Figyur 1. Dayagram ng Proseso ng Ginawang Ebalwasyon sa CHED GEC-Filipino
ng SUCS
46
Ebalwatib Analisis ng Datos
Pagsususri ng Datos sa Pamaraang Kwantiteytib
Sarbey/Kwestityonaryo
frequency
percentage
ranking
Pagsusuri ng Datos sa Pamaraang Kwaliteytib Gamit ang Muti-Method
Approach o Triangulation
dokumento
kurikulum
interbyu
Indibidwal/FGD
obserbasyon
mga klase
Lawak ng Implementasyon ng CMO No. 59 s. 1996 GEC
Filipino sa Rehiyon 2
Sa pagsusuri ng datos sa pamaraang kwantiteytib, isinagawa ang pamamaraang sarbey sa
pamamagitan ng kwestiyonaryo at sa pagsusuri ng datos sa pamaraang kwaliteytib, ginamit ang
“multi-method approach” o “triangulation” sa mga sinuring datos mula sa mga dokumento,
47
interbyu at aktwal na obserbasyon ng klase. Nagsilbing kumpirmasyon, balidasyon o patotoo sa
isa’t isa ang bawat resulta ng iba’t ibang pamamaraan.
Resulta at Talakayan
Tinalakay sa bahaging ito ang lawak ng implementsyon ng CHED Memo Order No. 59 s.
1996 sa programa ng Filipino ng SUCs. Sa tulong ng datos na nakuha sa kwestiyonaryo para sa
mga administrador at guro, gayon din sa aktwal na interbyu, mga dokumento at obserbasyon ng
mga klase, tinugunan ng pag-aaral ang unang inilahad na suliranin ng pag-aaral: Gaano kalawak
ang implementasyon ng mga piling institusyong pantersyari sa CHED GEC Filipino sa Rehiyon
2.
Talahanayan 1.2-A. Implementasyon ng CHED GEC Filipino sa mga Degree Program ng
Cagayan
State University – Main Campus.
Mga Degree Program
Bachelor in Elementary Education
(lahat ng Erya ng Ispesyalisasyon)
Bachelor in Secondary Education
(lahat ng Medyor)
Bachelor of Arts in Mass
Communication (lahat ng Medyor)
Bachelor of Arts in Economics
Bachelor of Arts in Legal
Management
Bachelor of Arts in Political Science
Bachelor of Science in Psychology
Bachelor of Science in Mathematics
Bachelor of Science in
Environmental Science
Bachelor of Science in Biology
Bachelor of Science in Business
Administration
Bachelor of Science in Business
Taon ng
Implementasyon
GEC Filipino
Komponent/
Kabuuang
Rekwayrment
Yunit
Fil. 11 Fil. 12 Fil. 13
SY 2005-2006
9
√
√
√
SY 2005-2006
√
√
√
9
SY 2005-2006
√
√
√
9
SY 2005-2006
SY 2005-2006
√
√
√
√
√
√
9
9
SY 2005-2006
SY 2005-2006
SY 2005-2006
SY 2005-2006
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
x
x
9
9
6
6
SY 2005-2006
SY 2005-2006
√
√
√
√
x
x
6
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
x
6
48
Administration and Accountancy
Bachelor of Science in
Entrepreneurship
Bachelor of Science in Hospitality
Industry Management
Bachelor of Science in Information
Technology
Bachelor of Science in Public
Administration
Bachelor of Science in Civil
Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Agricultural
Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Electronics
and Communication Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Electrical
Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Computer
Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Medical
Technology
Doctor in Veterinary Medicine
SY 2005-2006
√
√
x
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
x
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
x
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
x
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
6
SY 2005-2006
√
√
6
Deskriptib na titulo ng mga Filipino sabjek:
Filipino 11 – Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino
Filipino 12 – Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik
Filipino 13 – Masining na Pagpapahayag
Malinaw na ipinakikita ng Talahanayan 1.2-A ang lawak at ganap na implementasyon at
pagsunod ng Cagayan State University (CSU) – Main Campus sa CMO No. 59 s. 1996/GEC-A
at CM No. 04 s. 1997/GEC-B sa isinagawang panlahatang rebisyon (general revision) sa mga
kurikulum ng lahat ng mga degree program nito na isinakatuparan noong Taong-Panuruan (SY)
2005-2006.
Sinunod ng CSU ang siyam (9) na yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino sa mga degree
program sa Edukasyon at HUSOCOM na nilalaman ng GEC-A. Binubuo ito ng Filipino 11
(Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino), Filipino 12 (Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa
Pananaliksik) at Filipino 13 (Masining na Pagpapahayag).
Sinunod naman ang nilalaman ng GEC-B na anim (6) na yunit na rekwayrment sa
Filipino para sa mga degree program na di-HUSOCOM. Katumbas ito ng dalawang sabjek, ang
Filipino 11 at 12. Mapapansing sa rebisyong isinagawa, ganap na sinunod ng CSU ang mga
49
bagong titulo ng mga kurso/sabjek sa Filipino na ibinigay ng CHED Teknikal Komite at ngayon
ay nakapaloob sa “Enhanced General Education Courses.”
Nakita rin na bukod sa siyam (9) yunit ng Filipino rekwayrment sa mga degree program
sa Edukasyon (BEEd at BSEd), ipinakukuha sa mga estudyante ang Filipino 20 (Panitikang
Filipino) bilang sabjek sa Literatura samantalang sa Ingles itinuturo ang Philippine Lit.sa mga
kursong HUSOCOM at di-HUSOCOM.
Ang mga kurso o sabjek rekwayrment ay nakukuha ng mga estudyante sa una at
ikalawang semestre ng unang taon para sa anim (6) yunit at aabot sa unang semestre ng
ikalawang taon para sa 9 na yunit.
Batay sa impormasyong nakuha mula sa isinagawang interbyu sa mga administrador at guro,
isinabay sa rebisyon ang sinkronisasyon ng mga kurso/sabjek na ito sa lahat ng mga degree
program ng iba’t ibang kampus ng CSU upang maiwasan ang anumang suliraning kakaharapin
ng mga estudyante sa interkampus na paglilipat o maging sa pagpapalit mismo ng kurso o
degree. Ayon pa sa kanila, ang hakbang na kanilang ginawa ay lalong magiging kapaki pakinabang kung susunod din ang iba pang mga institusyon sa mga sabjek na iniaatas ng
CHED.
Nasa Talahanayan 1.2-B ang lawak at ganap na implementasyon ng CHED GEC sa
programa ng Filipino sa lahat ng degree program ng Isabela State University (ISU)- Main
Campus.
50
Talahanayan 1.2-B.
Isabela
Implementasyon ng CHED GEC Filipino sa mga degree Program ng
State University – Main Campus.
Mga Degree Progam
Bachelor in Elementary Education
(lahat ng Erya ng Ispesyalisasyon)
Bachelor in Secondary Education
(lahat ng Medyor)
Bachelor of Arts in Development
Communication (lahat ng Medyor)
Bachelor of Arts Psychology
Bachelor of Arts in English
Bachelor of Arts in Sociology
Bachelor of Arts in Political Science
Bachelor of Arts in Legal Management
Bachelor of Art major in Peace & Security
Bachelor of Science in Nursing
Bachelor of Science in Public
Administration
Bachelor of Science in Business
Administration (lahat ng Medyor)
Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship
Bachelor of Science in Agricultural
Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Chemical
Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Food Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Animal Husbandry
Bachelor of Science in Accountancy
Taon ng
Implementasyon
GEC Filipino
Komponent/
Kabuuang
Rekwayrment
Yunit
Filipino Filipino Filipino
11 12 13 15 16 17
SY 2006-2007 x x x √ √ √
9
√ √ √
9
√ √ √
x
x
x
9
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
SY 2006-2007
SY 2006-2007
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
SY 2004-2005
√
x
√
x
x
x
6
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
√
√
x
x
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
SY 2004-2005
√
x
√
x
x
x
6
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
√
√
√
x
x
x
√
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
6
SY 2006-2007
x
SY 2004-2005
51
x
x
Mga Degree Progam
Bachelor of Science in Agri-Business
Bachelor of Science in Information
Technology
Bachelor of Science in Food Technology
Bachelor of Science in Hotel & Restaurant
Management
Bachelor of Science in Architecture
Bachelor of Science in Industrial
Technology
Bachelor of Science in Home Technology
Bachelor of Science in Land Fisheries
Bachelor of Science in Forestry
Bachelor of Science in Agriculture
Bachelor of Science in Biology (lahat ng
Medyor)
Bachelor of Science in Chemistry
Bachelor of Science in Criminology
DAT-BAT (Bachelor in Agricultural
Technology)
Bachelor of Science in Industrial Education
Doctor of Veterinary Medicine
Taon ng
Implementasyon
GEC Filipino
Komponent/
Kabuuan
Rekwayrment
g
Filipin Filipin Filipin Yunit
o
o
o
11 12 13 15 16 17
SY 2004-2005 √ x √ x x x
6
SY 2004-2005 √ x √ x x x
6
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
√
√
x
x
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
√
√
x
x
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
√
√
√
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
√
√
√
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
6
6
6
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
√
√
√
x
x
x
√
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
6
SY 2004-2005
SY 2004-2005
√
√
x
x
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
Deskriptib na titulo ng mga Filipino sabjek:
Filipino 11 – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan
Filipino 12 – Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon
Filipino 13 – Filipino sa Tanging Gamit
Filipino 15 – Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino
Filipino 16 – Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik
Filipino 17 – Panitikang Filipino
52
Sa mga datos na inilalahad ng Talahanayan 1.2-B, tatlo (3) sa mga degree program ng
Isabela State University – Main Campus ang isinunod sa CMO No. 59 s. 1996/GEC-A na may 9
na yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino, dalawang (2) degree program sa Edukasyon at isa (1) sa
HUSOCOM (Bachelor of Arts in Development Communication). Ang iba pang degree program
sa HUSOCOM at lahat ng degree program sa Di-HUSOCOM ay isinunod sa nilalaman ng CM
No. 04 s. 1997/GEC-B na may 6 yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino. Mapapansing hindi parepareho ang taon ng implementasyon ng mga degree program sapagkat walang panlahatang
rebisyon na isinagawa ang ISU.
Sinunod ang “Enhanced General Education Courses” sa karerebisa pa lamang na mga
kurikulum ng BEEd at BSEd na isinakatuparan noong SY 2006-2007 sa dalawang kurso/sabjek:
(1) Filipino 15 – Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino at (2) Filipino 16 – Pagbasa at
Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik. Pinanatili naman ang Panitikang Filipino na binago lamang ang
deskriptib na bilang at ginawang Filipino 17 (dating Filipino 13) alinsunod sa bagong deskriptib
na bilang ng dalawang bagong kurso/sabjek na dati ring Filipino 11 – Sining ng
Pakikipagtalastasan at Filipino 12∗ – Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon. Maliban sa 9
na yunit sa Filipino, ipinakukuha rin sa mga estudyante ang Filipino 20 – Pagpapahalagang
Pampanitikan sa kursong BEEd. Bukod pa rito, ipinakukuha pa rin ang Philippine Literature
bilang sabjek sa Ingles. Samakatuwid, walang hiwalay na mga sabjek sa literature sapagkat ang
Philippine Literature (Panitikan ng Pilipinas) at World Literature (Panitikan sa Mundo) na dapat
sana ay mga sabjek sa literature alinsunod sa isinasaad ng CHED Memo Order No. 59 s. 1996 /
GEC ay ipinakukuha bilang mga sabjek sa Ingles sa mga kursong pang-edukasyon.
Ang Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon, Filipino sa Tanging Gamit at
Panitikang Filipino (Pilipino pa noon) ay mga kurso/sabjek na nasa MECS Order No. 26 s. 1983
“Policies and Standards for Teacher Education” na hanggang ngayon ay di pa napapalitan ng
ISU sa kabila ng mga pagbabagong isinagawa
Sa ginawang rebisyon sa degree na Bachelor of Arts in Development Communication,
ang bumubuo ng 9 na yunit na Filipino ay ang Filipino 11 – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan
(nanatili), Filipino 12 – Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon (dating Panitikang Filipino
ang Filipino 12 para sa mga kursong HUSOCOM at ang Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at
Komposisyon ay dating Filipino 11 para sa mga kursong pang-edukasyon) at Filipino 13 –
Filipino sa Tanging Gamit (dating Filipino 14 para sa mga kursong pang-edukasyon).
Ang 6 na yunit na rekwaryment sa Filipino sa lahat ng digri program ng di-HUSOCOM
at sa iba pang degree program sa HUSOCOM ay binubuo ng Filipino 11 – Sining ng
Pakikipagtalastasan at Filipino 12 – Gamiting Filipino, Pagbasa at Komposisyon. Ang
sinkronisasyon ng mga sabjek ay ginawa sa mga degree program na inoofer ng bawat kolehiyo
(per College) sa lahat ng kampus ng ISU.
53
Sa mga degree program na may 6 yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino, nakukuha ito ng mga
estudyante sa una at ikalawang semestre ng unang taon at hanggang unang semestre ng
ikalawang taon sa mga degree program na may 9 yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino.
Malinaw sa mga inilahad na datos na ginamit na saligan ng ISU –Main Campus ang
isinasaad ng CM No. 04 s. 1997 o ang patnubay sa implementasyon ng GEC na “HEI’s are in the
best position to evaluate the importance and relevance of specific subjects to the courses of study
of their own students and therefore have the academic freedom and flexibility to formulate and
implement their own curricula, provided that the minimum standards set by CHED are met.”
Nasa Talahanayan 1.2-C. Implementasyon ng CHED GEC Filipino sa mga degree
program ng Nueva Vizcaya State University (NVSU)
Mga Degree Program
Taon ng
Implementasyon
Bachelor in Elementary Education (lahat
ng Erya ng Ispesyalisasyon)
Bachelor in Secondary Education (lahat
ng Medyor)
Bachelor of Science in Industrial
Education
Bachelor of Science in Home Technology
(lahat ng Medyor)
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Agricultural
Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Computer Science
Bachelor of Science in Mathematics
Bachelor of Science in Animal Science
Bachelor of Science in Agricluture (lahat
ng Medyor
Bachelor of Science in Agri-Business
Bachelor of Science in Agricultural
Education
Bachelor of Science in Agricultural
Extension Education
Bachelor of Science in Forestry
Bachelor of Science in Environmental
Science
Bachelor of Science in Hotel & Restaurant
SY 2000-2001
GEC Filipino
Komponent/
Kabuua
ng
Rekwayrment
Fil. 11 Fil. 12 Fil. 13 Yunit
x
9
√
√
SY 2000-2001
√
x
√
9
SY 2000-2001
√
x
√
9
SY 2000-2001
√
x
x
6
SY 2000-2001
SY 2000-2001
√
√
x
x
x
x
6
6
SY 2000-2001
SY 2000-2001
SY 2000-2001
SY 2000-2001
√
√
√
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
6
6
SY 2000-2001
SY 2000-2001
√
√
x
x
x
x
6
6
SY 2000-2001
√
x
x
6
SY 2000-2001
SY 2000-2001
√
√
x
x
x
x
6
6
SY 2000-2001
√
x
x
6
54
Management
Bachelor of Science in Hospitality
SY 2000-2001
Management
Bachelor of Science in Veterinary Science SY 2000-2001
√
√
x
6
√
√
x
6
Deskriptib na titulo ng mga Filipino sabjek:
Filipino 1 – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan
Filipino 2 – Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Iba’t Ibang Disiplina
Filipino 3 – Retorika at Pagsasalingwika
Batay sa Talahanayan 1.2-C, lumalabas na sinimulang ipatupad ng Nueva Vizcaya State
University ang 9 na yunit at 6 yunit ng Filipino na nakasaad sa CMO No. 59 s. 1996/GEC-A at
CM No. 04 s. 1997/GEC-B sa mga degree program nito noong SY 2000-2001. Sinunod ang
GEC-A sa mga digri program na pang-edukasyon na may 9 na yunit na rekwayrment sa Filipino.
Para sa mga degree program na di-HUSOCOM, sinunod ang GEC-B na may 6 na yunit
na rekayrment sa Filipino. Ang 6 na yunit na Filipino ay nahahati sa Filipino 11 – Sining ng
Pakikipagtalastasan at Filipino 12 – Pagbasa at Pagsulat sa Iba’t Ibang Disiplina. Pareho o
“synchronized” ang dalawang sabjek na ito sa lahat ng degree program ng dalawang kampus ng
NVSU at gayon din sa Filipino 13 – Retorika at Pagsasalingwika para sa mga degree program sa
edukasyon na may 9 na yunit ng Filipino.
Kinukuha rin ang mga kurso/sabjek na ito sa una at ikalawang semestre ng unang taon
para sa 6 na yunit at karagdagang isa pang semestre (una) para sa 9 na yunit. Batay sa
impormasyong nakuha, nakaiskedyul ngayong taon ang malawakang rebisyon sa mga kurikulum
ng mga degree program ng NVSU.
Makikita rin ang lawak at ganap na implementasyon ng CHED GEC Filipino sa lahat ng
degree program ng Quirino State University (QSC) sa Talahanayan 1.2-D.
55
Talahanayan 1.2-D. Implementasyon ng CHED GEC Filipino sa mga Degree Program ng
Quirino State College.
Mga Degree Program
Taon ng
Implementasyon
Bachelor in Elementary
SY 2005-2006
Education (lahat ng
Ispesyalisasyon
Bachelor in Secondary
SY 2005-2006
Education (lahat ng Medyor)
Bachelor of Science in AgroSY 2005-2006
Forestry
Bachelor of Science in
Criminology
Bachelor of Science in
Information Technology
Bachelor of Science in
Agriculture
Bachelor of Science in Home
Technology (lahat ng Medyor)
Bachelor of Science in
Agricultural Technology
Bachelor of Science in Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources
Bachelor of Science in
Restaurant and Hotel
Management
Bachelor of Science in Nutrition
and Dieteties
GEC Filipino Komponent/
Kabuua
Rekwayrment
ng
Yunit
Fil. 11
Fil. 12
A B A B C D E Fil. 13
x √ √ x x x x
9
√
x
√
√
x
x
x
x
√
9
√
x
x
x
x
√
x
x
6
√
x
x
√
x
x
x
x
6
√
x
x
x
√
x
√
√
6
√
x
x
x
x
√
x
6
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
√
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
Deskriptib na titulo ng mga Filipino sabjek:
Filipino 11:
Filipino 12:
A – Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan
B – Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino
A – Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik
B – Pagbasa at Pagsulat sa Iba’t Ibang Disiplina
C – Komposisyon at Pagbasa
D – Poklorikong Filipino
E – Gamiting Filipino, Komposisyon at Pagbasa
56
Filipino 13 – Masining na Pagpapahayag
Ang Talahanayan 1.2-D ay nagpapakita na sinusunod ng Quirino State College ang CMO
No. 59 s. 1996/GEC-A sa mga degree program sa Edukasyon na nagrerekwayr ng 9 na yunit sa
Filipino. May 6 na yunit na Filipino naman ang mga degree program sa di-HUSOCOM na
isinunod sa CM No. 04 s. 1997/GEC-B.
Sinunod ang nakapaloob na mga bagong kurso/sabjek sa “Enhanced General Education
Courses” sa mga kurikulum ng mga degree program sa Edukasyon na sinimulang ipatupad
noong SY 2005-2006: (1) Filipino 11 – Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino, Filipino 12 –
Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa Pananaliksik at Filipino 13 – Masining na Pagpapahayag. Bukod
dito, ipinakukuha rin sa mga estudyante ang Filipino 21 – Panitikan ng Pilipinas bilang sabjek sa
Literatura na kapalit ng Philippine Literature na itinuturo sa Ingles.
Sa mga degree program na may 6 na yunit na Filipino, binubuo ito ng Filipino 11 –
Sining ng Pakikipagtalastasan at Filipino 12 na may iba’t ibang deskriptib na titulo: Pagbasa at
Pagsulat sa Iba’t Ibang Disiplina sa degree program na BS Criminology; Komposisyon at
Pagbasa sa mga degree na BSIT, BSHT, BSAT, BSFAR, BSRHM, at BSND; Poklorikong
Filipino sa degree na BS in Agro-Forestry; at Gamiting Filipino, Komposisyon at Pagbasa sa
degree na BS in Agriculture. Nangyayari ang ganitong pagkakaiba-iba dahil sa kanya-kanyang
pagsasagawa ng rebisyon ng mga kurikular na programa ang bawat kolehiyo ng institusyon. Sa
Ingles pa rin itinuturo ang Philippine Literature saKinukuha rin ng mga estudyante ang mga
sabjek na ito sa una at ikalawang semestre ng unang taon para sa 6 na yunit at karagdagang
unang semestre ng ikalawang taon para sa 9 na yunit.
Walang nakitang dokumentong magpapatunay kung kailan sinimulang ipatupad ang
karamihan sa degree program ng Quirino State College maliban lamang sa impormasyong
nakuha na ang mga ito ay “Old Curriculum.” Ayon sa nainterbyung ilang administrador, guro at
ang registrar, nagsagawa na sila ng panlahatang rebisyon ng mga degree program maliban sa
mga kursong pang-edukasyon na karerebisa pa lamang, at isinumite na sa Board of Regents para
sa aprubal ng mga ito.
mga kursong nabanggit.
57
Talahanayan 2. Mga Hakbang/Gawain na Isinagawa ng mga Institusyon Upang Ganap na
Maipatupad ang CHED Memo Order No. 59 s. 1996.
Mga Respondente
ADMINISTRATOR
Publiko (SUCs)
Pribadong Sektaryan
Pribadong Di-Sektaryan
Kabuuan (Total)
Publiko (SUCs)
Pribadong Sektaryan
Pribadong Di-Sektaryan
Kabuuan (Total)
Pangkalahatang
Kabuuan (Grand Total)
Ranggo (Rank)
A
Blg.
%
16
8
12
36
44.44
22.22
33.33
100.00
39
20
30
89
125
43.33
22.22
33.33
98.89
99.21
1
Kateorya g mga Hakbang/Gawain
B
C
D
Blg. % Blg. % Blg. %
10
7
11
28
27.78
19.44
30.56
77.78
GURO
24 26.67
17 18.89
24 26.67
65 72.22
93 73.81
2
E
Blg.
%
8
2
5
15
22.22
5.56
13.89
41.67
8
0
8
16
22.22
0.00
22.22
44.44
6
0
4
10
16.67
0.00
11.11
27.78
9
5
9
23
38
10.00
5.56
10.00
25.56
30.16
11
7
14
32
48
12.22
7.78
15.56
35.56
38.10
13
1
4
18
28
14.44
1.11
4.44
20.00
22.22
3
4
5
Hakbang/Gawain na pinapakahulugan ng mga letra:
A – Curricular revision
B – Komperensiya/miting ng mga administrador at mga fakulti
C – Konsultasyon sa. mga estudyante, magulang, alumni at iba pa.
D – Pagpapalabas ng mga memorandum kaugnay nito.
E – Paggawa ng resolusyon ng Board of Regents/Board of Trustees
Batay sa ipinakikitang datos ng talahanayan, nangunguna sa mga ginawa ng mga
institusyong kasangkot ang A - Curricular revision (125 o 99.21%), pangalawa ang B –
Komperensiya/miting ng mga administrador at guro (93 o 73.81%), pangatlo ang D Pagpapalabas ng mga memorandum kaugnay nito (48 o 38.10%), pang-apat ang C Konsultasyon sa mga estudyante, magulang, alumni at iba pa (38 o 30.16%) at panlima ang E Paggawa ng resolusyon ng Board of Regents/Board of Trustees (28 o 22.22%).
Nangangahulugang Curricular revision ang pangunahing isinagawa sa pagpapatupad ng CMO
No. 59 s. 1996 na pinatunayan na ng mga datos na nakuha at nailahad mula sa mga dokumento.
Pinagtibay din ito ng impormasyong nalikom sa interbyu sa mga piling administrador at guro na
nagpahiwatig na curricular revision ang pangunahing hakbang na palagiang isinasagawa sa
pagsunod sa anumang atas ng CHED ukol sa kurikulum
58
Konklusyon at Rekomendasyon
Inilalahad sa bahaging ito ang konklusyon at rekomendasyon ng pag-aaral batay sa mga
kinalabasan o resulta.
Konklusyon
Ang CHED Memo Order No. 59 s. 1996/GEC Filipino ay ganap na ipinatutupad sa ilang
piling publikong institusyong pantersyari o SUCs sa Rehiyon 2 batay sa kani-kanilang
interpretasyon.
May kaunting pagkakaiba ang pagbibigay ng yunit sa Filipino ng mga institusyon na
publiko (SUCs). Sa Cagayan State University (CSU), may 9 yunit ng Filipino sa mga kursong
edukasyon at sa lahat ng mga kursong HUSOCOM at 6 yunit sa lahat ng kursong diHUSOCOM. Ang Isabela state University (ISU) ay nagbigay ng 9 yunit ng Filipino sa mga
kursong edukasyon at sa isang kurso lamang sa HUSOCOM, ang AB Development
Communication samantalang ang iba pa na tulad ng AB Philosophy, English, Sociology,
Political Science, Legal Management at AB major in Peace and Security kabilang ang lahat ng
mga kursong di-HUSOCOM ay binigyan ng 6 yunit ng Filipino. Nagbigay din ng parehong 9
yunit ng Filipino sa mga kursong edukasyon at 6 yunit sa mga di-HUSOCOM ang Nueva
Vizcaya State University (NVSU) at Quirino State College (QSC).
Halos magkakatulad sa paraan ng pagsunod sa CHED Memo Order No.59 s. 1996-GEC
Filipino ang mga piling institusyong pantersyari sa Rehiyon 2. Sinunod ang CMO No. 59 s. 1996
o ang tinatawag na GEC-A sa 9 yunit ng Filipino sa mga degree program na nasa pagkakaalam
nila ay nasa kategorya ng larangang HUSOCOM at 6 yunit para sa mga di-HUSOCOM, na
itinatakda ng CMO No. 04 s. 1997 o ang tinatawag na GEC-B. Sa puntong ito, nakikita na may
kakulangan sa ibinigay na patnubay (guideline) ang CHED kung ano ang mga ispesipik na kurso
ang nasa larangan ng HUSOCOM at di-HUSOCOM. Kung naisagawa sana ito, masasabing
nasusunod nang wasto ang nasabing atas.
Bagamat binibigyang-laya ang mga chartered university sa pagpapatupad o hindi ng
CMO No. 59 s. 1996, malinaw na sumusunod pa rin sa kautusan ang mga ito. Kinakitaan lamang
ang mga institusyon ng di-ganap na pagsunod sa mga kurso/sabjek na itinatakda ng CHED.
Tanging ang CSU lamang ang sumunod sa lahat ng kanilang degree program sa mga bagong
kurso/sabjek na nasa “Enhanced General Education Courses”. Ang kopya ay nakalakip sa
ipinalabas na CHED Memo Order No. 30 s. 2004, “Revised Policies and Standards for
Undergraduate Teacher Education Curriculum”.
59
Tila nagkaroon ng maling interpretasyon ang ibang institusyon sa pagkakalakip ng
nasabing kopya ng E-GEC sa nabanggit na atas. Napansing sa mga kursong pang-edukasyon
lamang sinunod ng QSC ang tatlong bagong kurso/sabjek, dalawa rito ang sinunod naman ng
ISU (ngayon tatlo na mula Filipino 17 – Panitukang Filipino, pinalitan na ng Masining na
Pagpapahayag sa kasalukuyan). Ang mga datihang kurso/sabjek ay sinunod pa rin sa iba pang
mga degree program para sa mga kursong HUSOCOM at di-HUSOCOM. Sinunod ng NVSU
ang tatlong (3) dating kurso/sabjek sa lahat ng kanilang mga kurikular program. Maliban sa
deskripto na titulo ng tatlong dating kurso, may iba’t ibang titulo pa ang ginagamit ng ISU at
QSC. Napansin din na bukod sa Panitikang Filipino na sabjek sa Filipino, ipinakukuha rin ang
Philippine Literature bilang sabjek sa Ingles at/o Literatura sa mga kursong edukasyon ng ISU.
Ang nasabing implementasyon ay masasabing resulta ng pagbibigay-laya ng CHED sa
mga HEI’s na magtakda ng mga kurso/sabjek para sa kani-kanilang mga kurikular program.
Dahil dito, hindi na nagsasagawa ng monitoring o pagsubaybay ang CHED kung sinusunod/disinusunod ang mga itinakda nitong mga kurso / sabjek.
Kung mahigpit / sapilitang ipinasusunod lang sana ng CHED ang “Enhanced General
Education Courses” sa mga kolehiyo at unibersidad, mabibigyan ng solusyon ang mga anumang
suliraning kakaharapin ng mga estudyante hindi lamang sa pagpapalit ng kurso / digri o sa
interkampus na paglilipat kundi maging sa paglilipat sa ibang institusyon.
Rekomendasyon
Inirerekomenda ng pag-aaral ang mga sumusunod:
1. Magsagawa ng katulad na pag-aaral sa CHED GEC Filipino ng mga pribadong institusyong
pantersyari.
2. Magsagawa ang CHED ng mahigpit na pagsubaybay sa lahat ng publikong institusyong
pantersyari o SUCs sa implementasyon ng memorandum.
60
BIBLIOGRAPY
Mga Libro
Almario, Virgilio S. 1997. Tradisyon at Wikang Filipino. Lunsod Quezon: UP -Sentro ng
Wikang Filipino.
Atienza, Monico M. 1992. Kilusang Pambansa Demokratiko sa Wika. Lunsod Quezon:
UP-Sentro ng Wikang Filipino.
Bautista, Ma. Lourdes S. 1996. Readings in Philippine Sociolinguistics. Manila:
Press.
DLSU
Bennagen, Ponciano L. 1991. “Ang Filipino Bilang Instrumento ng Paglaya at PagNasa Tungo sa Ibayong Pagyabong ng Wikang Filipino: Mga Teorya at Praktika.
Linangan ng mga Wika sa Pilipinas.
unlad,”
Manila:
Bernabe, Emma J. F.
1987.
Language Policy Formulation Programming,
Implementation and Evaluation in Philippine Education (1565-1974).
Manila:
Linguistic Society of the Philippines.
Constantino. Ernesto A. 1991. “Theories for Development and Enrichment of Language.”
Nasa Tungo sa Ibayong Pagyabong ng Wikang Filipino: Mga
Teorya at Praktika. Manila:
Linangan ng mga Wika sa Pilipinas.
Constantino, Pamela C. 1991. Pagpaplanong Pangwika Tungo sa Modernisasyon:
Karanasan ng Malaysia, Indonesia at Pilipinas. Lunsod Quezon: UP-Sentro ng
Wikang Filipino.
__________________. 2005. Filipino at Pagpaplanong Pangwika. Lunsod Quezon: UPSentro ng Wikang Filipino.
Cooper, Robert L. 1986. Language Planning and Social Change. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Cruz, Isagani R. 1985. “Language of Instruction in the Humanities.” Nasa New
Directions in Indigenous Psychology: Sikolohiyang Filipino Isyu, Pananaw at
Kaalaman. Manila: National Book Store.
61
RADICAL AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE
PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN MATHEMATICS
AMBROSE HANS G. AGGABAO1
ABSTRACT
This study compared the effectiveness of three teaching approaches on achievement as well as retention of
learning of students. It focused on comparing new teaching approaches that were designed based on constructivist
learning philosophies (social and radical constructivism) to current tradition of teaching. Social constructivism
used the interactive small-group learning while Radical constructivism used the individualized self-engagement
approach. Both were supported with instructional materials and instructional protocol consistent with constructivist
philosophies.
The study followed the Equivalent-Groups-Pretest-Posttest Experimental Design. The experiment was
conducted using 92 freshmen math students of the Teachers College in 2005 now College of Teacher Education.
Results of the study showed significant differences among mean gain scores on both achievement and retention
measures. Radical constructivist approach showed significant advantage over the other two approaches, while the
social constructivist approach showed better gain scores than the current, traditional teaching approach.
Keywords: Radical constructivism, social constructivism, performance of students in Mathematics
Introduction
Relevant to the Philippine Commission on Educational Reform’s (PCER) five
recommended reforms in science and mathematics education (SME), this paper presents a study
that feeds into the improvement of teacher training, curriculum, as well as the development of
instructional materials and instructional procedures consistent with constructivist philosophies
that has pushed reform efforts in science and math education among first world countries.
Constructivist learning theory was considered pivotal and one of the most intriguing
reform efforts in science education during the last two decades (Yager, 1996).
____________________
1
Associate Professor II, College of Teacher Education and Executive Officer, Isabela State University,
Cabagan, Isabela.
62
It is built on the notion that learners are not passive subjects to whom information may be
transferred, but are actively engaged in knowledge construction. It is a theory of knowing
(Ritchie, Tobin and Hook, 1997) that emphasizes knowledge as actively constructed by learners
through their own lenses of experiences (Yager, 1996; English and Halford, 1995; Steffe &
Kieren, 1994). Its philosophical stance argues that truth of knowledge
claims is seen on the basis of viability which refers to the coherence and consistency between
learner’s prior and existing experience and the new constructed knowledge (Jones, 1995).
The foregoing theories may be best understood by a situation where an abstract graph
was presented to groups of learners from whom three major interpretations were observed –
while sharing similarities these were very different from each other in terms of contexts and
positions where stark and substantial differences were observed among them. This revealed that
indeed, learning content or knowledge is not very neat as may have been believed traditionally.
Rather, it suggests a scenario where three elements may be used to evaluate the quality of
learning that happens in a teaching and learning situation as follows: the content to be learned;
the teacher’s construction of the content as it is taught; and the learner’s interpretation of the
content as it is shared to them. This meant that learning episode should offer opportunities for the
teacher-student learning community to hone their ideas and knowledge structures against each
member of the community (Ritchie et. al, 1997) the goal of which is to enlarge as much what
they share in common while admitting their differences.
While constructivist epistemologies agree on the basic tenets of constructivism, two
competing forms have pervaded the literature along this line – social constructivism and radical
constructivism. Heylighen (1995) observed that there are two acceptability evaluation in
constructivist literature. These are coherence and consensus. Coherence refers to the agreement
between and among the various cognitive structures or thoughts within an individual, while
consensus is the agreement of the various cognitive structures or thoughts between and among
individuals. The latter belong to the social constructivist view while the former to the radical
constructivist view.
Social constructivism appears to claim that learning happens best in learning groups
suggesting a teaching model where group work must extensively be utilized. On the other hand,
radical constructivism insists that while there is no question that learning is enriched in group
situations, learning itself must finally come to agreement with individual’s existing knowledge
structures. As such, it is believed that learning can occur in an equally enriched level or even
better, when individual learners are provided varying learning situations or opportunities for
themselves to test their knowledge structures not only through groups, but more importantly
through individual reflections and self-assessments.
63
The Research Problem
From the foregoing situations the following research questions were sought and
answered:
Do the following teaching approaches have differential effects on the achievement and
retention of students in mathematics?
a) Radical Constructivist Teaching Approach
b) Social Constructivist Teaching Approach
c) Traditional Approach
Significance of the Study
Results of this study offer information about constructivist teaching approaches
effectiveness in teaching mathematics at the classroom levels and thus provide a vital guide for
teachers, administrators, as well as instructional system builders. These groups will be guided
accordingly as to design, methods, and arrangement of contents of learning materials consistent
with the demands of constructivist classroom arrangements that enhances active learning
engagement that eventually promote deeper learning and understanding of mathematics
knowledge, values, and skills.
Results of this study will also be very useful among researchers in the mathematics
education field as it offers the promise of widening their appreciation of the implication of
constructivist models from a purely cognitive orientation to a combination of both cognitive and
affective factors especially as it relates to building arrangement for learning among communities
of learners.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Related Literature
Constructivism is a set of interrelated doctrines and philosophies about learning. The
concept may be traced from the works of a number of philosophers whose ideas have been
recognized with strong associations with the current constructivist orientations. Vico for instance
claimed, “human beings can know only what they themselves made”; and Kant wrote, “Human
reason can grasp only what she herself has produced according to her own design”. Piaget also
wrote, “Children develop their own understanding of their environment from their own
experiences and from manipulating their environments as they adapt to it” (Steffe and Kieren,
64
1994). Summing up, constructivism is the notion that learners construct their own knowledge out
of their own experiences.
From these classical ideas, constructivism emerged and was seen as a pivotal reform
initiative in science and mathematics education in the west and has been described as the most
appropriate learning theory (Yager, 1996).
Constructivism suggests that knowledge is not passively received either through the
senses or any means of communication by learners, but is actively constructed by them
(Heylighen, 1997; English and Halford, 1995; Shoenfeld, 1992; and Cobb, Yackel, and Wood,
1992). Rather than passive absorbers of information, learners are viewed as actively engaged in
meaning-making, activating prior knowledge to bear or fit with new situations, and if warranted,
adopting such knowledge structures (Steffe and Gale, 1995). According to this theory it is not
possible to pass on knowledge from one person to another person, hence the roles teachers play
in instruction is one of a facilitator, an architect who constantly provides students with learning
situations from where they can derive or abstract knowledge from (Jones, 1996).
Literature shows that debates within constructivism as reflected lively exchanges of ideas
within the field and contained in thousands of articles and papers during the fourth quarter of the
20th century hang on four philosophical principles that have been termed as the tenets of
constructivism (Doolittle, 1999). These philosophical principles are:
a) Knowledge is not passively accumulated, but is a result of the active cognizing by the
individual from experience;
b) The process of cognition is adaptive that serves the individual’s search for viability;
c) Knowledge is not a mirror of external reality; and
d) Knowledge resides in rich social, cultural, and language-based contexts.
Various types of constructivism emerged along the continuum whose classification is
dependent on the extent to which it satisfies the four philosophies that may be placed in a
continuum that emphasizes individual subjective knowledge construction on the one end to the
more objective socially shared knowledge construction at the other end. Between these extreme
ends lie two generally competing philosophies—radical and social constructivism. These are the
two most common perspectives in science and mathematics education (Jones, 1996; Mathews,
2000). Their differences are basically rooted to their differing criteria in selecting the so called
right construction.
65
Radical constructivism
Radical constructivism proposes that knowledge results from personal experiences of the
learner within his environment. Heylighen (1997) attach the so-called viability criteria of
coherence and to radical constructivism. Coherence in this context refer to the agreement among
thought patterns within individual as new experiences and their prior knowledge are brought to
bear upon each other. Radical constructivist maintain that the individual is the primary actor in
the process of meaning making and thus to the learning process. They must get themselves
personally involved and actively engaged in the learning tasks.
In other words, radical constructivism views knowledge that is constructed as personal
and uniquely determined by each individual. It contends that while the individual shares and
participates to negotiate and admit information from others as part of the learning environment,
what is ultimately constructed and internalized is not something that is necessarily culturally
negotiated (i.e., consensus among community of learners). There cannot be a single reality for all
(i.e. discovery of an ontological reality) that appears to be constant across people and cognizing
agents (von Glasersfeld, 1991). An interpretation of the foregoing suggests a learning
arrangement where individual learners is in constant interaction with learning environments –
books, information, co-learners, and actively seeking answers to seemingly inconsistent
structures until viability is attained. This entails a more individualistic setting in a learning
environment.
Social Constructivism
Social constructivism views knowledge as a cultural product. It proposes that knowledge
is best borne from social interaction. Viability of knowledge claims are judged based on the
extent to which consensus is achieved from the various conceptions and experiences of members
in a culture (Heylighen, 1997). Proponents of social constructivism argue that knowledge is
constructed not only from personal experiences, but from social interaction with others (Jones,
1996). They argue that knowledge is interwoven with culture and society (Ernest, 1992) and
emphasizes social construction of reality.
Ernest (1996) puts that social constructivism argues that apart from the radical’s premise
of subjective knowledge, personal theories that result from the “organization of the overall
thoughts of the learner must be compatible with and limited by the physical and social world of
the learner.” Social constructivists’ views strongly support instructional arrangement anchored
on social interactions and meaning negotiations that can be best achieved through small group
approaches. This line of thought is perfectly exemplified by Yager (1991), a leading social
constructivist, when he claimed that “constructivist teachers of science promote group learning
where two or more learners discuss approaches to a given problem.”
66
Constructivist teaching approaches as illustrated by the foregoing literature seem to
suggest a restructuring of the typical classroom instruction involving whole class discussions,
pre-determined sets of actions that emphasize mechanical compliance to teachers’ prescriptions.
It suggests a shift to a more learner-centered instruction that has strong implications, not only on
the cognitive, but also on the motivational and affective factors underlying learner’s dispositions
in classroom situations
Simon (1995) describes a teaching cycle as consisting of hypothetical trajectories in the
sense that it only contains anticipated learning activity that is changed as teachers interact and
learn more about the learners. Sacro (1996) on the other hand, in appreciation of Simon (1995)
and Steffe and D’Ambrosio (1995), implemented a constructivist teaching model and examined
the effects of constructivist teaching approaches to the problem solving strategies and
performance of students in statistics. Her findings support the superiority of this constructivist
teaching approach over traditional teaching. Similar advantage was observed by Bentillo (1996)
and Santos (2005). These studies suggest that constructivism is not only advantageous in
cognitive learning, but also, in the areas of affective learning.
The foregoing literature presents an ample basis for the efficiency of constructivist
teaching approaches over traditional ones in both areas of achievement and motivation.
However, studies along these lines appear to reflect a generic constructivist orientation. There
seems to be no available research comparing constructivist teaching models that adhere to the
classification in the constructivist continuum earlier mentioned. Many have seemed to have
worked on constructivism in bits and pieces, but if philosophy has to bear on our teaching
practice, it is imperative that the implication of the epistemological bases of the various forms of
constructivism be put to test.
Conceptual Framework
The literature strongly supports the relationships among the variables under study as is
illustrated in the diagram below (Figure 1). It suggests that teaching approaches will have to bear
on achievement and retention measures of learning. By achievement is meant the inclusion of
conceptual understanding, problem solving skills, and procedural knowledge development.
Retention on the other hand is meant the retention of learning as indicated by students’ gain
scores between the immediate posttest and the delayed posttest. Achievement on the other hand
reflected the gain scores between pretesting and immediate post test.
This framework reflects the gist of the literature so far discussed above and offers the
expectation of reflecting significant differences based on the literature available for this study.
67
Achievement
Teaching Approaches
1. Radical Constructivist
2. Social Constructivist
3. Traditional
Retention
Figure 1. The Conceptual Framework
Research Hypotheses
From the foregoing literature and conceptual framework, the following hypotheses were
tested:
1. Students exposed to constructivist teaching approaches have higher achievement mean
gain scores than those exposed to traditional teaching.
2. Students exposed to the radical constructivist teaching approach have higher
achievement mean gain scores than those exposed to the social constructivist teaching approach.
3. Students exposed to constructivist teaching approach have higher retention mean gain
scores than those exposed to the traditional teaching approach.
4. Students exposed to the radical constructivist teaching approach have higher retention
mean gain scores than those exposed to the social constructivist approach.
68
Methodology
Research Design
The study employed the Three Parallel Group Pre and Post Test Experimental Design. In
particular, three groups were used in the study – one served as the control group (Traditional
Group) while the other two were used as treatment groups (Radical and Social Constructivist).
This design is illustrated below (Figure 2) where R means random selection and assignment of
subjects, G stands for group, Oi1 (i=1,2,3) are the pretest results; Xi (i=1,2,3) are the three
teaching approaches; Oi2 (i=1,2,3) represents achievement measures; and Oi3 (i=1,2;3) are the
three delayed observations (retention scores).
R
G1
O11
X1
O12
O13
R
G2
O21
X2
O22
O23
R
G3
O31
X3
O32
O33
Figure 2. Experimental Design
Sample
Ninety-two freshmen students enrolled in basic mathematics course at ISU Cabagan were
used in the study. They were randomly selected and assigned into three groups. The treatments
were then randomly assigned to the three groups. Equivalence of groups were sought on the
following measures: math prior knowledge using the pre-test, reading comprehension scores,
previous math grade, and their college entrance examination grades. Analysis of variance
revealed no significant differences among groups at 95% confidence. Originally, there were 96
students selected, but before the experiment began, four subjects have already dropped out.
Fortunately, the drop outs were evenly distributed that made a 31-31-30 groupings of the 92
students left.
Instruments
Two parallel versions of the Math Achievement Test (MAT) were constructed by the
researcher following generally acceptable procedure of test construction. Only items with
acceptable indices (difficulty, discrimination, and effective distracters) were accepted.
Equivalence of the two versions was made by employing the same test items with the other one
having a different item arrangement. One version was used for the pre-test and the other for the
69
immediate and delayed posttests. This test contained 40-item multiple choice test with a KR-20
reliability coefficient of 0.87.
Six modules were prepared by the researcher covering six topics in basic mathematics.
Each of the six modules was developed and pre-tested using similar groups of students the
previous semester.
Data Collection Procedure
Before the start of the experiment, the groups were pre-tested using the First Version of
the MAT. The training of students in the treatment groups about constructivist learning processes
were made to built students confidence in a changed classroom environment. One for the radical
(Individualized instruction) and another group for the social constructivist learning processes
(small group instruction). The treatments were then formally begun covering topics and
instructions in the six modules. Immediately after completing the six modules, the immediate
posttest was administered. After 30 days, the students were made to take the test again that
coincided and served as their final examination during the semester. The result of this test served
as the delayed posttest measures necessary to provide information about their retention of
learning
Data Analysis Procedure
1. One-way Analysis of Variance was used to compare the pretest scores in order to
establish equivalence of the four experimental groups. The same method was used to determine
equivalence of groups using their reading comprehension, previous math grade, and mathematics
score in their entrance examination. The analysis showed no significant differences in their pretest scores which did not warrant additional statistical treatment to correct initial differences.
2. Similarly, the one-way analysis of variance procedure was used to determine the
differential effects of teaching approach on achievement and retention of students.
3. The Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) was used to compare differences between
means.
Results and Discussion
Results of the study showed the following:
70
Teaching Approach and Achievement
Mean achievement of students by teaching approach are shown in Table 1. Radical
constructivist teaching approach showed the highest mean achievement scores of 11.32 followed
by the social constructivist group at 9.58. The lowest mean was that of the traditional group.
Analysis of variance procedures revealed significant differences among means at above 99
percent level of confidence. The Duncan Multiple Range Test revealed that the radical
constructivist group performed better than the social and traditional groups while the social
constructivist group performed better than the traditional group.
Teaching Approach and Achievement
Mean retention scores of students by teaching approach are shown in Table 2. The means
show the differences in means of the radical group at 19.00 from those of the other groups – the
social and the traditional groups with means of 14.71 and 12.70, respectively. DMRT showed
that the radical group performed much better than the two other groups. Similarly, the social
constructivist group scored better than the traditional group.
The foregoing results of the study confirm the hypothesis that constructivist teaching
approach is more effective than the traditional approach. This is consistent with literature: Sacro
(1995) and Bentillo (1996), although implementing a generic constructivist teaching approach,
have shown that constructivist teaching approach is more effective than traditional approaches.
On the other hand, there has not been any study, which compared the efficiencies of the two
constructivist teaching approach as compared in this study. The result of this study then provides
initial confirmation to the advantage of radical constructivist teaching approach which may be
explained by the following conditions.
Strong individual responsibility and accountability of students over their own learning
results in the radical constructivist setting which may have triggered or induced sustained effort
among students to get themselves engaged and exert personal effort to doing and understanding
learning materials. On the other hand students under social constructivist approach may have
experienced less intense demand for personal for responsibility over their own learning. Added
to this is the possibility of passive participation among some members of the small groups used
in this setting. This passive behavior has always been observed in small group work when not
enough individual accountability over their own learning is effected in them. This observation
generally happens even in small group work.
Moreover, in the same study, Aggabao (2006) have shown that students in radical
constructivist settings exhibited significantly stronger and positive interest and value belief about
mathematics and have provided strong challenge on their mathematics self-efficacy which may
have motivated students under this setting to expend greater and more focused effort in learning
71
the materials. Also, the results showed initial evidence that while interaction in the context of
constructivist literature is important to the learning process, social interaction may not be the
only key to better performance. Rather, unlike the social constructivist focus on social
interaction, interaction with a variety of materials and situations including but not limited to
mentors, modules, instruments, probe questions, and peers contribute collectively and positively
to the learning experiences of the students.
Conclusions
Based on the foregoing discussions of results the following conclusions were made:
1. Teaching approaches have differential effects on achievement of students in
mathematics. Specifically, constructivist teaching approaches have superior effect on
achievement than traditional teaching approach. Moreover, the radical constructivist teaching
approach showed better effects on achievement than social constructivist approach.
2. Teaching approaches have differential effects on learning retention of students in
mathematics. Specifically, social constructivist teaching approaches have superior effects on
retention than those of the traditional group. Moreover, the radical constructivist group has
superior effect on retention than that of the social constructivist group.
Recommendations
Given the differential effects of constructivist teaching approaches on achievement and
retention, it is worthy to replicate this study and expand its concern to include exploration on the
factors that made radical constructivist classroom more effective than its social constructivist
counterpart. Literature supports that classroom teaching approaches impact on motivational
beliefs of students and thus, studies that will explore the effect of social constructivist
approaches on motivational beliefs as a possible explanation may now be considered.
On the other hand, given the multiple dimensions of achievement and hence retention of
each achievement dimension, it is recommended to explore and compare the efficiency of
constructivist approaches on these dimensions. Specifically, these dimensions are conceptual
knowledge, procedural knowledge, and problem solving.
72
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bentillo, E. N. (1996). Microcomputer based laboratory, constructivist teaching, and students
understanding of force and motion. Unpublished Dissertation, University of the
Philippines College of Education. Diliman, Quezon City.
Cobb, P., Yackel, E., & Wood, T. (1995). A constructivist alternative to the representational
view of the mind in mathematics education. Journal of Research in Mathematics
Education, 23, 2-33.
Edcom Report. (1991). Report of the Congressional Committee on Education. Manila: National
Printing Office, p. 12.
English, L. & Halford, G. (1995). Mathematics Education Models and Processes. USA:
Lawrence Earlbaum.
Ernest, P. (1992). Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics: Radical constructivism
rehabilitated? Available at: http://www.ex.ac.uk/
Glasersfeld von, E. (1991). Radical constructivism in mathematics education [Online].
Available at: http://www.ex.ac.uk/
Heylighen,
F.
(1995).
Epistemological
constructivism.
[Online].
Available
at:http://pespmcl.vub.ac.be.construct.htm.
http://www.edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/workshops/tohe1999.
Jones, G. (1996). The constructivist leader. In Rhoton, J. & Bower, P. (Eds), Issues in Science
Education (pp. 140-141). USA: National Science Teachers Association.
Mathews, M. R. (2000). Constructivism in science and mathematics education. [Online].
Available at: http://www.csi.unian.it/educa.
PCER. (2000). Presidential Commission for Educational Reform. Philippine Congress.
Ritchie S., Tobin, K. & Hook, K. S. (1997). Teaching referents and the warrants to test the
viability of student’s mental models. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34, 223238.
Sacro, C. P. (1996). Constructivist teaching: Effects on students problem solving strategies and
performance in statistics. Unpublished dissertation, University of the Philippines College
of Education. Diliman, Quezon City.
Santos, M. G. M. (2005). Achievement motivation and task performance in collaborative-open,
reflective-evaluation learning. Unpublished dissertation, University of the Philippines
College of Education. Diliman, Quezon City.
73
THE TEACHER ON THE INTERNET: SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS,
USAGE, AND ATTITUDES
Audrey B. Simon1
ABSTRACT
This study examined the relationship between and among teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude
towards the Internet with their personal characteristics such as age, number of years in teaching, computer literacy
level, and trainings attended.
A descriptive method of research was used in finding answers to the problems of this study while random
sampling method was applied to select the 124 teacher participants from nine campuses of the Isabela State
University. This study used a four-part questionnaire and a five-point Likert-type scale in gathering and in
interpreting the data. The first part was used to collect the teachers’ personal characteristics. The second part
measured the teachers’ Internet self-efficacy. The third part gathered data on the Internet usage of the teachers,
and the fourth part measured their attitude towards the Internet. Negatively stated attitude questions were scored in
reverse order.
Teacher participants were given one week to complete the questionnaire before the researcher personally
retrieved them. The responses were tallied and presented using frequency distribution, weighted mean and
percentage distribution. The Pearson Product Moment correlation was used to determine the significant
relationships and correlations between and among the variables.
It has been found that: 1) the older the age and the longer a teacher had been in the teaching profession,
the less comfortable he or she was in using the Internet; 2) a high computer literacy level and in-service trainings
influenced the teachers’ frequency of Internet use, high self-efficacy, and positive attitude towards the Internet; 3)
teachers frequency of Internet use increased their self-efficacy and attitude, while a highly positive attitude
motivated teachers to frequently use the Internet and increased their self-efficacy; and 4) the more problems the
teachers encountered the lesser their usage, the lower their self-efficacy, and the more negative their attitudes were.
Keywords: Internet self-efficacy beliefs, internet use, internet attitude
Introduction
The Internet is an extensive network of interlinked yet independent computer networks
through high-speed connections. This technology which originated during the Cold War and in
the American military connects computers across the world into one gigantic global
communications system that allows people to share and exchange data.
.
__________________________
1
Instructor II, College of Teacher Education, Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela
74
During the late 1960s, the United States Defense Department started its task in the area of
computer networking and related technologies through the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) whose goal was to develop a communications system that could function during and
after a nuclear war. In 1969, an experimental system known as ARPAnet was designed to link a
number of military sites together to form a research network. It was also used to connect
computers at several American universities. From then internetwork was the major concept of
ARPA during the late 1970s until the early 1980s which was later shortened to the term Internet
(King, 2002).
This technology has gone from being a highly specialized communications network used
mostly for military and academic applications to a massive electronic bazaar. It has made a
difference in our society today and with its related resources like e-mail, instant messaging we
depend on it for communications, instruction, entertainment and many other things. It has
reshaped the way we learn and do things.
In education, the Internet has radically redefined the way teachers and students obtain
information. One study (Strickland, 2003) stated that Internet is a valuable resource for
educators where teachers can collaborate with other professionals, access information of lessons,
and allow students to conduct research and other related activities.
If properly utilized, the Internet can also augment the shortages in textbooks, make
teachers competent and improve teaching and learning process. It may also be used to replace
the traditional classroom lecture. An instructor may place course notes on Web pages or create a
video recording of a live lecture for viewing on the Internet. However, although the Internet is
believed to be a useful tool in teaching and learning, there is still much to do in order to
maximize its potentials in the educational setting. To attain that goal, teachers who are
transferring the knowledge and skills to students should be given attention to address their fears,
increase their confidence, and improve their use of the Internet particularly in classroom
instruction by providing them technical support and training.
Statement of the Problem
This study was to determine the teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude
towards the Internet, and proposed an Internet training program for teachers as its end product.
75
Significance of the Study
Understanding the relationships between and among variables will help administrators
and curriculum designers develop more effective methods to implement classroom Internet
integration so that investments in technology and training will be successful in meeting the
demand of the digital age and global community.
Review of Related Literature
Internet
The Internet is a “network of networks” of computers linked through high speed
connections. It has different resources which include, but is not limited to, the World Wide Web,
e-mail, interactive on-line chats, and on-line bulletin boards (Watson, 2006). With its
capabilities, it has become a great source of any kind of information such as news, job
opportunities, music, movies, games, and research materials in any fields. According to King
(2002), the Internet is also an effective means for communication through chatting and e-mail
and a good storage for information a user would want to retrieve in the future.
Internet Self-efficacy
One may have access to the Internet, but low self-efficacy may hinder the ability of an
individual to utilize its full potential, including locating online information for instruction.
Concepcion (2003) stated that self-efficacy in teaching with computers or Internet is a form of
teacher efficacy defined as teacher’s expectations that he or she will be able to bring about
student learning. Another study (Tella, Tella, Aveni, & Omoba, 2007) further stressed that
those with high self-efficacy make better use of electronic information and have better academic
performance. Moreover, other studies revealed that factors like age, number of years in teaching,
computer literacy, trainings, attitude and use influence one’s computer and Internet self-efficacy.
Internet Use
The narratives on the experiences of teachers with technological advancements show the
competitiveness of present-day teachers in using modern instructional media such as the Internet
in teaching. The e-mail, word processing, and on-line information were commonly used by
teachers and students for their scholarly work but much less frequently for teaching and learning.
Hernes, Hestmann, & Haaland (2000) established that younger teachers embrace the
Internet to a larger extent than older teachers. Newer teachers are more likely to use computers
or the Internet in the classroom. A research study indicated that experienced teachers are more
76
reluctant than new teachers in using computers in their classrooms. To successfully implement
the use of Internet to classroom instruction, it is important for the teachers to have knowledge,
skills and access to the Internet.
Attitude towards the Internet
Researchers have indicated that successful implementation of computers into the
classroom is highly dependent upon the positive attitudes of teachers as well as other educators.
They suggested that if teachers were confident in their use of computers, they would show
positive attitudes toward computers (Pina & Harris, 1993).
In Luan et al. (2005) study, it was shown that the more positive attitudes the teachers had,
the longer they stayed on-line. Likewise, Hong et al. (2003) stressed that those teachers with
longer exposure and more opportunities to use the Internet, have more positive attitudes toward
learning to use the technology. Moreover, Hernes et al. (2000) in their study found that younger
teachers have a positive attitude towards the use of the Internet in their own teaching.
Internet training for Teachers
Strickland (2003) attributed the lack of computer use by teachers to the lack of quality
training. The President’s Commission on Web-based Learning (Microsoft Peer Coaching
Program Facilitator’s Guide [MPCPFG], 2006) also stressed that many teachers avoid
technology because they lack the skills, knowledge, and strategies that will help them integrate
the technology into the curriculum. Some teachers may just simply not use the technology. In
the same study, this kind of teachers’ behavior is attributed to inadequate teacher training which
is believed to be the greatest barrier to integrating technology into school’s curriculum.
The findings of The U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment (Digangii et al.,
2002) ascertained that a specific training on integrating technology into curriculum is one of the
most important factors in the successful implementation of educational technology in the
schools. This denotes that an extensive training in modern technologies like the Internet is a
prerequisite for effective classroom integration of the said technology. Trainings like hands-on
workshops, mentoring, and peer coaching were believed to be effective for technology
application and usage. Peer coaching programs help teachers successfully integrate technology
into the classrooms by which they work together to enrich the curriculum and pedagogy within
subjects and to make connections between subjects. In this approach, coaches can attend one
another’s classes without any tension and stress because the process is based on mutual support
(Microsoft Peer Coaching Program Facilitator’s Guide, 2006).
77
Conceptual Framework of the Study
The concepts and findings of related literature and studies on self-efficacy beliefs, usage,
and attitude towards the Internet and personal characteristics guided the formulation of the
conceptual framework of this study.
The conceptual framework simply shows the relationship between teachers’ personal
characteristics and their self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude towards the Internet. It also
shows the relationship between and among the teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude
towards the Internet. The results were used as bases in designing the proposed Internet training
program for teachers.
In the conceptual framework, the independent variables are the teachers’ personal
characteristics which include teachers’ age, number of years in teaching, computer literacy level,
and trainings, while the dependent variables are the teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and
attitude towards the Internet.
78
The conceptual framework of the study
Trainings
Age
Teachers’
Personal
Characteristics
Computer
Literacy Level
Number of Years
in Teaching
Objectives
Proposed
Internet
Training
Program for
Teachers
Strategies
Resources
Content
Evaluation
79
Methodology
This study made use of the descriptive method of research in finding the relationships
between and among variables such as teachers’ age, number of years in teaching, computer
literacy level, trainings, Internet self-efficacy beliefs, usage and attitudes. The participants were
124 in-service teachers of the Isabela State University who were selected through random
sampling method. A four-part questionnaire with some items adopted from previous studies was
used to gather the needed data.
To achieve accurate, valid and reliable results, the participants were given one week to
complete the four-part questionnaire before the researcher personally collected and retrieved it.
To analyze the data effectively, only completed surveys were included. A completed survey was
one that had responses for all the items in the questionnaire. For better interpretation of the
results, the value interpretation scale in Table 1 was used.
Table 1. Value Interpretation Scale
Scale
4.50 –
5.00
3.50 –
4.49
2.50 –
3.49
1.50 –
2.49
1.00 –
1.49
Self-efficacy Beliefs
Very high selfefficacy
High self-efficacy
Moderate selfefficacy
Low self-efficacy
Very low selfefficacy
Interpretation
Usage
Attitude
Very frequently
Very highly positive
used
attitude
Frequently used
Highly positive attitude
Seldom used
Moderate attitude
Very seldom used
Highly negative attitude
Never used
Very highly negative
attitude
After the sets of questionnaire were retrieved, the researcher coded the responses. The
responses were then tallied using frequency distribution through the aid of Microsoft Excel while
weighted mean and percentage distribution were used to present the participants’ responses in
parts 1 to 4 of the questionnaire. The Pearson Product Moment correlation was used to
determine the significant relationships and correlations between and among the variables.
80
Results of the Study
Teachers’ Use of the Internet
Although teachers indicated that education, research and communication are the main
purpose of their Internet use, this study found that their usage of the Internet services is generally
very seldom and that they only spent an average time of 1-2 hours whenever they accessed the
Internet regardless if their use was daily, 3-4 times a week, twice a week, or once a week.
Majority of the teacher participants accessed and used the Internet at school and at the Internet
cafes outside the school with a combined percentage of 87.57.
Lack of time due to hectic schedules and other work assignments, slow access speed in
getting online and display of web pages, unavailability or weak Internet connection at home
location, and high Internet rental fee are the top four problems the teacher participants
encountered which they believed have hindered their use of the Internet. Despite the problems
they have encountered the teachers still believed that the Internet has influenced their academic
efficiency and among these are fast and quick lesson preparation, better access to a broad range
of instructional resources, and improved teaching effectiveness and performance.
Teachers’ Internet Self-efficacy and Attitude
The teacher participants have a moderate self-efficacy on both the general and classroom
Internet self-efficacy with a mean of 3.16 and 3.13 respectively. They also have a highly
positive attitude on both their affection and perceived usefulness of the Internet with a mean of
1.88 and 1.66 respectively while their attitude in their perceived control of the Internet is
moderate with a mean of 2.55.
Relationship Between Teachers’ Self-efficacy Beliefs, Usage and
Attitude Towards the Internet, and Personal Characteristics
As far as the relationship between the teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage and attitude
towards the Internet, and personal characteristics, the findings showed that teachers’ age, number
of years in teaching, computer literacy level, and trainings influence the teachers’ frequency of
use, confidence, and attitude towards the Internet.
81
Table 6. Relationships Between Teachers’ Personal Characteristics, Self-Efficacy Beliefs,
Usage and
Attitude towards the Internet
Personal
Characteristics
Self-efficacy on
the Internet (r)
Attitude towards
the Internet (r)
-.54
-.55
.74
Use of the
Internet
(r)
-.48
-.43
.62
Age
Years in teaching
Computer literacy
level
Training
.26
.24
.41
-.44
-.46
.73
This shows that younger and newer teachers have higher self-efficacy level, better
Internet use, and more positive attitude towards the Internet. It is also indicated that as their
computer literacy level and training increases, the better their self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and
attitude towards the Internet. The findings revealed that the relationships are all statistically
significant.
Relationships Between and Among Teachers’ Self-efficacy Beliefs, Usage, and Attitude
Towards the Internet
In terms of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, usage, and attitude towards the Internet, the
result revealed that all the relationships are statistically significant. This indicates that as their
confidence increases, their attitudes become more positive that makes them use the Internet more
frequently and confidently. Likewise, as there is an increase in teachers’ use of the Internet, their
self-efficacy and attitude becomes better.
Table 7.
Relationship Between Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Usage and Attitude
towards the
Internet
Variable
Use
Self-efficacy on the Internet
Attitude (r)
.65
.81
Self-efficacy on the Internet (r)
.67
-
82
Relationships Among Personal Characteristics
The relationships between age and training, and the number of years in teaching and
training established that the older the age of the teachers, and the longer they are in the teaching
profession, the lesser their attendance to Internet trainings. This may be due to the fact that older
teachers were only starting to use and experience the Internet since personal computers have only
been available for approximately 30 years, the Internet less than half that time. The results also
confirmed that the older the age of the teachers and the higher their number of years in teaching,
the lower their computer literacy level while the more attendance to trainings, the higher their
computer literacy level becomes.
Table 8. Relationships Among Personal Characteristics
Personal
Characteristics
Age
(r)
Years in
Teaching (r)
Age
Years in teaching
Computer literacy
level
-
.90
-
Computer
Literacy Level
(r)
-.54
-.55
-
Relationships Between Teachers Self-efficacy Beliefs, Usage,
Encountered, and Average Time Spent When Using the Internet
Training
(r)
-.19
-.18
.34
Attitudes,
Problems
The low coefficients in the correlations between self-efficacy beliefs, usage, attitudes,
problems, and average time spent when using the Internet revealed that problems like lack of
time, slow access speed, high rental rate, non-existence of computer center designed for teachers
use only, and weak Internet connection affect the time the teachers spend whenever they use the
Internet. These factors also influence their frequency of use on the different Internet services,
their self-efficacy, and their attitude towards the Internet.
83
Table 9.
Relationships Between Self-efficacy Beliefs, Usage, Attitude, Problems
encountered, and
Average time spent
Variables
Self-efficacy
Beliefs (r)
Usage
(r)
Attitude
(r)
Problems encountered
Average time spent
when using the
Internet
-.14
-.09
-.1
Average time spent
when using the
Internet (r)
-.12
.46
.39
.45
-
Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn from the findings of the study:
The older the age and the longer a teacher has been in the teaching profession, the less
comfortable he or she is in using the Internet. Older teachers who have already developed their
styles and strategies may not readily accept changes and explore new approaches as compared to
younger and newer teachers who are still starting to develop their own methods and beliefs about
instruction. The younger teachers who display greater comfort with technology outweighs
advantages of greater teaching experience the older teachers may have acquired.
A high computer literacy level contributes to the frequency of Internet use, high selfefficacy, and positive attitude towards the Internet. Those who are very good computer users are
more confident and comfortable to use the Internet as frequently as they want. While the
Internet in-service trainings improve teachers’ level of self-efficacy, their usage and attitudes on
the Internet. Knowledge and skills in the use of computers are essential in gaining confidence,
usage and better attitude towards the Internet.
The more problems the teachers encounter the lower their self-efficacy, the lesser their
usage, and the more negative their attitudes are. The more time the teachers spend in accessing
the Internet and the more frequent they use it, the more that they explore the different Internet
services, the higher their self-efficacy becomes, and the more positive attitude that they will
have.
84
Recommendations
Based from the results and findings of this study, the following recommendations are
drawn:
For Practice
There should be more in-service trainings with follow-up that focus on the Internet
integration to instruction. Training must be continual and peer coaching program should be
practiced for any degree of proficiency to be maintained. Teachers with prior trainings should be
separated from those without trainings.
Better technology facilities and services should be provided inside the school specifically
a computer center designed for teachers only to enhance their self-efficacy, their use, and attitude
towards the Internet for better transfer of learning to students and more classroom technology
integration.
Administrators and Internet service providers must also work in partnership to address
the problems that hinder the teachers’ use of the Internet and affect the level of their self-efficacy
and attitude.
For Research
Since teachers have their own specialization, future research should examine the
differences in Internet use, self-efficacy, and attitude towards the Internet in the different
academic disciplines to determine if different groups of teachers need different kinds of training.
The same study can also be done with the students as participants for the enhancement of the
technology curriculum.
After the implementation of the proposed Internet training program for teachers, it is
likewise important to have a study on the impact of the training to teachers’ classroom
integration of the technology.
PROPOSED INTERNET TRAINING PROGRAM FOR TEACHERS
Based on the preferences of the teacher participants alongside findings from this study
and related literatures, an Internet training program for teachers as output of this study is
proposed.
85
Rationale
The training program design is an intensive training with lecture-discussion, hands-on
workshops, and peer coaching since these kinds of training are believed to be effective for
technology application and usage.
The design follows the following elements in Kemp et al. model of instructional design:
objective, content, strategies, resources and evaluation. The objective element explains what
competencies the training will provide the participants for this proposed training program. The
contents or topics to be covered are stated under the content element while the evaluation
element provides the participants a guide on what are expected of them after the training. The
approaches and resources needed for the participants to gain knowledge and skills are reflected
under the strategies and resources elements, respectively. The timetable or schedule element is
added to determine the number of hours each of the contents requires.
Objectives of the Training Program
This proposed training program aims that teachers gain the following benefits the Internet
could give to education: (1) easy and rapid communication, 2) access to expert resources and
information not locally available, (3) access to up-to-date information, (4) easy sharing of
information and work products, (5) support for cooperative group work specifically for students,
and (6) support for learning information and visual literacy skills (Roblyer, 2004).
Contents of the Training Program
The following are the seven major topics of the proposed Internet training program for
teachers:
1. creating e-mail accounts and using the e-mail features, exchanging and posting
messages
2. on-line discussions using chat room, instant messaging, and Internet telephony
3. finding relevant information using search engines
4. navigating and evaluating webpages and sites
5. downloading freeware/shareware from the Internet
6. creating and editing lesson materials using Webquest
7. peer coaching in technology utilization
86
Approaches and Strategies
PowerPoint presentations, video introduction or demonstrations, print materials, and
hands-on exercises will be provided for the participants to get the information and skills they
need.
Considering the findings in this study that younger teachers have better Internet usage,
self-efficacy, and attitude towards the Internet than the older teachers, the proposed training
program will also use the peer coaching concept in the delivery of the training program. The
objective of the peer coaching is to provide timely, effective staff development to teachers
(Microsoft Peer Coaching Program Facilitator’s Guide [MPCPFG], 2006).
Resources
The following resources are required when this proposed Internet training program for
teachers will be conducted in the future:
Materials and Equipment
♦ computer laboratory equipped with at least 20 functional computers that are connected to
the Internet
♦ WIFI connection
♦ LCD projector
♦ Compact disks and other external storage for participants’ output
♦ print materials as participants’ handouts
Resource Persons/Trainers
The resource persons and trainers will be selected from the pool of Information
Technology, Computer Science, and Educational Technology teachers of the Isabela State
University and experts from other agencies and universities to provide broader knowledge and
skills to the participants of the training. To benefit from the results of this study, younger
teachers/participants may also serve as coaches to the older teachers during the implementation
of the training program.
Evaluation
The participants will be evaluated based on their output from all the activities required for
every topic and their final presentation with Internet integration to classroom instruction. The
87
participants will also be given evaluation forms to evaluate the training program for
improvement and better implementation for the next group of participants.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Concepcion, M. R. B. (2003). Computer use and self-efficacy of teachers: bases for designing a
computer training program. (Unpublished thesis)
Digangii, S., Jannasch, A., Kiley, K. M. , Stafford M. E., & Diken, I. H. (2002). The Erutido
Project: Evaluation of an Internet training program for classroom teachers. Turkish
Online Journal of Distance Education – TOJDE July 2002. Vol. 3(3).
http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/tojde>?articles/Eruditiotxt.htm. Retrieved: 8/15/06.
Hernes, F., Hestmann, M. & Haaland, E. (2000). Knowledge and competence in ICTt among
teachers in Norway. http://www.ifip.or.at/con2000/iceut09-04.pdf. Retrieved: 8/15/06
Hong, K. S., Ridzuan, A. A., & Kuek, M. K. (2003). Students’ attitudes toward the use of the
Internet for learning: A study at a university in Malaysia. Educational Technology &
Society, 6 (2), 45-49.
King, David (2002).
Corporation.
A quick and practical guide to the Internet.
Worldlink Marketing
Luan, W. S., Fung, N. S., Nawawi, M., Hong, T. S. (2005). Experienced and inexperienced
internet users among pre-service teachers: their use and attitudes toward the internet.
Educational Technology and Society, 8 (1), 90-103. Retrieved:
Microsoft Peer Coaching Program Facilitator’s Guide, v2.2b. Puget Sound Center for Teaching,
Learning and Technology (2006)
Pina, A. A. & Harris, B. R. (1993). Increasing teachers’ confidence in using computer for
education. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Arizona Educational
Research Organization. (Tucson, Arizona, November, 1993).
ERIC Database:
ED365648.
Roblyer, M. D. (2004). Integrating educational technology into teaching. Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Strickland, J. S. (2003, Winter). An Investigation of the Effects of Using LISTSERV Discussion
Group After Traditional Workshops to Sustain Staff Development: Training K-12
88
Teachers to Use Internet Resources. The Journal of Interactive Online Learning. Vol. 1,
(3). http://www.ncolr.org. Retrieved: 12/5/06
Tella, A., Tella, A., Aveni, C. O., & Omoba, R. O. (2007). Self-efficacy and Use of Electronic
Information as Predictors of Academic Performance. Electronic Journal of Academic and
Special Librarianship. vol. 8 no. 2. http://southernlibrarianship.icaap.org. Retrieved:
12/23/06
89
COMPARATIVE EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT GROWTH ENHANCERS
ON BROILERS
DELMAR T. MACAPIA , LAZARINE T. MAMAUAG &
OLIVEROS M. VALIENTE1
ABSTRACT
The study aimed to determine the efficacy of different growth enhancers in broiler.
A total of ninety six (96) day old straight run cobb broiler chicks were used in the study. Complete
Randomized Block Design was employed with four treatments replicated three (3) times.
The treatments were as follows: TO-Plain water, T1-Atovi, T2-Aloe Vera, T3-Sorghum Syrup.
Result of the study revealed no significant differences on the final weight of broilers with T3 obtaining the
highest mean final weight of 1.93kgs. followed by T1, T2 and TO with mean final weights of 1.89 kgs.,1.65 kgs., and
1.58 kgs respectively.
Data analysis in feed consumption, growth rate and feed conversion ratio showed no significant differences
among treatment means.
Keywords : Growth Enhancer, Feed Conversion Ratio, Broiler, Feed Consumption
Introduction
Poultry production is considered one of the most common and very promising
agricultural enterprises especially for low income farm families. It offers several advantages to
the raisers. It is an efficient feed converter into poultry meat in only 35 days, giving a quick
return of investment (ROI) that would allow 5-6 production cycles in a year.
Boiler production is a big industry. It represents 85 percent of poultry meat that Filipinos
consume. Unfortunately, the demand for poultry and poultry by products continue to rise as
human population increases, resulting in the greater demand for high quality ingredients to be
used in mixed feeds. High quality feeds usually means importation of major ingredients such
as fish meal and soybean meal. It is therefore desirable to source alternative ways to enhance
and hasten animal’s growth during these times of unstable prices of feeds. The utilization of
growth enhancers can best be desired as nutrition based therapy and this has a positive effect on
the feed efficiency, weight gain, livability, high immune system and other intestinal diseases. In
view hereof, the study was conducted to attest its efficiency on the growth performance of test
animals.
______________
1
Student, Instructor II & Associate Professor IV, Provincial Technical Institute of Agriculture-Isabela State
University, Cabagan, Isabela.
90
Objectives of the Study
1. To compare the efficiency of the different growth enhancers in broilers.
2. To evaluate the cost and return analysis of using the different growth enhancers.
Review of related Literature and Studies
Diet containing probiotics significantly increased average daily gain during the first week
of experimental feeding than the diet without probiotics. This is according to Yeo and Kim
(1991).
Chung (2003) stated that vitamins must be present in sufficient quantities in the diet to
ensure efficient utilization of carbohydrates, protein, fats, minerals, and water for health and
maintenance and production function such as growth development and reproduction. B-Meg
Poultry Raising Guide (1975) cited that in the presence of stressful condition like the movement
of the birds, the presence of infection, sudden change of weather and feeding practices,
vaccination, deworming and debeaking birds need to be supplemented with vitamins.
Vitamins are most commonly function as coenzymes and regulators of metabolism as
stated by Pakisan (2202).
Anonymous (1995) stated that vitamins are needed to maintain a large number of
metabolic processes in the body and if any of the vitamins are in short supply the growth and
health of the body is seriously affected.
Premium Laboratories Handout (2004) reported that PAV stress check vitamins and
electrolytes aids in prevention or correction of vitamins and electrolytes deficiencies in domestic
animals.
Fronda (1972) said that using additives not only make the production of broilers
economical but also help in the control of diseases that the broiler producers have to fight
against.
Gill (2001) stated that researchers and practicing nutritionist recognize the importance of
diet to influence meat quality especially as it involves vitamins and mineral status of the animal.
Savena (1991) said that poultry feeds that are commercially formulated may have 10-12
ingredients, two to three sources of minerals, and 10-15 sources of micro-nutrients, vitamins and
trace minerals, while the nutritional aspects of feed formulation are becoming fully regulated,
there are several so-called nutritional factors which are having effect on the poultry industry.
91
Chickens are particularly susceptible to vitamin deficiencies, the reason for this are (1)
the chicken derives little or no benefit from microbial synthesis of vitamins in the gastrointestinal
tract, rather than synthesizing vitamins that may be used by the host, the intestinal
microorganism in the chicken compete with the host for dietary; (2) chicken have high
requirements for the vitamins which are the spark plugs of the vital metabolic reactions in the
animal body. (3) high density concentration of modern poultry farming places many stresses
upon the chicken which may increase its vitamin requirements. (T.W. Perry, et al.,2000).
In the study of Buban et. Al (2001) cited by Galang (2004) that the inclusion of growth
enhancers showed no significant increase in feed intake. The same result was also obtained by
Luis (2001).
Bejar and Copa (2007) stated in their study that aloe vera utilized as growth enhancers is
safe for animal intake. It further revealed that final weight and gain in weight of broilers (5-10
ml) was enhanced compared to plain water.
Copa (2007) stated that no significant results were found in Feed Conversion Ratio
(FCR) of broiler although numerically those given extracts showed slightly better FCR than
those given plain water.
On the other hand, Jin et. al. (1998) expounded that broilers fed with probiotics/growth
enhancers up to 42 days had significant improvement in body weight, feed and gain ratios than
those broilers fed without probiotics/growth enhancers.
This coincides with results obtained by Bernardo (1995) who compared the effects of
giving probiotics alone and in combination with antibiotics. The probiotics tested group had
higher mean body gain than the control group.
The growth rate pattern/curve obtained by Bernardo was similar to the findings of Reyes
(2004) where in the growth rate was observed to be higher during the first two weeks and
diminishes as chicken grows older.
Methodology
A total of ninety –six (96) day old straight run Cobb broiler chicks were used in the study
and were distributed to three cages with a dimension of 2.5m x 1.10m. Each cage was further
subdivided into four (4) cages for the different treatments with eight (8) birds per cage.
One week prior to the arrival of the chicks the cages were cleaned thoroughly and
disinfected with Biocid. The cages were provided with electric bulb as heaters up to four weeks
92
of age and until their feathers were fully developed. Likewise, feeding trough and plastic
waterers were provided for each cage.
Research Design
The study was conducted using Complete Randomized Design with the following
treatments: TO – plain water, T1 – Atovi 20 ml – per 4 liters of water, T2 – Alovera 20 ml – per
4 liters of water, and T3 – Sorghum syrup 20 ml – per 4 liters of water.
Care and Management
On the first week of feeding, chick booster feeds as spread on old sheets of newspaper.
For the rest of the feeding period, feeds were placed on the feeding trough. Starter mash was
given the second week up to the fourth week of the feeding period. Feeding was done three (3x)
a day at 6:00 am, 11: a.m. and 4:00 o’clock in the afternoon.
Growth enhancers were mixed at the rate of 20 ml per 4 liters of water and was made
available at all times in each cage.
All other management practices such as hygiene and sanitation was followed strictly.
Results and Discussion
Weekly Gain in Weight of birds in grams is shown in Table I. Treatment I (Atovi) gave
the highest mean of 303.54 grams. This was followed by Treatment 3 (Sorghum Syrup) and
Treatment 3 (Alovera) with a mean of 282.43 grams and 269.79 grams, respectively. Treatment 0
(Control) gave the lowest mean of 252.08 grams.
This coincides with the findings of Chung (2003) which stated that vitamins must be
present in sufficient quantities in the diet to ensure efficient utilization of carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, minerals and water for health and maintenance of birds.
Statistical analysis of variance indicated no significant differences among
treatment means.
93
Table 1. Weekly gain in Weight per bird in (grams)
Treatment
Mean ns
252.08a
303.54a
269.79 a
282.43a
TO
T1 (Atovi)
T2 (Alovera)
T3 (Sorghum Syrup)
ns – Not significant.
The feed consumption of birds in kilograms is presented in Table 2. The highest feed
consumption among treatments was obtained by Treatment T3 (Sorghum Syrup) with 4.70
kilograms, followed by Treatment TI (Atovi) 4.39 kilograms and Treatment TO (Control) with
4.12 kilograms respectively. Treatment T2 (Aloe Vera) registered the lowest feed consumption
of 4.06 kilograms. This coincides with the finding of Galang who reported that inclusion of
growth enhancers to broiler diets has no significant effect on feed intake. The same result was
reported by Luis (2001) in his study.
Analysis of variance showed no significant differences among treatments means.
Table 2. Feed Consumption per bird in kilograms.
Treatment
Meanns
TO (Control)
4.12 a
T1 (Atovi)
4.39 a
T2 (Aloevera)
4.06 a
T3 (Sorghum Syrup)
4.70 a
ns – Not significant
The feed conversion ratio of birds in kilograms is presented in Table 3. The highest feed
conversion ratio was obtained by Treatment TO (Control) with a mean of 2.65 kilogram
followed by Treatment TI (Atovi) 2.70 kilogram, Treatment T2 (Aloevera) 2.74 kilogram
respectively. Treatment T3 (Sorghum Syrup) obtained the least mean feed conversion ratio of
2.84 kilograms.
The differences on feed conversion ration conforms with findings of Colapo (2007) stated
no significant results were found in feed conversion ration (FCR) of broiler although,
numerically, those given extracts showed slightly better FCR than those given plain water.
94
Table 3. Feed Conversion ratio per bird in (kg)
Meanns
2.65 a
2.70 a
2.74 a
2.84 a
Treatment
TO (Control)
T1 (Atovi)
T2 (Aloevera)
T3 (Sorghum Syrup)
ns – Not significant
The water consumption of bird in liter is presented in Table 4. The highest water intake
among treatments is Treatment T1 (Atovi) with 1.96 liters, followed by Treatment T2 (Aloe
Vera) with 1.80 liters and Treatment T0 (Control) with 1.77 liters, respectively. Treatment T3
(Sorghum Syrup) have the lowest water intake of 1.67 liters.
Statistical analysis indicated no significant differences among treatment means.
Table 4. Water consumption per bird in (liter)
Meanns
1.77 a
1.96 a
1.80 a
1.67 a
Treatment
TO (Control)
T1 (Atovi)
T2 (Aloevera)
T3 (Sorghum Syrup)
ns – Not significant
As presented in Table 5 the final body weight of broilers showed that Treatment T3
(Sorghum syrup) obtained the highest mean body weight of 1.93 kgs., followed by Treatment T1
(Atovi) with a mean body weight of 1.89 kilograms and Treatment T2 (Aloe vera) with a mean
body weight of 1.65 kilograms respectively. Treatment T3 (Control) gave the lowest mean body
weight of 1.58 kilograms. Results on final body weight coincide with the findings of Yeo and
Kim that diets containing probiotics/growth enhancers significantly increased the weight of
broilers without probiotics.
Table 5. Final body weight per bird in (kg)
Treatment
TO (Control)
T1 (Atovi)
T2 (Aloevera)
T3 (Sorghum Syrup)
ns – Not significant
Meanns
1.58 a
1.89 a
1.65 a
1.93 a
95
As shown in Table 6, the return above feed cost revealed that Treatment T1
(Atovi) obtained the highest return on investment with an ROI of 35.33. The second highest ROI
was obtained by Treatment T3 (Sorghum syrup) followed by Treatment T2 (Aloe vera) with an
ROI of 31.12 and 25.37 respectively. The lowest ROI was obtained by Treatment TO (Control)
with 18.97.
Furthermore, the return on investment (ROI) revealed that the use of growth enhancers
are more economical compared to commercial feeds.
Table 6. Return above feed cost of the experimental birds
Treatment
T0 (Control)
T1 (Atovi)
T2 (Aloevera)
T3 (Sorghum syrup)
Computed
Production
Cost
2718.48
2854.56
2688.24
3010.80
Total weight
of the birds
Cost per kg.
Liveweight
Gross
income
Net
Income
ROI
38.05
45.45
39.65
46.45
85
85
85
85
3234.25
3863.25
3370.25
3948.00
515.77
1008.69
82.01
37.20
18.97
35.33
25.37
31.12
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
The study was conducted from July to September 2007 at the PTIA laboratory farm,
Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela to test the efficiency of different growth enhancers on
broiler.
The study made use of ninety six (96) straight run day old Cobb broiler chicks. The birds
were distributed to four (4) treatments replicated three times with eight (8) birds per treatment
following the Complete Randomized Design. The treatments used were as follows: T0 (Plain
water), T1 (Atovi) 20 ml per liters of water, T2 (Aloe vera) 20 ml per 4 liters of water and T3
(Sorghum syrup) 20 ml per liter of water.
The birds were fed with their corresponding diets for six (6) weeks. The data gathered
were analyzed for weekly rate of growth, feed consumption and feed conversion ratio.
The study showed no significant differences on weekly rate of growth, feed consumption,
water consumption and feed conversion ratio.
Conclusion
The following conclusions were drawn from the results of the study. Utilization of
growth enhancers reduced the cost incurred thus enabling the raisers to increase the profitability
96
of the enterprise. The cost of return above feed cost revealed that Treatment T1 (Atovi) obtained
the highest return on investment with an ROI of 35.33 the second highest ROI was obtained by
Treatment T# (Sorghum syrup) followed by Treatment T2 (Aloe vera) with an ROI of 31.12 and
25.37 respectively. The lowest ROI was obtained by Treatment T0 (Control) with 18.97.
Furthermore, the Return On Investment (ROI) revealed that the use of growth enhancers
are economical compared to commercial feeds.
Recommendations
Further study should be conducted using growth enhancers with higher concentration to
determine its efficacy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Atheton, D. and S, Robin. 1987. A Europpean perspective, Biotechnology on The feed
Industry, All Technical Publications.
Bernardo. 1995. Medicinal Plants of the World. Computer index with more than 8,500 entries,
3 volumes.
Bejar, F. R. and Copa, R. P. 2007. Aloe Vera in the Diet of Borilers. Philippine Agriculture.
Bejar, F. R. And Copa, R. P. 2008. Aloe Vera the New Chicken Growth Enhancer.
Philippine Agriculture.
Buban, et. al. 2001. Probiotics to Broiler Diets.
Chung, T. K. Poultry International 1987. pp 17.
Fronda 1972. Utilization of Feed Additives in Broiler Production. Poultry Science and
Production. Third Edition. Pp 20-22.
97
Gill. 2001. Meat Evaluation of Broilers Using Probiotics. BSA Second Semester 2001.
Pampanga Agricultural College.
Pakisan. 2002. All about Livestock and Poultry. 2001 – 2002 Pakisan. Com.
Premium Laboratories Inc. 2004. PAV stress check vitamin and electrolytes in domestic
animals. Perry. T. W. , et al. 2000. Commercial Chicken Production Manual 4th
Edition. Pp. 34-36.
Savena, A. P. 1991. Poultry Science and Production. Third Edition pp. 49-52.
Reyes, S. 2004. Poultry Science. Third Edition pp. 49-52.
Yeo and Kim. 1997. Performance Enhancer in Broiler Diets. Poultry
Production. Third Edition pp. 60-63.
98
Science and
MOUNT PINATUBO LAHAR AS PHYSICAL BARRIER TO PREVENT TUNNELING
AND SOIL PENETRATION OF PHILIPPINE MILK
TERMITE (COPTOTERMES VASTATOR LIGHT)
HEHERSON B. ONG1
ABSTRACT
Philippine subterranean termite Coptotermes vastator Light, was tested for its ability to penetrate lahar
barrier consisting of uniform or mixed particles ranging in size from 0.71 - 2.36 mm in diameter. Laboratory
bioassay showed that lahar particle in the range of 1.0 – 2.36 mm, 1.18 – 2.36 mm and 2.0 – 2.36 mm in diameter
prevented penetration of C. vastator. Mixed sized particles with equal proportion of each effective size range were
also effective in preventing penetration of the termite.
Keywords: physical barrier, lahar, subterranean termite, Coptotermes vastator
Introduction
The catastrophic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 deposited a huge volume of
ash and volcanic debris around the surrounding slope of the volcano. Estimates by the Philippine
Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHILVOLCS) put the volume of ejected volcanic
materials to about 5–8 billion cubic meters (Newhall and Punongbayan 1996). Over time, heavy
monsoon rains flushed these materials downslope burying residential, commercial and
productive agricultural lands in surrounding provinces of Pampanga, Zambales, and Tarlac.
In response to this calamity, government and private organizations have tried ways to
utilize volcanic materials and minimize the negative impact of the eruption. Lahar is currently
being studied and developed for various applications in agriculture, ceramics, foundry works,
textile industry, soil and pavement engineering, civil and construction works (Lejano,1995).
One potential use of lahar is in termite control, specifically as physical barrier against the
entry of destructive subterranean termites into homes and timber structure. The technique could
offer a potential alternative for chemical pesticides and provide a source of livelihood for the
lahar- affected communities while helping restore the land to its productive condition.
____________________
1
Instructor II and Chair, M.S. Forestry Program, College of Forestry and Environmental Management,
Isabela State University, Cabagan, Isabela.
Objectives of the Study
99
In general, the study sought to determine the possibility of using lahar particles as
physical barrier to prevent tunneling and soil penetration of Philippine Mil Termite.
Specifically, it aimed to:
1. determine the range of particle size of volcanic debris (lahar) that would prevent
tunneling or penetration of Coptotermes vastator Light.
2. examine the relationship between termite body measurements or morphology and
ability of C. vastator, to penetrate lahar barriers of various sizes.
Significance of the Study
The current method of subterranean termite control relies mainly on the use of persistent
chemical “termiticide” which is sprayed or injected into the soil to create a toxic chemical
barrier. However, this technique usually leaves too much chemical residue in the soil that caused
serious environmental problem. On the other hand, the use of a physical barrier is relatively safe,
uniform and would never require reapplication as chemical barriers often do. It also has the
potential to reduce health hazards associated with persistent pesticides and would help to reduce
the load of toxic chemicals in the environment. Unfortunately, no studies on the use of physical
barrier to prevent entry and infestation of subterranean termites into homes and timber structure
has been done in the Philippines.
Lahar is a potential material as physical barrier to prevent tunneling and penetration of
subterranean termites. If proven effective, it will potentially reduce the use of pesticides in the
urban environment and provide source of income for the affected communities. Commercial
opportunities also exist for excavating contractors and pest control operators to install barriers
for preventive termite control. Subsequently, the utilization of lahar for termite control may help
in the restoration of the profile of river beds to reduce flooding, provide better quality of water,
and eventually benefiting farmers in bringing back the lahar-covered soils to its former
productive condition.
Review of Literature
Subterranean Termites Biology and Behaviour
Subterranean termites are the most common and economically important wooddestroying organisms found throughout the Philippines. They are social insects that live in
highly organized colony structures consisting of workers, soldiers, and reproductives or alates
(winged termites). As their name suggests, subterranean termites build their nests in the soil.
100
They infest woody debris in soil and invade wood structures through direct soil contact (Zabel
and Morrell 1992).
Subterranean termites live similarly to ants - in colonies in the ground. The workers are
wingless, not sexually mature and apart from the family Hodotermitidae, are blind (Fig. 1).
Their tunneling and food collection makes most of them pests (Pearce 1997).
The role of soldiers is to defend the colony from predators (Fig. 1). They possess a larger
head that is longer and wider than that of the workers so as to contain more muscle or an
enlarged frontal gland. (Pearce 1997).
The alates or the reproductives breed the colony. The colony is normally led by a queen
who has a life span of approximately 15 years and is capable of producing up to 2,000 eggs a
day. The workers and soldiers may live 3-5 years with caste proportions of approximately 360
workers: 40 soldiers (Grace et al. 1996). A colony is surrounded by an extensive foraging
system consisting of tunnels underneath the ground, with a mature colony containing millions
of termites (ARS 2002).
Fig. 1. C. vastator worker termites and soldier termite
with visible mandible used for colony defense
101
Coptotermes vastator Light
Among the subterranean termites, C. vastator is considered the most destructive,
persistent and widely distributed species in the Philippines (Acda 2004). It is locally called as
“milk termite” as soldiers of this species produce a milky secretion when disturbed giving the
species its name. C. vastator is indigenous to the country and is responsible for more than 90%
of the annual loss from termite damage to wooden structures in Metro Manila and other urban
areas of the country (Acda 2003). Despite advances in insect control technology, this species
still remains very prevalent and a serious problem among property owners. Estimates of the
monetary value due to destruction to human property and agricultural or forestry crops in the
Philippines is about 8-10 million dollars annually (Yudin 2002).
Methodology
Lahar Extraction
Volcanic debris (lahar) was obtained from Sto. Tomas and Bucao rivers in the province
of Pampanga. It was sifted through a series of sieves (corresponding to Tyler screen sieve no.10,
12, 14, 16, 18, 20 and 25) to obtain groups of uniform particle sizes from 0.71 to 2.36 mm in
diameter. These were used to test the ability of the termites to tunnel and excavate through layer
of lahar barrier.
Termites
Termites from active colonies of Coptotermes vastator Light, were extracted by gently
tapping infested logs or secondary nest material into plastic trays containing moist paper towels.
The plastic containers were covered to protect the termites from dehydration. Termites were
immediately transported to the laboratory and were placed in an incubator set at 30o C and at
least 80% relative humidity.
Morphological Measurements
Microscopic measurements were made to determine any relationship between particle
size, body measurements and distance penetrated by each termite species. Foraging workers of
C. vastator were collected from three field colonies and were used for body measurements. Mean
body weight of worker termites for each colony and species was determined by weighing ten
groups of twenty termites each. Ten workers were selected at random from each colony/species
combination and placed in 85% ethanol. These specimens were measured under a
102
stereomicroscope (40x) to obtain means of body weight, abdomen width, head length, head
width, mandible length, and body length with mandible. Regression analyses were used to
estimate the relationship between particle size and distance penetrated by each termite species.
Laboratory Penetration Bioassay
Laboratory penetration bioassay was performed to determine the range of particle size
that will prevent tunneling of C. vastator. Penetration bioassay was evaluated in glass tube
devices similar to those described by Su and Schefrahn (1991) and the laboratory set up of
termites following the method of French and Trajstman (2003) (Fig. 2). Three hundred worker
termites plus 30 soldiers were then placed inside the plastic bowl. At the top end of the glass tube
a piece of Whatman paper #1 was set in agar and sealed with a double layer of aluminum foil
caps. If the termites were able to penetrate the 5-cm lahar barrier and feed on the paper, the
barrier was considered breached and ineffective.
Experimental units were held in an incubator maintained at 30o C and at least 80%
relative humidity. Observations were made daily for one week and vertical distances of tunnels
were recorded. The test was replicated five times for each particle size in three different colonies.
Particle size was the factor for evaluation and the maximum vertical distance penetrated was
subjected to an analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Differences of distance among particle sizes were analyzed for each colony by a
completely randomized (CRD) design. The differences among colonies were evaluated by means
of Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). Significant differences between particle size
barrier were separated by Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) test at α = 0.05 level of
significance.
103
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the tube set up to evaluate termite penetration
Results and Discussion
Evaluation of Uniform Lahar Particle Size
Workers of C. vastator penetrated the barrier with uniform particle size range of 0.71 mm
– 0.85 mm and 0.85 mm – 1.00 mm (Table 1). However, lahar barrier of 1.00 mm – 2.36 mm
significantly reduced penetration by C. vastator in the lahar barrier.
The ability of C. vastator workers to penetrate lahar barriers of various particle sizes
differed from colony to colony. Results showed that termites collected from C.H.E., U.P. Los
Banos, Laguna (UPLB) are more aggressive and bigger in size than the other two colonies.
Termites penetrated the agar at the base of the glass tube few minutes after set-up but slowly
decreased tunneling activity after 3-5 days as compared with other two colonies collected from
AMTEC and old Agronomy, UPLB, respectively. This variation in colony behaviour within
species is consistent with the findings of Su and Scheffrahn (1992) on their study of the
penetration of sized-particle barriers by field populations of the Formosan subterranean termite
(C. formosanus Shiraki), a close relative to C. vastator. However, effective particle size for C.
vastator is smaller as compared with the effective particles (1.7 mm – 2.80 mm) used for C.
formosanus reported by Su et al. (1991). This result could be explained by the smaller body size
and mandible length of C. vastator than its Formosan relative.
104
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for distance penetration of C. vastator showed that
particle size had significant effect on the ability of worker termites to penetrate the lahar barrier
(Table 2). In addition, results suggest that there are no significant differences in distance
penetration among the three colonies of C. vastator in seven days laboratory bioassay (Table 5).
Comparison of treatment means indicated that five particle size treatments with no
breaching observed, (size range 1.00–1.18 mm to 2.00–2.36 mm) are not significantly different
from each other (Table 3). This implies that any of these five particle size treatments could be
used as an effective barrier to control tunneling activity of C. vastator.
Regression Model for Barrier Penetration
DistancePenetrated(mm)
The relationship between the size of particles and distance penetration of the termites
through lahar barriers was determined by means of regression modeling. Regression equation
was used to predict the penetration of a termite given the particle diameter of lahar. The
predictive regression lines or patterns of variation of the different termite penetrations are
graphically presented in Figures 3. The value of distance penetration (mm) is determined by
substituting the values of the particle sizes (mm) in the predictive regression equations. Nonlinear relationships were observed between particle size and the corresponding penetration of the
termites.
Particle Size (mm)
Figure 3. Relationship between particle size (mm) and distance penetration (mm) through lahar barriers by C.
vastator. Regression model was log (distance penetration) = 1.37 – 1.35 lo g(particle size); R2 = 73.3%.
Evaluation of Mixed Lahar Particles
Lahar barriers of mixed particle sizes obtained from particles that were not breached in
the laboratory bioassay were equally effective in preventing penetrations by C. vastator. Mixed
particles A (50% each of particles passing through Tyler sieve no. 10 and no.12) as well mixed B
( 20% each of five particle size range passing through sieve no. 10 to no. 18) were successful in
105
preventing penetration of C. coptotermes (Table 4).. Statistical analysis suggests that both mixed
particles were not significantly different when used as barrier to control termite penetration
(Table 5). Variation in colony penetration was not evident as revealed by the analysis of variance
(Table 6).
Table 1. Distance penetrated (mm) by Coptotermes vastator through a 5-cm layer of
various sieve fractions of volcanic debris (lahar) after 7 days of exposure.*
TYLER
SPECIES
COLONY
SCREEN PARTICLE SIZE
MEAN
(MM)
SIEVE
AMTEC
CHE
AGRO
NO.
No. 8-10
2.00 - 2.36
3.40 ± 1.34b
15.4 ± 7.64bc
2.20 ± 0.45d
7.00 ± 3.14c
No. 10-12
1.70 - 2.00
2.40 ± 0.55b
7.40 ± 4.22c
3.80 ± 2.39cd
4.53 ± 2.38c
No. 12-14
1.40 - 1.70
3.80 ± 1.30b
6.80 ± 3.42c
4.40 ± 1.82cd
5.00 ± 2.18c
No. 14-16
1.18 - 1.40
13.0 ± 5.66b
8.60 ± 1.67c
8.60 ± 2.88cd
10.1 ± 3.40c
No. 16-18
1.00 - 1.18
10.6 ± 10.5b
9.40 ± 4.34c
14.2 ± 4.97c
11.4 ± 6.59c
No. 18-20
0.85 - 1.00
41.6 ± 18.8a
25.4 ± 21.0ab
27.0 ± 21.3b
31.3 ± 20.4b
No. 20-25
0.71 - 0.85
42.2 ± 17.4a
34.2 ± 16.7a
50.0 ± 0.00a
42.1 ± 11.4a
* Each value is the mean ± standard error of five (5) replicates from each colony. Means with the same
letter are not significantly different at 0.05 level (LSD).
Table 2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean distance penetrated (mm) by three
colonies of Coptotermes vastator through a 5-cm layer of various sieve
fractions of volcanic debris (lahar) after 7 days of exposure.
Source of Value
Variation
Particle Size
Error
Total
DF
6
14
20
SS
MS
3923.6114
434.0362
4358.1181
653.9352
31.0362
F
21.07
P
Value
0.0001
Table 3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean distance penetrated (mm) by three
colonies of Coptotermes vastator through a 5-cm layer of various sieve fractions
of volcanic debris (lahar) after 7 days of exposure.
Source of Value
Variation
Particle Size
Colony
Error
Total
DF
6
2
12
20
SS
MS
3923.6114
7.2038
427.3028
4358.1180
653.9352
3.6019
35.6068
106
F
18.36
0.10
P
Value
0.0001
0.9046
Table 4. Distance penetrated (mm) by Coptotermes vastator through mixed sized
particle barrier of volcanic debris (lahar) after seven days.*
BARRIER TYPE
PARTICLE
SIZE (MM)
COLONY
CHE
AMTEC
AGRO
SPECIES
MEAN
Mixed A
(50 % Mesh # 10
1.77 - 2.36
3.40 ± 0.89a
1.00 ± .00b
2.20 ± 0.45a
2.20 ± 0.78a
& 50% Mesh # 12)
Mixed B
(20 % each of
1.00 – 2.36
11.0 ± 8.19a
3.60 ± 2.07a 2.20 ± 1.10a
5.60 ± 3.84a
Mesh # 10 to 18 )
* Each value is the mean ± standard error of five (5) replicates from each colony. Means with the same
letter are not significantly different at .05 level (LSD).
Table 5. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean distance penetrated (mm) by three
colonies of Coptotermes vastator through mixed sized particle barrier of volcanic
debris (lahar) after 7 days.
Source of Value
Variation
Particle Size
Error
Total
DF
SS
1
4
5
17.34
47.60
64.94
MS
17.34
31.036211.90
F
1.46
P
Value
0.2939
Table 6. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the mean distance penetrated (mm) by three
colonies of Coptotermes vastator through mixed sized particle barrier of volcanic
debris (lahar) after 7 days.
Source of Value
Variation
Particle Size
Colony
Error
Total
DF
SS
MS
F
1
2
2
5
17.34
32.68
14.92
64.94
17.34
16.34
7.46
2.32
2.19
P
Value
0.2669
0.3134
Morphological Measurements of Subterranean Termites
The mechanisn of how physical barriers are able to prevent entry of termites is that the
particles are too large and heavy for the termite to move with its mandibles. It must be too hard
to be chewed into smaller pieces and the spaces between the particles are too small for termites
to pass through (French and Trajstman 2003).
107
Measurement of body and head lengths, head and abdomen widths as well as body
weight and mandible length of the worker termites were determined (Table 7). The termites were
effectively controlled by particle size range beginning from Tyler screen sieve no. 18 (1.00-1.18
mm). These results were similar to that of French and Trajstman (2003) who reported that width
of the head is the single most important measurement in a termite’s ability to penetrate the
various grade sizes of barrier screenings.
Table 7. Morphological measurements of subterranean worker termites from three
colonies of Coptotermes vastator Light.
C
O
L
O
N
Y
AMTEC
CHE
AGRO
Mean
MEAN ± SE
Body weight,
Mandible
length
Head length
with mandible
Head width
Abdomen
width
(MG)
(MM)
(MM)
(MM)
(MM)
1.85 ± 0.24 b
1.95 ± 0.16b
3.20 ± 0.26a
2.33 ± 0.75
0.37 ± 0.03b
0.38 ± 0.04b
0.42 ± 0.03a
0.39 ± 0.03
1.29 ± 0.11a
1.29 ± 0.06a
1.30 ± 0.06a
1.29 ± 0.01
1.11 ± 0.06a
1.16 ± 0.05a
1.15 ± 0.02a
1.14 ± 0.02
1.55 ± 0.10
1.58 ± 0.13
1.42 ± 0.10
1.52 ± 0.08
Body
length
with mandible
(MM)
4.64 ± 0.25b
4.99 ± 0.29a
4.40 ± 0.24b
4.68 ± 0.30
* Each value is the mean ± SE of ten (10) replicates. Means with the same letter are not significantly
different at 0.05 level (LSD).
Summary and Conclusion
The study was conducted to provide information on possibility of using lahar particles as
physical barrier to prevent tunneling and soil penetration of the economically important
subterranean termite in the Philippines. Seven particle sizes ranging from 0.71 mm to 2.36 mm (
Tyler screen sieve no. 10 to no. 25) were tested in the laboratory using three different colonies
of C. vastator. Two mixed particles with effective size range based from laboratory results were
also selected for evaluation against C. vastator.
Results of the study showed that a suitable lahar barrier for C. vastator would be the
particle size range of 1.00 mm to 2.36mm, both uniform and mixed.
Recommendations
With the promising results obtained in the laboratory and field bioassays, actual testing
for the use of effective lahar particles is suggested. As this study is considered pioneering in the
Philippines and the results are still preliminary, pilot scale evaluation of lahar barrier to prevent
entry and tunneling of active colonies of subterranean termite C. vastator into homes and timber
structures could be done in a small model house.
108
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acda, M.N. 2003. Philippine Termite Handbook. International Tropical Timber
Organization, College, Laguna. 125 pp.
Acda, M.N. 2004. Economically important termites (Isoptera) of the Philippines and their
control. Sociobiology 43: 159-168.
Agricultural Research Service (ARS). 2002. Agricultural Research Service Formosan
Subterranean Termite Program Information. University of Hawaii Termite Project.
French, J.R., B. Amhed and A. Trajstman. 2003. Laboratory and field evaluation of granite
aggregate as a physical barrier against subterranean termites of the genus Coptotermes
spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 42:129-149.
Grace, J.K., J.R.. Yates and C.H.M. Tome. 1996. Termite-resistant construction: use of
stainless steel mesh to exclude Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae).
Sociobiology 28: 365-372.
Lejano, B.A. 1995. Lahar for Modular Housing Component. Technological University of the
Philippines (TUP). Manila.
Pearce, M.J. 1997 Termites: biology and pest management. CAB International.UK
Su, N.Y. and R.H. Scheffrahn. 1992. Penetration of sized-particle barriers by field
populations of subterranean termites. J. Econ. Entomology. 6: 2275-2278.
Su, N.Y. and R.H. Scheffrahn and P. Ban. 1991. Uniform size particle barriers: a physical
exclusion device against subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ.
Entomology.8: 220-225.
Yudin, L. 2002. Termites of Mariana Islands and Philippines: Damage and Control. Sociobiology 40 (1):71-74.
Zabel, R.A. and J.J.Morrell. 1992. Wood microbiology: Decay and Its Prevention. Academic Press, Inc. pp 30-31.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to Dr. Menandro N. Acda,
professor of the Department of Forest Products and Paper Science (FPPS), CFNR, U.P. Los
Baños, for the technical guidance and support given during the conduct of the study.
109
PLANT DIVERSITY AND STATUS OF THE ISU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
MA. VISITACION D. GUINGAB1
ABTRACT
A study was conducted to generate knowledge on the flora resources of the Isabela State University
Wildlife Sanctuary.
The study revealed a total of 165 plant taxa from the floristic survey area. Of this, 68 or 41.21% were
indigenous while 97 or 58.79 % were introduced species to the wildlife sanctuary. Of the 97 introduced species, 20
are native to the Philippines and 77 are exotic. Eleven (11) species were identified as endemic, that is, they are only
found in the Philippine archipelago.
An assessment of the status of the different plant species was carried out to establish a foundation for their
protection, conservation and monitoring. Assessment of the status of each species revealed ten (10) threatened
species both locally and nationally. Among these three (3) are critically endangered or facing an extremely high risk
of extinction in the wild. These species belong to the family Dipterocarpaceae as follows: Shorea astylosa (yakal);
Shorea contorta (white lauan) and Hopea cagayanensis (narek). All three species are endemic to the Philippine
archipelago. Hopea cagayanensis is endemic only to Cagayan province. On the other hand, two (2) are endangered
species or facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild: Diospyros philippinensis (kamagong) and Podocarpus
costalis (igem-dagat) while five (5) are vulnerable or facing a high risk of extinction in the wild as follows: Afzelia
rhomboidea (tindalo), Pterocarpus indicus (narra), Vitex parviflora (molave), Instia bijuga (ipil), and Ficus
ulmifolia (tibig).
Keywords: flora, endemic, indigenous, endangered, threatened species
Introduction
The Isabela State University at Garita Campus is endowed with a rich assemblage of
endemic, indigenous and exotic species. The lack of knowledge about the woody plants,
however, is a constraint. This is due to the fact that not a single flora of significance has been
completed.
This publication documents plant species that occur within the boundaries of the ISUWS.
It is an update to the previous publication “Enumeration, Identification and Phenology of Tree
Species at the ISUWS” in 1995. For the last 15 years, several species
____________________
1
Faculty, College of Forestry & Environmental Science, Isabela State University, cabagan Campus.
110
have been discovered and added to the list, which, include all woody species. The list will be
useful to biologists and anyone looking for a common or scientific name for a plant that occurs
in the area. It hopes to serve as a foundation for future work and an answer to the urgent need by
Taxonomy and Dendrology students of what is known of the woody flora of the campus. No
plant species is complete, the discovery of additional native species is very likely and new exotic
plant species could invade and become established.
Objectives of the Study
This study was conducted to generate knowledge on the flora resources of the ISUWS.
Specifically it aims to: a) determine the floristic diversity and conservation status of plant taxa;
b) determine the plant taxa being threatened by utilization and habitat loss; and c) formulate
recommendation and strategies to increase awareness on plant diversity and conservation
Methodology
This is a continuous study of the previous floristic survey conducted in 1994. A complete
inventory of the whole area of the ISU Campus was made so as not to miss a single plant species
with the exception of herbs and grasses. Newly introduced landscape ornamental woody plants
were included in the survey. Documentation of plant taxa with photos was taken for the
production of a pictorial guide to identification of species in the future. Data were analyzed using
descriptive statistics.
Results and Discussion
Vegetation or community type
The vegetation in ISUWS is classified as savannah grassland- grassland vegetation with
scattered woody plants. Different types of vegetation surround the floristic survey area. East of
the area is a transitional area or ecotone between the grassland and the Sierra Madre Mountains
dominated by Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum spontaneum with scattered trees of Antidesma,
Macarangas, Neonauclea and several Ficus species. The North and South of the survey area is a
mosaic of agricultural land planted with corn and rice, hills and grassland vegetation.
111
Nomenclature
There were several field guides and floras available from which to select the most
appropriate scientific name for plant species that occur in the region. These include Rojo (1999),
Balgooy (1997, 1998, 2001), Keβler (2000), Flora Malesiana & PROSEA Publications.
For each plant species in the survey area, a widely accepted scientific name was placed
first in the checklist. Alternative names for some plant family as well as common synonyms for
each species were listed in brackets after the name.
Distribution
A total of 165 plant taxa were reported from the floristic survey area. Of this, 68 were
native or indigenous species and 97 were recently introduced species both native (20) and exotic
(79).
Among the 68 native species, 49 are classified as trees and 19 are shrubs. The natives
occur naturally among the fragmented woody patches in the grassland areas and along the gallery
forest including 7 exotics that have become naturalized.
Distribution of the flora indicates that 41.46% of native species and 58.54 % of exotic
plant taxa occur throughout the survey area. Details on the number and distribution of species are
shown on Table 1& Table 2.
Native Plant Species in the Survey Area
The most common native species include Alstonia scholaris, Antidesma ghaesembilla,
Antidesma pentandrum, Canarium asperum, Canthium monstrosum, Diospyros philosanthera,
Ficus benjamina, Ficus balete, Ficus nota, Ficus pseudopalma, Ficus septica, Ficus ulmifolia,
Guioa koelreuteria, Harpulia arborea, Leukosyke capitellata, Litsea glutinosa , Macaranga
tanarius, Melanolepis multiglandulosa, Mallotus philippensis, Morinda bracteata, Neonauclea
bartlingii, Premna odorata, Semecarpus cuneiformis, Semecarpus longifolius, Semecarpus
philippinensis, Clerodendrun minahasse, Lantana camara, Leea guineensis and Mussaenda
philippica.
112
Table 1. Common native tree species and conservation status
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
Scientific Name
Afzelia rhomboidea (Blanco)Vidal
Albizzia procera (Roxb) Benth.
Albizzia saponaria (Lour.) Blume ex Miq
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br.
Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng.
Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn.
Artocarpus ovatus Blanco
Broussonetia luzonica (Blanco) Bur.
Canarium asperum Benth.
Canthium monstrosum (A.Rich) Merr.
Diospyros philosanthera Blanco
Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum (A.Juss) Miq
Ficus benjamina L.
Ficus balete Merr.
Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem
Ficus nota (Blanco ) Merr.
Ficus pseudopalma Blanco
Ficus septica Burm f.
Ficus ulmifolia Lam.
Ficus variegata Blume
Flacourtia indica (Burm f.) Merr.
Garcinia venulosa (Blanco) Choisy
Guioa koelreuteria (Blanco) Merr.
Harpulia arborea (Blanco) Radlk.
Leukosyke capitellata (Poir) Wedd.
Lepisanthes sp.
Litsea glutinosa (Lour) C.B. Rob.
Macaranga tanarius (L.) Muell-Arg.
Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. Ex Blume)
Reich. & Zoll.
Mallotus molissimus (Geisel.) Airy Shaw
Mallotus philippinensis (Lam.) Muell-Arg.
Miliusa vidalii J. Sincl.
Morinda bracteata Roxb.
Neonauclea bartlingii (D.C.) Merr.
Ochrosia littoralis Merr.
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz.
Polyscias nodosa (Blume.) Seem.
Premna odorata Blanco
Premna sp.
Pterocarpus indicus Willd.
Sapindus saponaria L.
Semecarpus cuneiformis Blanco
Semecarpus longifolius Blume.
Semecarpus philippinensis Engl.
Sterculia foetidia Linn.
Streblus asper Lour.
Vitex parviflora Juss.
Voacanga globosa (Blanco) Merr.
Wrightia pubescens R. Br.
Family Name
Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae)
Fabaceae (Mimosaceae)
Fabaceae (Mimosaceae)
Apocynaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Burseraceae
Rubiaceae
Ebenaceae
Meliaceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Flacourtiaceae
Guttiferae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Urticaceae
Sapindaceae
Lauraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Common Name
Tindalo
Akleng parang
Salingkogi
Dita
Bignai
Binayuyu
Anubing
Himbabao
Pagsahingin
Tadiang-anuang
Bolong-eta
Agaru
Salisi
Balite
Indian rubber tree
Tibig
Niog-niogan
Hauili
Is-is
Tangisang-bayawak
Bitonggol
Gatasan
Alahan
Uas/puas
Alagasi
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Annonaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Apocynaceae
Bignoniaceae
Araliaceae
Verbenaceae
Verbenaceae
Fabaceae(Papilionaceae)
Sapindaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Sterculiaceae
Moraceae
Verbenaceae
Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
Hinlaumo
Banato
Takulau
Nino
Lisak
Pakoidan
Pinka-pinkahan
Malapapaya
Alagaw
113
Sablot
Binunga
Alim
Narra
Kusibeng
Ligas
Manalu
Kamiring
Kalumpang
Kalios
Molave
Bayag- usa
Lanete
Status
VU
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EC
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EC
EIS
EIS
EC/EIS
EIS
EC/VU
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EC/EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EC/EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
VU/EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
VU/EIS
EIS
EIS
Table 2. Common native treelet/shrub species and conservation status
Scientific Name
Family Name
Common Name
Status
1.
2.
Antidesma pentandrum (Blanco) Merr.
Ardisia pyramidalis (Carv.) Pers.
Euphorbiaceae
Myrsinaceae
Bignai-pugo
Aunasin
EIS
EIS
3.
Blumea balsamifera (Linn.) D.C.
(Primulaceae)
Compositae
Sambong
EIS
4.
5.
6.
Callicarpa candicans (Burm.) Hacht.
Capsicum frutescens L.
Clerodendrun minahasse Tesym. & Binn.
Tigaw
Siling labuyo
Bagauak
EIS
EIS
EIS
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Citrus hystrix D.C.
Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Poir.
Garcinia dulcis (Roxb.) Kurz.
Grewia eriocarpa Juss.
Lantana camara L.
Leea guineensis G. Don.
Melastoma malabathricum L.
Mussaenda philippica A. Rich.
Phyllantus reticulatus Poir.
Psychotria luconiensis (Cham. & Schlecht.) F. Vill.
Syzygium jambos (Linn.) Alston
Triphasia trifolia (Burm. f) P. Wils.
Uvaria rufa Blm.
Kolobot
Pandakaki
Taklang-anak
Bariuan
Caronitas
Mali-mali
Malatungau
Kahoi-dalaga
Tinta-tintahan
Katagpo
Tampoi
Limonsito
Susong-kalabaw
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EC
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
EIS
Verbenaceae
Solanaceae
Verbenaceae
(Labiatae)
Rutaceae
Apocynaceae
Guttiferae
Tiliaceae
Verbenaceae
Leeaceae
Melastomaceae
Rubiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Rubiaceae
Myrtaceae
Rutaceae
Annonaceae
Of the total 68 plant taxa native to the area, 11 (or 16.18%) were endemic to the
Philippine archipelago. It is worthy to note that 6 (54.54%) grow naturally in the area such as
Mussaenda philippica (Rubiaceae), Neonauclea bartlingii (Rubiaceae) and four (4) species of
Moraceae including Artocarpus ovatus and three of the genus Ficus: F. balite, F. pseudopalma
and F. ulmifolia. Five (5) endemic species were recently introduced in the area including
Podocarpus costalis, Garcinia binucao and three Dipterocarps: Shorea astylosa, Shorea
contorta and Hopea cagayanensis
114
Table 3. List of endemic species and conservation status
Taxa
1.
Artocarpus ovatus Blanco*
2.
Ficus balete Merr.*
3.
Ficus pseudopalma Blanco*
4.
Ficus ulmifolia Lam.*
5.
Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy**
6.
Hopea cagayanensis (Foxw.) V. Sloot**
7.
Mussaenda philippica A. Rich.*
8.
Neonauclea bartlingii (D.C.) Merr.*
9.
Podocarpus costalis Presl.**
10. Shorea astylosa Foxw.**
11. Shorea contorta Vidal**
* Naturally existing in the survey area
Common name
Status
Anubing
Economically important species
Balete
Economically important species
Niog-niogan
Economically important species
Is-is
Vulnerable
Binukau
Economically important species
Narek
Critically endangered
Kahoi -dalaga
Economically important species
Lisak
Economically important species
Igem-dagat
Endangered
Yakal
Critically endangered
White lauan
Critically endangered
**Recently introduced in the area
Introduced Species in the Survey Area
The inventory also identified ninety-seven (97) taxa as introduced species. Most of these
occur within the academic core especially along roadsides and besides the
infrastructures/buildings.
Seven (7) exotics are locally common in the savanna-grassland areas and have become
naturalized. It is believed that these species were introduced to the Philippines for the past
century and these are Psidium guajava, Senna alata, Samanea saman, Leucaena leucocephala,
Gliricidia sepium, and Trema orientalis. All species are economically important for furniture
making (raintree), firewood (kakauate, datiles, anabiong), light construction materials (ipil-ipil),
edible fruit (guava, datiles), forage (ipil-ipil) and medicinal purposes (akapulko).
Table 4. Exotic plant species but naturally growing and naturalized in ISUWS
Scientific Name
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp
Psidium guajava L.
Muntingia calabura L.
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.
Senna alata (L.) Roxb.
(Syn: Cassia alata L.)
Trema orientalis (L.) Blume
Family Name
Common Name
Fabaceae (Mimosaceae)
Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae)
Myrtaceae
Tiliaceae (Muntingiaceae)
Fabaceae (Mimosaceae)
Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae)
Ipil-ipl
Kakauate
Guava
Datiles
Raintree
Akapulko
Ulmaceae (Celtidacae)
Anabiong
Distribution
Tropical America
Tropical America
Tropical America
Neotropics
Tropical South America
Pantropical: Guianas, Venezuela,
Borneo
Burma, China, Indochina,
Thailand, Borneo
Malesia to Australia
Ninety (90) were recently introduced to the area beginning in the 80’s and these consist
of both native or indigenous and exotic plant taxa. Twenty (20) species are indigenous to the
115
Philippines and seventy-seven (70) are exotics classified as follows: trees (57), shrubs (21) and
palms (12). The species were planted as reforestation species and as ornamentals while others are
cultivated as agricultural crops. Still others were planted for research and instructional purposes.
Table 5. Plant species recently introduced to the area and origin of the taxa
Scientific Name
1.
Acacia auriculiformis A Cunn. Ex Benth.
2.
Acacia mangium Willd.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Anacardium occidentale L.
Annona muricata L.
Annona squamosa L.
Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng.
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.
Averrhoa bilimbi L.
Averrhoa carambola L.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Bauhinia purpurea L.
12.
13.
14.
Bischofia javanica Blume
Bixa orellana L.
Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd.*
15.
Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq) Willd.
16.
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.*
17.
18.
Cananga odorata (Lamk.) Hook f. &
Thoms.
Carica papaya L.
19.
20.
Caryota rumphiana Mart.**
Cassia fistula L.
21.
Cassia javanica spp. nodosa (Roxb.)
K.& S.S. Larsen
Cassia occidentalis L.*
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Casuarina equisetifolia J.R.& C. Foster
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaernt.
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King &
H. Robinson*
Chrysophyllum cainito L.
Citrofortunella microcarpa Wijnands*
Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
Cocus nucifera L.**
Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Blume*
Coffea arabica L.*
Corypha elata Roxb.**
Cycas revoluta Thunb. *
Cynometra ramiflora L.
35.
36.
Cyrtostachys renda Bl.**
Delonix regia (Hook) Raf.
Family Name
Common Name
Origin
Fabaceae
(Mimosaceae)
Fabaceae
(Mimosaceae)
Anacardiaceae
Annonaceae
Annonaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Moraceae
Oxalidaceae
Oxalidaceae
Meliaceae
Fabaceae
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Euphorbiaceae
Bixaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Japanese acacia
New Guinea
Mangium
Tuai
Achuete
Bougainvillea
New Guinea,
Australia, Indonesia
Tropical America
Tropical America
Tropical America
Malaysia
India, Malaysia
Tropical America
Tropical America
India
India, Burma,
Vietnam, Malaya
Malaysia
Malesia
Brazil
Fabaceae
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Fabaceae
Divi-divi
Tropical America
Pigeon pea
Annonaceae
Ilang-ilang
India, South East
Asia
Malaysia
Caricaceae
Papaya
Arecaceae
Fabaceae
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Fabaceae
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Fabaceae
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Casuarinaceae
Bombacaceae
Compositae
(Asteraceae)
Sapotaceae
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Fishtail palm/takipan
Golden shower
Tropical America,
Aruba
Philippines
Tropical Asia
Pink shower
Java, Indonesia
Balatong-aso
Tropical Asia
Agoho
American kapok
Hagonoy
Malaysia
Tropical Asia
Florida, Argentina
Caimito
Calamansi
Lukban/suha
Tropical America
Tropical Asia
Malesia
Coconut
San Francisco
Kape
Buri
Oliva
Balitbitan
Malesia
Malaya
Tropical America
Celebes, Malaysia
Japan, China
Philippines
Red palm
Fire tree
Malaysia
Madagascar
Arecaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Rubiaceae
Arecaceae
Cycadaceae
Fabaceae
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Arecaceae
Fabaceae
116
Kasoy
Guayabano
Atis
Bignai
Nangka
Kamias
Balimbing
Neem
Fringon pula
37.
Diospyros philippinensis Rolfe.
38. D Dracaena fragrans (L.) Ker-Gawl.*
39.
Duranta repens L.*
40.
Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.)
Griseb.
41.
Eucalyptus deglupta Blume.
42.
Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy
43.
Gmelina arborea Roxb.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
Heterospathe elata Scheff**
Hevea brasiliensis
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. *
Hopea cagayanensis (Foxw.) V. Sloot
Instia bijuga (Colebr) O. Kuntze
49.
50.
51.
Ixora cv.*
Jatropha curcas L.*
Leucaena diversifolia (Schlecht.) Benth
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
59.
60.
61.
Licuala grandis H. Wendl.**
Livistona rotundifolia (Lam.) Mert.**
Mangifera indica L.
Manihot esculenta Crantz.*
Mascarena ravaughianii L.H. Bailey**
Mascarena verschaffeltii (Wendl.) L.H.
Bailey **
Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex
Sanvalle *
Moringa oleifera Lamk.
Morus alba L.
Parkia timoriana (D.C.) Merr.
62.
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Ebenaceae
Agavaceae
Verbenaceae
Fabaceae
(Mimosaceae)
Myrtaceae
Guttiferae (Clusiaceae)
Verbenaceae
Kamagong
Fortune plant
Pigeon berry
Earpod
Philippines
Tropical Asia
Tropical America
Tropical Asia
Bagras
Binucau
Yemane
Celebes, New Guinea
Philippines
Pakistan, India, Sri
Lanka
Sumatra, Amboina
Arecaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Malvaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Fabaceae
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Rubiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae
(Mimosaceae)
Arecaceae
Arecaceae
Anacardiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Arecaceae
Arecaceae
Sagisi
Rubber tree
Gumamela
Narek
Ipil
Balatbat-bllog
Anahaw
Manga
Kamoteng-kahoy
Bottle palm
Spindle palm
Bengal, China
Tropical America
Central America,
Mexico, Honduras
Bismarck Island
Malaya
India
Tropical America
Mauritius Island
Mascarenes
Fabaceae
(Mimosaceae)
Moringaceae
Moraceae
Fabaceae
(Mimosaceae)
Makahiang-lalake
Tropical America
Malunggay
Mulberry
Kupang
Malaysia
Tropical Asia
Malaysia
Persia americana Mill.
Lauraceae
Avocado
63.
64.
65.
66.
Phoenix dactylifera L.
Phoenix roebelinii O’Brien **
Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels.
Phyllanthus myrtifolius Moon*
Arecaceae
Arecaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Date palm
Pigmy date palm
Iba
Ceylon bush
Tropical
America
Tropical Asia
India, Vietnam
Tropical Asia
Ceylon
67.
Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon
Pinaceae
Benguet pine
Philippines
68.
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.)
Benth.
Podocarpus costalis Presl.
Fabaceae
Kamachile
Podocarpaceae
Igem-dagat
Tropical
America
Philippines
Polyalthia longifolia Benth. &
Hook.
71. P Polyscias balfouriana (Hort.
Sander) L.H. Bailey*
72. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierr.
Annonaceae
Indian lanutan
India
Araliaceae
Platito
New Caledonia
Fabaceae
Bani
73.
Arecaceae
McArthur’s palm
Philippines,
India, South East
Asia
New Guinea
58.
69.
70.
Ptychosperma macarthurii H.
117
Dwarf santan
Tubang bakod
Diversifolia
China
Philippines: Cagayan
Mascarenes
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
Wendl. ex Moore**
Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.)
Merr.
Senna spectabilis(DC) Irwin &
Barneby
Shorea astylosa Foxw.
Shorea contorta Vidal
Swietenia macrophylla King
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels.
Syzygium samarengense
(Blume) Merr. & Perry
Tamarindus indica L.
Tectona grandis L. f
Terminalia catappa L.
Terminalia microcarpa Decne.
Theobroma cacao L.*
89.
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K.
Schum.*
Tripalis cumingiana Fisch. &
Mey.
Veitchia merillii (Becc.)
Moore.**
Vitex negundo L.*
90.
Zamia pumila L.*
87.
88.
Meliaceae
Santol
India
Fabaceae
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Meliaceae
Anchoan dilaw
Tropical
America
Philippines
Philippines
Central America
Yakal
White lauan
Lrg leaf
mahogany
Duhat
Macopa
Malaysia
Philippines
Sampalok
Teak
Talisai
Kalumpit
Cacao
India, Asia
India
East Indies
Philippines
South America
Polygonaceae
Yellow bell,
oleander
Palosanto
South America,
Peru
South America
Arecaceae
Manila palm
Philippines
Verbenaceae
Lagundi
Zamiaceae
Jamaica sago
tree
Tropical East
Africa
Jamaica,
Mexico,
Colombia
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Fabaceae
Verbenaceae
Combretaceae
Combretaceae
Sterculiaceae
(Byttneriaceae)
Apocynaceae
* Shrub **Palm
Assessment of Conservation Status of Floral Species
An assessment of the status of the different plant species was carried out to establish a
foundation for their protection, conservation and monitoring. The conservation status of each
species listed was assessed according to the definition of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Rojo (1999), Merill (1926) and the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR):
a. Critically Endangered (CR) – the taxon is considered to be facing an extremely high
risk of extinction in the wild
b. Endangered (EN) – the taxon is considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in
the wild
c. Vulnerable (VU) - the taxon is considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the
wild
118
d. Near Threatened (NT) – the taxon is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the
near future.
e. Least concern (LC) – the taxon is widespread and abundant
f. Data deficient (DD) – the taxon’s distribution and/or population status are unknown or
inadequately documented; thus, assessment of extinction risk isnot possible. DD is not a
category of threat.
g. Endemic (EC) – the taxon is confined to a certain geographical region or its parts thus; it
is unique and found nowhere else in the world.
h. Rare (R) – the taxon is not under immediate threat of extinction but occurring in such
small numbers or in such localized or specialized habitats that it could quickly disappear
if the environment worsens; needs watching
i. Depleted (D) – although sufficiently abundant for survival, the taxon has been nearly
depleted and in decline as a result of natural causes or human activities
j. Economically Important Species (EIS) – based on known uses, taxon that command
high economic value are prone to extinction because they tend to be over-exploited
Assessment of the status of each species revealed ten (10) threatened species both locally
and nationally (Tables 6 & 7); three (3) are critically endangered that is, they are facing an
extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. These species belong to the family
Dipterocarpaceae as follows: Shorea astylosa (yakal); Shorea contorta (white lauan) and Hopea
cagayanensis (narek). All three species are endemic to the Philippine archipelago. Hopea
cagayanensis is endemic only to Cagayan province.
Two are endangered species or facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild: Diospyros
philippinensis (kamagong) and Podocarpus costalis (igem-dagat) while five (5) are vulnerable or
facing a high risk of extinction in the wild as follows: Afzelia rhomboidea (tindalo), Pterocarpus
indicus (narra), Vitex parviflora (molave), Instia bijuga (ipil), and Ficus ulmifolia (tibig). All
five species are locally threatened.
Table 6. Numbers of threatened species in ISUWS
Taxonomic groups
Woody & non-woody plants
1. Native/Indigenous Species
2. Introduced Species
a. Native
b. Exotic
Total
Number of
species
assessed
164
68
20
76
Number of species considered
threatened
CR
0
EN
0
VU
4
Sub-total
4
3
0
3
2
0
2
1
0
5
6
0
10
119
Number of species
threatened as % of
species assessed
5.88 %
30 %
0%
Table 7. List of threatened species in ISUWS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Plant Taxa
Afzelia rhomboidea
Diospyros discolor
Ficus ulmifolia
Hopea cagayanensis
Instia bijuga
Podocarpus costalis
Pterocarpus indicus
Shorea astylosa
Shorea contorta
Vitex parviflora
Status
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Critically endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Critically endangered
Critically endangered
Vulnerable
Local Use
Lumber
Lumber, fruit
Lumber
Lumber
Lumber
Ornamental
Lumber
Lumber
Lumber
Lumber
Conclusion
Based from the results of the study, a total of 165 plant taxa were recorded from the
floristic survey area. Of this, 68 or 41.21% were indigenous or native species to the sancturay
while 97 or 58.79 % were introduced species. Of the 97 introduced ones, 20 are native to the
Philippines and 77 are exotic. Eleven (11) species were identified as endemic, that is, they are
only found in the Philippine archipelago.
The assessment of the status of the different plant species revealed ten (10) threatened
species both locally and nationally. Among these three (3) are critically endangered or facing an
extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. These species belong to the family
Dipterocarpaceae as follows: Shorea astylosa (yakal); Shorea contorta (white lauan) and Hopea
cagayanensis (narek). All three species are endemic to the Philippine archipelago. Hopea
cagayanensis is endemic only to Cagayan province. On the other hand, two (2) are endangered
species or facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild: Diospyros philippinensis (kamagong)
and Podocarpus costalis (igem-dagat) while five (5) are vulnerable or facing a high risk of
extinction in the wild as follows: Afzelia rhomboidea (tindalo), Pterocarpus indicus (narra),
Vitex parviflora (molave), Instia bijuga (ipil), and Ficus ulmifolia (tibig).
Recommendations
This floristic inventory is far from complete. The discovery of additional native species is
very likely and new exotic plant species could invade and become established. It is
recommended that a further exploration of the area should be made to support preliminary results
and to expand knowledge of plant diversity and conservation. Also a continuous monitoring
should be made especially for plant species being threatened by utilization.
120
There is a need to increase awareness level of students, researchers and communities
nearby on critical flora resources and plant diversity of the Wildlife Sanctuary through
production and distribution of IEC materials, like flyers, leaflet and the like preferably written in
local dialects.
Billboards to warn gatherers against hunting are displayed around the campus but there is
a need to revise the billboard to include warning against illegal cutting of plant species as well.
A pictorial guide to the identification of the floral species is envisioned in the near future.
This should be published to facilitate identification by students and researchers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Balgooy, M.M.J. 1997-2001. Malesian Seed Plants. Vols. 1-3. Rijksherbarium/Hortus
Botanicus,
Leiden, The Netherlands.
Brown, W.H. 1960. Useful Plants of the Philippines. Department of Agriculture and Natural
Resources. Technical Bulletin 10. Bureau of Printing. Manila, Philippines.
Keβler, P.J.A. 2000. Secondary Forest Trees of Kalimantan Indonesia. Tropenbos-Kalimantan
Project. The Netherlands.
Madulid, D.A. 2000. A Pictorial Cyclopedia of Philippine Ornamental Plants. Bookmark, Inc.
Makati
City, Philippines.
PROSEA Foundation. 1989-1993. Plant Resources of South East Asia. Wageningen Agricultural
University. The Netherlands.
Rojo, J.P. 1999. Revised Lexicon of Philippine Trees. FPRDI-DOST. College, Laguna.
Philippines
121
TAXONOMIC IDENTIFICATION AND DETECTION OF TRYPTAMINE AND
AMATOXIN OF EDIBLE AND NON-EDIBLE MUSHROOMS AND OTHER SPECIES
OF PHYLUM BASIDIOMYCOTA FOUND IN CABAGAN, ISABELA
(A PRELIMINARY STUDY)
JANE G. CABAUATAN AND YOLANDA M. BUMARLONG1
ABSTRACT
A preliminary study was conducted to present the taxonomy as well as toxins which are most deadly
associated with edible and non-edible mushrooms and other species of Phylum Basidiomycota. Standard procedure
was utilized in the detection of specific toxins: tryptamine and amtoxin- the Meixner Test. In terms of taxonomic
classification, standard format was used based on Botanical Nomenclature.
Thirty (30) fungal organisms were identified with a total of nineteen (19) species of mushroom and eleven
(11) other species of fungal organisms were collected, identified and tested for toxins. All species collected belong to
Kingdom fungi. Phylum Basidiomycota and Division Eumycota. Seventeen (17) belong to Class Hymenomycota and
thirteen (13) from Class Gasteromycota. All these identified fungal organisms belong to seven (70 different orders,
namely: Order Polyporales(13), Order Aphyllophorales (3), Order Auricurales (1), Order Polyporales(8), Order
Lycoperdales (1), Order Schlerodermatales and one (1) from Order tremellales. Nineteen (19) of the species under
this phylum grow during rainy/wet season, and the rest of the identified fungi grow or survive all throughout the
year specifically on areas where decomposition process is high. There were eight (8) species of edible and three (3)
species of non-edible mushrooms were detected to have no toxin of either tryptamine or amatoxin. These are the
following: Edible-Collybia reineckeana, Schizophyllum commune, Volvariella volvaceae, Lentinus sajor-caju,
Auricularia polytricha,, Chanterellus cibarius, Pleurotus ulmarius and Agaricus campestris, while Non-edibleGanoderma lucidum, Ganoderma applanatum and Ganoderma tsugae.. Nineteen (19) other species were detected to
be positive in both tryptamine and amatoxin. Tryptamine were detected on species of Lepiota cepaestipes, Fomes
spp., Chanterellus spp., Meripillus gigantus., Psylocibe mexicana, Paneolus spp., Lenzites betulina, Armillaria spp.,
Tremella spp. and Phellinus spp. while amatoxins were revealed by the following fungal organisms: Amanita
muscaria,, Amanita phalloides, Amanita virosa, Polysporus brumalis, Scleroderma spp., Lycoperdon ericetorum
and Fomes spp.
As simple as the methodology used, mushroom can immediately be identified in terms of the presence of
toxic substances but not much with its edibility. Since not all mushroom and other species of these phylum which
look good are edible. Therefore, it is recommended that similar study could be conducted using more sophisticated
tools for screening and testing of toxins for more reliable information and to prove the claim. And a follow up study
should also be done to review or test the best substrate composition of identified edible mushrooms for spawning
and food production.
Keywords: Taxonomy, basidiomycota, amatoxin and tryptamine
____________________
1 Corresponding author and Faculty, Department of Natural Sciences, CDCAS, ISUC., respectively.
122
Introduction
Rationale
Fungi are a huge group of 50,000 species. they include mushrooms, toadstools, mould,
mildew and yeast. Fungi are not plants, because they have no chlorophyll to make their food. So
scientists put them in a group of kingdom of their own.
Fungi are made of countless cotton-like threads called hyphae which absorb chemicals
they feed on. Just like any fungal organisms, mushrooms occur almost everywhere, on forest
floors, in cultivated and abandoned fields, secondary forests and even lawns. They grow in the
soil, on dead wood and on other decaying plant parts, just like other elements of nature; these
fungal organisms play a very important role, in fact one of the most important component of
ecosystem associated with decomposition process. Although found at the bottom of the
organization, these organisms are important indicators for the state of equilibrium in the
ecosystem.
On the context of increasing population growth, food production would never catch up
and is indeed becoming a stark to reality. But recent advances of modern food technology could
also extend a great deal of producing certain kind of food that could be sourced from mushrooms
and related species. In fact, we should be grateful for being in the tropics and blessed with an
abundance of edible fungal organisms specifically mushrooms. One good example how fungal
organisms become relatively of great economic importance are Cheeses like camembert,
Roquefort, stilton and Danish blue get their distinctive flavors from chemicals made by moulds
added to them to help them ripen. The blue streaks in some cheeses are actually molds (Farndon
2001)
Fungi like mushrooms known to as “karulu” among ybanags, ‘kabuteng parang” or “
kabuti” among tagalogs, “uung” among ilocanos and “tohong” among visayans can be cultivated
everywhere. Mushrooms are fleshy fungi with central stalk beneath an umbrella shaped pileus.
The presence of a cap at the base of the stem, a ring around the stem and spots on the cap are
said to identify poisonous mushrooms. On the other hand, according to Hernandez 1980 as cited
by Lorenzana and Saquing (2001) some delicious species have caps or rings, or spots or even a
combination of these signs together on the fruiting body.
Statement of the Problem
Food shortage is felt within the country nowadays; it is believed that other sources of
food may come from certain microorganisms of which are very healthful and useful to mankind.
The introduction of the several species of edible mushrooms to the people can become their
immediate source of food, medicine and even income or livelihood subsistence. The center to
123
which this research was conducted purposely to introduce and help not only the people of
Cabagan but other municipalities in the province, to know that fungal organisms such as
mushroom is a good source of food and good substitute for fish, meat and meat products, poultry
and poultry products, and dairy and dairy products. Good species of mushroom can be
propagated through spawning for food production just within the premises of their backyard.
Significance and Purpose of Research
Mushrooms are one of the most important sources of nutritious food and of great
economic importance. They are very easy to prepare and go well with most dishes. Usually, they
may be bought fresh, dried or canned from supermarkets and grocery stores. Research done on
mushroom showed that the vitamin and other nutrients that they have are retained during
cooking. Drying, freezing and canning can do no damage either. However, fresh mushrooms are
noticeably tastier than preserved ones (Sci.time, 1993). Additional information also says that
mushrooms are the first known to report of anti-tumor agent in higher fungi, which where made
in 1962 by Ringler and Lucas who obtained an oncostatic principle named calvacin from extracts
of a sporophores of Collybia radicata, Boletus edulis, Calvatia gigantean and Calvatia spp. as
cited by Lorenzana and Saquing (2001). With the vast existence of different kind of fungi,
mushrooms in particular, in Cabagan Isabela, the study was established to find out the possibility
of utilizing these organisms for human consumption aside from being one of the most important
component of our ecosystem since they are good indicators of pollution,which was supported by
Muller (1979) that the balancing of our ecosystem are revealed by these forms of organisms by
continuously undertaking the process of decomposition by simply consuming dead and decaying
plant and animal debris.
With this as a premise the research was conducted purposely to identify, classify
and detect the presence of toxins of the different species of mushrooms and other species of
Phylum Basidiomycota found in Cabagan, Isabela and to recommend the possibility of
propagating edible species of mushrooms as source of food and income which could start from
the ISU- Research Department and established linkage with LGU for its wide range of
implementation.
Methodology
Mushrooms were collected on its vegetative stage and sorted accordingly. The location
and substrate on which mushrooms grew were recorded. Detection of toxins on the first part was
done immediately after collection, while sample were still fresh. The rest of the samples were air
dried and reserved for identification and classification and detection of toxin for dried samples.
Spore printing were also applied to trace the structure of gills. Taxonomic key to classification
124
were used to identify and classify the collected fungal samples. Counter checking of botanical
names were counterchecked by expert.
Meixner Test was standard method utilized in Testing the presence of toxins specific for
Tryptamine and amatoxins. Prresence of toxins for tryptamine indicates a color change of red to
blue, while amatoxin indicates a color change of light blue to heavy blue or sometime black,
depending on the amount of amatoxin present in the sample. The rest of the tested sample were
reserved for another set of testing, the same method was applied but with the use of dried
sample. This is to countercheck whether air drying could reduce or totally discard toxins. Result
was analyzed and presented in terms of actual color appearance of the sample, size, substrate and
toxin. Taxonomic classifications were presented according to kingdom down to species.
Results and Discussion
Primarily mushrooms are one of the major sources of highly nutritious food in the
Philippines of which it can be easily prepared and go with most dishes. As mentioned by
Hernandez (1980) that when the ground is soaked with water, that miniature organism already
formed in the soil becomes quickly enlarge because of the swelling of the cells, a huge
mushroom pops out.
The structure that one recognizes as a mushroom or toadstool is the basidiocarp popularly
used to designate edible forms and toadstool is used to designate non-edible ones, but
mycologists do not recognize such distinction and use only the term mushroom. According to
Murray et al (1990), poisonous mushrooms contain deadly substances called amatoxin and
tryptamine and other compound but are less deadly than the first two.
As a result of the research, thirty fungal organisms were collected, identified and detected
for toxin, nineteen (19) were identified under the mushroom category and eleven (11) other
species are non-mushroom category all of which are under Phylum Basidiomycota. Eight (8)
species of mushroom were found to be edible and the rest were non-edible, yet some of these
non-edible might have special other compounds that could become possible source of medicine
and drugs like the species of Ganoderma which is well known be a source of medicine for
hypertension mixed in coffee, since it was mentioned on other literatures that some species of
mushrooms can cause hallucinogenic effect and used as treatment for various illnesses.
The eight (8) edible and three (3) non-edible mushrooms showed a negative (-) test result
for both tryptamine and amatoxin which are as follows: edible-Auricularia polytricha, Collybia
reinekeana, Volvariella volvaceae, Lentinus sajor-caju, Chanterellus cibarius, Schizophyllum
commune, Pluerotus ulmarius, Agaricus campestris and non-edible- Ganoderma applanatum,
Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma tsugae. Seven (7) from these eleven (11) mushrooms
125
belong to Order Agaricales, one (1) from Order Auriculariales and three (3)
Polyporales.
from Order
On the other hand, the rest of the collected specimen showed a positive result on the
presence of tryptamine toxin such as Lepiota cepaestipes, Fomes spp., Ganoderma spp.,
Chanterellus spp., Meripillis spp., Psylocibe mexicana, Paneolus spp., Lenzites betulina,
Armillaria spp., Tremella spp., Trametes spp., and Phellinus spp. while the rest of the specimen
like Amanita muscaria, Amanita phalloides, Polysporus brumalis, Amanita virosa, Scleroderma
spp., Lycoperdon ericetorum and Fomes spp. showed positive result in both tryptamine and
amatoxin.
Classification of mushroom was made according to the standard procedure in taxonomic
identification. Mushrooms were generally classified under Phylum Basidiomycota, Division
Eumycota, Subdivision Basidiomycotina, and Class Hymenomycetes. Mushrooms under this
class were separated into different orders: Order Agaricales, Order Polyporales, Order
Sclerodermatales, Order Aphyllophorales, Order Lycoperdales, Order Auriculariales and Order
Tremellales. Mushrooms or toadstools are noted widely in edibility. A relatively few species are
delicious, many are edible but tough or of an unremarkable flavor, some are inedible and
produce varying degree of illness, some commonly known toadstool are violently deadly
poisonous.
Even expert mushroom gatherers can have trouble in distinguishing between edible and
poisonous species closely resembling them. Classification and identification of the edible and
non-edible mushrooms were presented in table 1 and Figure 1 for sample pictures of actual
specimens.
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Division: Eumycota
Sub-division: Basidiomycotina
Class: Hemenomycetes (open gills)
Gasteromycetes (closed basidiocarp until
maturity/ puffballs)
Class Homobasidiomycetes (for both)
Order: Agaricales( arrange gills)
Polyporales (network gills)
Sclerodermatales
Aphyllophorales
Lycoperdales
Auriculariales
Tremellales
126
Family: Agaricaceae
Chanterellaceae
Lepiotaceae
Genus: Agaricus
Amanita
Ganoderma
Polyporus
Chanterella
Species: campestris
cibarius
cepaestipes
Above is a portion of the taxonomic key used in the identification of mushrooms and
other related species.
The thirty (30) identified species belong to the following: seventeen (17) belong to Class
Hymenomycota and thirteen (13) belong to Class Gasteromycota. The specimens are from seven
(7) different orders: Order Agaricales with sixteen (16) species, three (3) from Order
Aphyllophorales, one (1) from order Auriculariales, eight (8) from Order Polyporales, one (1)
from Order Lycoperdales, one (1) from Order Sclerodermatales and one (1) from Order
Tremellales. The identified species belong to twenty three (23) genera and thirty (30) species.
Among these thirty (30) species, in terms of distribution Agaricus campestris (edible) is
widely distributed, followed by Auricularia polytrica (edible), Schizophyllum commune (edible),
Psylocibe mexicana (inedible), Meripillis gigantus (inedible), Polyporus brumalis (inedible),
Ganoderma spp. (inedible), Amanita phalloides, Amanita muscaria (inedible and highly
poisonous) and Lycoperdon ericetorum (inedible). The rest of the identified species do not
frequently occur in nature since they have prescribe period of growth and require special form of
substrate, they usually occur or grow during rainy seasons only, usually with continuous high
humidity and moist environment, mushrooms such as Lentinus sajor-caju., Collybia reineckeana,
Pleuroteus sajor-caju, Chanterellus spp., Volvariella volvacea, Lepiota cepaestipes and Paneolus
spp.
Based on the test of toxins, the research revealed a positive and negative result both in
large and tracer amount which are associated with the identified non-edible species and edible
species. A change in blue color after twenty minutes of with the reaction of hydrochloric acid
indicated the presence of amatoxin, a toxic cyclopeptides present in a certain species of
mushroom (Haard, et al 1980), alpha-amanitin and bete-amanitin are the principal amatoxins
which immediately kills animal cells when inhaled or ingested, while a change in red color after
twenty minutes of adding the same solvent to the sample indicated the presence of tryptamine
127
may either be in large or trace amount. Majority of the species under Order Gasteromycetes were
found to be poisonous and few species from Order Hymenomycetes.
The result on toxicity was supported by Alexopoulus et. al. (1996) that major types of
mushrooms and other varieties of this phylum contains poisons/toxins with great physical
effects and time elapsing from consumption to appearance of symptoms which could be detected
on the following: A. Toxin causing cellular destruction, liver and kidney damage and death, on
set of symptoms following ingestion over 6 hours usually 10 hours (deadly cyclopeptide,
amanitin) poisoning these involved the genera of Amanita and Galerina. B. toxin principally
affecting the autonomic nervous system, on set of symptoms 20 minutes to 2 hours, Coprine
(antabuse-like) poisoning which involved the genus Coprinus, muscarine sweating poisoning,
genera involve: Clitocybe and Inocybe. C. Toxin principally affecting the central nervous
system, on set of symptoms for 20 minutes to 2 hours, Ibotenic acid- muscimol (delirium)
poisoning. The genus involved is Amanita spp.: Psylocibin-psilocin (hallucinogenic poisoning)
genera involved are Psylocibe and Paneolus and D. Toxins principally causing gastrointestinal
irritation, on set symptoms 30 minutes to 3 hours; gastrointestinal irritants which may involve
many genera of Phylum Basidiomycota.
With this supporting statement it is always safe to say that not all mushroom that looks
good are edible and not all mushroom that has unlikely features are poisonous. The best
recommendation for this is proper introduction, training and better application procedures and
methodology on basic features and detection of toxins, a simplified as guide for mushroom
gatherers and mushroom lovers.
Summary
The benchmark survey on the species of mushrooms and other species of Phylum
Basidiomycota in Cabagan, Isabela revealed the richness of the area in terms of the existence of
several fungal organisms. Unfortunately, only very few were identified to be edible while several
species were identified to contain the deadliest compound amatoxin and tryptamine and
definitely non edible, but has the possibility of having some pharmacological capability. The
eight (8) identified edible mushrooms such as the Agaricus campestris, Schizophyllum
commune, Volvariella volvaceae, Auricularia polytricha, Lentinus sajor-caju, Ppleutrotus
ulmarius, Collybia reineckeana and Chanterellus cubarius revealed to have no content even in
trace for any of the toxins mentioned and are highly recommended for food consumption, but
proper harvesting should also be taken into considerations since some of these species may have
similarities with other poisonous mushrooms.
128
Conclusion
Based on the output of the research, it is conclusive to mention that our ecosystem is still
on its state of equilibrium, the presence of several species of mushroom and related species is an
indicator that our ecosystem is not yet polluted, mushroom indicates strong decomposition
process an aspect of an ecosystem which play a very important role in balancing our nature.
Aside from this, mushroom and other related species are significantly important to serve our
economic needs, but the consumption of it should be carefully done. It is still safer especially for
mushroom collectors/gatherers to check and refer to a more reliable instrument in testing the
presence of other toxins aside from tryptamine and amatoxin which can be easily detected just
within the kitchen premises. The test utilized in this research are suitable only for the two
deadliest compounds associated with mushroom basidiocarps which this test might not be able to
detect for other toxins present in the fungal organism. A closer attention on continuous hunting
and identification of other mushroom and related species which were not included in the research
should be done, which could become a good source not only of food but medicine.
Recommendation
Similar studies are recommended using more advance and sophisticated tools in
screening and testing the presence of other toxins aside from tryptamine and amatoxin and
should be done with actual amount to have more reliable results. Collection sites should be in a
wider area to come up with more number of fungal organisms for identification. Proper handling
of mushrooms and related species should always be done in a very careful manner to avoid
poisoning. Mushroom gatherers should take precautionary measures in collecting mushrooms
since some species even through inhalation of spores may cause immediate death. Mushroom
gatherers should not take chances on gathering species of mushroom unknown to them.
A follow up study should be done to review or test the best substrate composition of
medium for propagation of identified edible mushroom as source of food and income.
Pharmaceutical and nutriceutical efficacy for edible mushrooms are highly recommended.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alexopoulus, C.J. 1996. Introductionn to Mycology. (Latest edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Brooks, G., Butel, J. and S. Morse. 2000. Jawetz, Melnick and Adelberg’s Medical
Microbiology. 20th Edition. International Edition. Mc Graw –Hill Book Company.
129
Campbell, N.A. 1997. Biology-Concepts and Connections. (2nd Edition). Benjamin/ cummings
Publishing company..
Farndon J. 2001. 1000 Things you should know about plants. Grolier. Dunbury, Connecticut.
Flegg. F.B. 1985. The Biology and Technology of Cultivated Mushrooms.
Muller W.H. 1979. Botany. A Functional Approach. (Fifth Edition). Mac Milan Publishing Co.
Inc.
Muray, P. Drew, W., Koibayashi, G and J. Thompson. 1990. Medical Microbiology. Wolfe
Medical Publications Limited.
Lorenzana, R. & C. Saquing. 2001. Special Problem. Strategies in Teaching Biology. Graduate
School. ISU.
Pelczar, J, Chan, E.C.S. and N.R. Krieg. 1980. Microbiology. (Fifth Edition). McGraw Hill
Book Co.
Haard, R and K. Haard. 1980. Poisonous and Hallucinogenic Mushrooms
Hernandez, D.F. 1980. Plants of the Philippines. Science Education Center, UP Press.
Figure 1. Sample pictures of actual specimens collected
Paneolus spp.
Auricularia polytricha
130
Lentinus sajor-caju
Lenzites betulina
Trametes spp.
Psilocybe mexicana
Schizophyllum commune
Phellinus spp.
131
Table 1.
List of edible and non-edible mushrooms and related species of Phylum
Basidiomycota and presence of tryptamine and test.
Fungi
Color/Appearance
Size in cm.
1. Agaricus campestris
4-20 cm. cap,
2-3 cm. stalk
upon maturity
2. Amanita muscaria
Milky white puffballs at younger stage, upon
maturity white to creamy cap with finely
arranged gills which changed in color from white
to light peach upon maturity, slender stalk, finely
curved edges
Brown cap with spots, rolled edges
3.Amanita virosa
(destroying angel)
Silky cream to white cap, scaly, long slender
stalk
4. Amanita phalloides
(death cap)
White to creamy scaly cap, with slightly brown to
dark dots on top of the cap with rings, finely
arranged gills which becomes violet at maturity,
short, tender stalk
White to creamy basidiocarp with tough, long
stalk and change its color at maturity
Silky to luminous caramel brown which
resembles the ear of a rat, soft and tender
basidiocarp
Similar to poisonous jack o’ lantern white to
creamy soft cap, funnel shaped with tapered
edges, short stalk, finely arranged gills
Funnel shaped, smooth, free gills and tapered
edges basidiocarp (black to brownish)
5-12 cm.
White with brown tinge to cap. It has a long
tapering stem
Tough stem with tapered and pointed black
brown cap, leathery
8.5 cm
5. Armillaria spp.
6. Auricularia polytricha
(Judae)
7. Chanterellus cibarius
8. Chanterellus spp.
9. Collybia reineckeana
10. Fomes spp.
Collection site/
substrate
Grassy
area/abandoned
fields
T
A
-
-
Woody area (log,
coconut trunk),
dung
+
+
+
+
Soil, animal
manure, grassy
area
+
+
5-10cm.
Soil, grassy area
+
-
Non-edible
10-20cm.
Woody area (log,
rotting trunks of
trees)
Trunk of trees
-
-
Edible
-
-
Edible
Woody and grassy
area (rotten logs or
soil)
Grassy area, soil
+
-
Non-edible
-
-
Edible
Woody area (log, or
any trunk of rotting
trees)
Rotten log
+
-
Non-edible
+
-
Non-edible
4 cm.
8-15 cm.
10-20cm
9-20 cm.
Edible/nonEdible
edible
Non-edible
(deadly
poisonous)
Nonedible(deadly
poisonous)
Non-edible
(deadly
poisonous)
11. Fomes spp.
Leathery brown to black basidiocarp
10-120 cm
12.Ganoderma
applanatum
Red to maroon cap, slightly tapered edges,
brown to black stalk, white to creamy
unarranged gills
Shiny red basidiocarp with red to maroon
tapered edges, short and hard stalk
6-25 cm.
Trunk and rotten
logs
-
-
Non-edible
(medicinal)
6-50cm.
-
-
Non-edible
(medicinal)
-
-
13. Ganoderma tsugae
14. Ganoderma lucidum
Shiny leathery basidiocarp
10-20 cm.
Woody area (
dead and live
trunks, logs)
Rotten logs, trees
15. Lentinus sajor caju
Bell shaped and flower liked cap white with
brown patches
Network, free gills, white to creamy in color with
slightly tapered edges
White long stalk, flat cap with wrinkled edges
White at young stage, brownish to black at
maturity and disperses masses of spores as it
matures
Grows like rosette in clusters
10cm.
Woody areas
-
-
Non-edible
(medicinal)
Edible
6-15 cm.
Trunk of trees and
barks
Grassy area (soil)
Soil, grassy areas
+
-
Non-edible
+
-
+
Non-edible
Non-edible
Bark and trunk of
trees, logs
Woody area (logs)
+
-
Non-edible
+
-
Non-edible
Woody area (dead
and like trunk of
trees)
-
-
Edible
16. Lenzites betulina
17. Lepiota cepaestipes
18.Lycoperdon
ericetorum (puffballs)
19. Meripillus gigantus
20. Paneolus spp.
21. Pleurotus ulmarius
(oyster)
Tough with white dots on brownish cap and has
lateral stem
White to creamy, silky straight fine gills, tapered
edges
132
20 cm
5- 30 cm
10-20 cm.
7.5 cm.
6-15 cm.
22. Psylocibe mexicana
Small golden to shiny brown, smooth scaly, long,
thin stalk
2-3 cm cap,
1.5 in stalk
Soil, grassy area
+
+
23. Phellinus spp.
Hard, leathery basidiocarp, golden light brown to
reddish brown in color
White to cream hard cap, with short stalk, gills
arranged in network
5-20 cm
Rotten logs, trees,
bark
Bark, trunk and
rotten logs
+
-
Non-edible
(hallucinogenic
effect)
Non-edible
-
+
Non-edible
25.Schizophyllum
commune
26. Schizophyllum spp.
White fan-shaped cap, resembles a split leaf
3.0 cm
Woody areas, bark
-
-
Edible
Silky white and fine gills, short and stout stem
6-10 cm.
Soil, grassy areas
-
+
Non-edible
27. Scleroderma spp.
Resembles the ball of tennis, white at young
stage, black at maturity
Yellow basidiocarp, fan shaped and slightly
tapered edges
Papery to leathery basidiocarp
5-12 cm.
Grassy areas
+
-
Non-edible
2-5 cm.
Rotten logs, bark of
trees
Rotten logs, trunks
+
-
Non-edible
-
+
Non-edible
Brownish and silky cap, hairs present on the
stem and on the cap found at its base
4-8 cm.
Hay, banana stalk,
shrubby grassy
areas
-
-
edible
24. Polyporus brumalis
28.Tremella mescenteria
20. Trametes spp.
30.
volvaceae
Volvariella
Legend: presence of Tryptamine, A-presences of Amatoxin
133
10-20 cm
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH
Isabela State University
Cabagan, Isabela
ADMINISTRATION OFFICIALS
University President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dr. Romeo R. Quilang
University Vice President for Research,
Development, Extension & Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dr. Edmundo C. Gumpal
Executive Officer, ISU, Cabagan Campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dr. Ambrose Hans G.
Aggabao
Campus Director of Research & Development. . . . . . . . . . Dr. Marino R. Romero
EDITORIAL STAFF
Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dr. Marino R. Romero
Associate Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dr. Boyet L. Batang
Dr. Laureana M. Lingan
Publication Assistants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ms. Milagros T. Bucag
Ms. Leticia S. Tabangin
Ms. Benita B. Paguirigan
Ms. Benita B. Zipagan
The Journal of Research is published semi-annually by the Isabela State
University, Cabagan, Isabela. Business communications for this publication should be
addressed to:
THE EDITOR
ISU Journal of Research
Isabela State University
Cabagan, Isabela 3328
No article in the journal may be reproduced by any means without permission in writing
from the Editor.
Entered as second class at the Post Office at Cabagan, Isabela
Republic of the Philippines
Department of Transportation and Communications
BUREAU OF POSTS
Manila
134
SWORN STATEMENT
(Republic Act 2580)
The undersigned, Marino R. Romero, Editor of the Journal of Research published
semi-annually in English at the Department of Research and Development, Isabela State
University, Cabagan, Isabela, after having been duly sworn to in accordance with law,
hereby submits the following statement of ownership, management, circulation, etc.
which is required by R.A. 2580.
Editor
: Dr. Marino R. Romero
ISU, Cabagan, Isabela
Associate Editor
: Dr. Boyet L. Batang
Dr. Laureana M. Lingan
ISU, Cabagan, Isabela
Ownership & Publisher
: Isabela State University
Cabagan, Isabela
Printer
: Isabela State University
Cabagan, Isabela
Office of Publication
: Department of Research
& Development
ISU, Cabagan, Isabela
MARINO R. ROMERO, Ph. D.
Editor
SUBSCRIBED AND SWORN to before me this 30th day of July, 2010 at
Cabagan, Isabela, the affiant exhibiting his Residence Certificate No.
issued at
Cabagan, Isabela on
, 2010.
ATTY. CHRISTOPHER A. MAMAUAG
Municipal Mayor
Cabagan, Isabela
134
The Teacher on the Internet: Self-Efficacy, Beliefs, Usage, and
Attitudes ……………………………………………………………………74
Audrey B. Simon
Comparative Efficacy of Different Growth Enhancers on Broilers………. 90
Delmar T. Macapia, Lazarine T. Mamauag & Oliveros M. Valiente
Mount Pinatubo Lahar as Physical Barrier to Prevent Tunneling and
Soil Penetration of Philippine Milk Termite (Coptotermes vastator
Light)......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Heherson B. Ong
Plant Diversity and Status of the ISU Wildlife Sanctuary. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..110
Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab
Taxonomic Identification and Detection of Tryptamine and Amatoxin
of Edible and Non-Edible Mushrooms and Other Species of Phylum
Basiodiomycota Found in Cabagan, Isabela (A Preliminary Study) ...........122
Jane G. Cabauatan and Yolanda M. Bumarlong
Published by:
The Isabela State University
Garita, Cabagan, Isabela 3328