HUMAN ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY LAB
WORKBOOK
SEMESTER I
Contents
Anatomy Academy _______________________________________2
Microscope _____________________________________________3
The Cell ________________________________________________6
The Cell Cycle ___________________________________________ 9
Appendicular skeleton ____________________________________ 16
Axial Skeleton ___________________________________________35
Skull ___________________________________________________47
Muscular System _________________________________________56
Head and Torso Muscles ______________________________61
Upper Limb Muscles _________________________________65
Lower Limb Muscles __________________________________70
The Nervous System ______________________________________78
Spinal Nerves ________________________________________81
Spinal Cord __________________________________________93
Brain _______________________________________________98
Eye ________________________________________________ 109
Ear ________________________________________________122
Human Anatomy and Physiology
Lab workbook Semester I
2nd Edition
Somerset Community College Biology Faculty
Elaine Kohrman – Editor
Shawn Stratmann, Clint Hayes – Photos
Rose Kohrman – Design
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INTERACTIVE ACTIVITIES FOR THIS LAB BOOK CAN BE
FOUND ON BLACKBOARD IN THE ANATOMY ACADEMY
ECOMMUNITY.
Log in to BlackBoard.
Click on the eCommunity tab at the top of the page.
Search for ‘Anatomy Academy’ using the Organization
Search Module.
Enroll yourself in the Anatomy Academy by clicking
enroll in the drop box by the organization ID.
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MICROSCOPE CARE AND USE
Know the names of the parts of the microscope.
Be able to calculate the total magnification based on the lens used.
USE OF MICROSCOPES
1.
CARE OF MICROSCOPES
Before plugging in the microscope, make sure the light is turned
off.
Always carry microscopes upright with one hand on neck and
2.
Plug in the microscope and turn the light source all the way up.
other hand under base.
3.
Start with the scanning power (4X) objective lens.
•
Only use lens cleaner paper to clean lenses and slides.
4.
Put a slide on the stage and secure it with the holder. Do NOT
•
Before putting away the microscope,
•
•
Remember to remove the slide.
•
Reset the lens to scanning power.
•
Turn off the light.
•
Unplug the microscope by pulling on the plug, not the
push the slide UNDER the holder.
5.
controls next to the right side of the stage.
6.
Always place the dust cover back on the microscope.
•
Put the microscope in the cabinet with the ocular lens
7.
Adjust the light level using the light source dial, the iris
diaphragm, and raising and lowering the condenser lens.
8.
going in first.
•
Focus using the knobs on the side of the base. Start with course
focus and then fine focus.
cord.
•
Center the slide under the light using the mechanical stage
Higher magnification requires more light which increases
resolution.
Recenter the slide on the point of interest.
Put the power cord away in one of the top drawers next
9.
to your seat.
10. Increase magnification to low power (10X).
11. Focus and recenter.
MAGNIFICATION
12. Increase magnification to high power (40X or 45X). Under high
Total magnification is the magnification of the ocular lens (10X)
power, use the fine focus knob only, course focus adjustment can
multiplied by the objective lens in use. At low power, total magnification is
break the slide.
100X (10X x 10X).
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CELL STRUCTURE MODULE
BE ABLE TO IDENTIFY THE MAJOR STRUCTURES AND ORGANELLES OF THE CELL
Plasma/cell membrane- outer phospholipid bilayer membrane
of the cell
Rough endoplasmic reticulum- located near nucleus, contains
ribosomes
Cilia- hair like processes
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum- located further from nucleus,
does NOT contain ribosomes
Flagella- tail-like process
Golgi apparatus- the “Shipping and Distribution Center” of
the cell (UPS Warehouse)
Cytoplasm- all cellular components inside the membrane, but
outside the nucleus
Lysosomes- vesicles with digestive enzymes
Nucleus
Mitochondria- small bean shaped organelles that produce
ATP
Nuclear envelope (membrane)
Nucleolus
Nucleoplasm
Centrioles- rod-shaped bodies
Spindle fibers- formed by centrioles at beginning of
mitosis
Ribosomes- small organelles, function in protein synthesis
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mitochondrion
Plasma
membrane
Golgi apparatus
vacoule
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
centriole
cytoplasm
nucleolus
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Nuclear
membrane
ribosome
lysosome
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chromatin, which are long strands like a bowl
of spaghetti. When the DNA is replicated,
copies are kept together by structures called
centromeres.
CELL DIVISION
INTRODUCTION





o Mitotic phase – cell is divided into two
identical daughter cells in 2 steps, Mitosis and
Cytokinesis.
All living things are made up of one or more cells.
Humans begin life as a single cell (fertilized egg) and
grow to be made of trillions of cells. Two adult humans
can then produce a new human. This is called the
Human Life cycle.
In order to grow larger and repair damage, an organism
must increase the number of its cells.
To produce another human (reproduce), humans must
make a reproductive cell (sperm or egg) that can
combine with another human’s reproductive cell.
Every human cell contains the entire instruction manual
(46 strands of DNA) necessary to make a fully grown
human.
o Mitosis – cell’s nucleus and DNA is divided
into two identical nuclei. This occurs in 4
phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase.
o Prophase

Chromatin condenses into
chromosomes which can now be seen
with a microscope. Each chromosome
consists of the 2 identical copies of a
DNA strand, called sister chromatids,
held together at the centromere.

The nuclear membrane begins to
disintegrate.

Spindle fibers begin to form from the
centrosomes which are at either end of
the cell. The spindle fibers grow and
some attach to kinetochores (attachment
points) on each sister chromatid.
THE CELL CYCLE

Cells, like humans, increase in number by going
through a life cycle called the Cell Cycle. The cell
cycle consists of 2 stages:
o Interphase – cell grows and performs normal
functions. If a cell is not going to divide it stays
in G1 of Interphase. Otherwise, it continues to S
phase where the DNA is replicated (copied).
The DNA in the nucleus is in a form called
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o
o Telophase
Metaphase

The nuclear membrane disappears.

The nuclear membrane reappears.

Spindle fibers continue to grow pushing
the cell ends apart and pushing the
chromosomes to an area in the middle of
the cell called the metaphase plate.

The chromosomes uncoil to return to the
chromatin form.

The mitotic spindle fibers are
disassembled.

Normal nuclear (DNA) activity resumes.

The kinetochore of each sister chromatid
faces the opposite pole (centromere) of
the cell.

o Anaphase

o Cytokinesis usually occurs while telophase is in
progress.
Spindle fibers shorten pulling on the
kinetochore of each sister chromatid and
pulling the centromere apart.

Each sister chromatid is now considered
its own chromosome.

The chromosomes are pulled to opposite
poles of the cell. Because identical sister
chromatids were split, each cell contains
an identical and complete copy of the
DNA.
Cytokinesis - cell’s cytoplasm and organelles are
divided in two.
o Cytokinesis begins with a cleavage furrow in
the cell membrane that pinches the two cells
apart.
o The resulting two daughter cells are identical
clones of the original cell, each with a nucleus
and the full set of 46 chromosomes.
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There are three different types of cells
regarding the cell cycle.



Permanent – cells that do not go
through cell division once the tissue
is mature.
Stable - cells that only go through
cell division to replace damaged
cells
Labile - cells that are constantly
going through cell division.

Because these cells have only half the normal DNA
they are called haploid. Normal human cells with 46
chromosomes are called diploid.

The creation of gametes is called meiosis. The joining
of two gametes is called fertilization.

Fertilization and meiosis offset each other to maintain
chromosome number from generation to generation.

Meiosis
o Reduces the chromosomes number from diploid
to haploid.
o Meiosis, like mitosis, is preceded by
chromosome replication.
MEIOSIS


o Meiosis involves 2 consecutive cell divisions,
called meiosis I and meiosis II, resulting in 4
haploid daughter cells.
The 46 chromosomes in each human cell are actually 2
sets of 23 chromosomes. One set is inherited from the
father and one set from the mother. The 2 sets are not
identical, but they are homologous. Homologous
means that the chromosomes carry the same genes,
such as for hair color, but the genes are not identical.
Mom may have a black hair gene, while dad’s is
blonde.
o Meiosis I segregates the two chromosomes of
each homologous pair packaging them into
separate daughter cells. The centromeres do not
divide.

In order to create a new human with the correct 2 sets
of 23 chromosomes, humans must make gametes.
Gametes are cells like sperm and eggs (more properly
called oocytes) that only have 1 set of 23 chromosomes.
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Prophase I - In order for homologous
chromosomes to be separated, they must
first be paired together in a tetrad.



Metaphase I – Tetrads line up on the
Metaphase plate.
WORD PARTS
Anaphase I – Tetrads are pulled to
opposite poles of the cell. Sister
chromatids are still connected at
centromeres.
Telophase I and cytokinesis – The cell
is pinched into two cells. The nuclear
membrane does not reform before
Meiosis II.
o Meiosis II separates the two sister chromatids
of each chromosome (centromeres divide)
which is similar to mitosis.

The final result of meiosis is 4 haploid gametes. Two
gametes can then combine in fertilization to form a
diploid cell that will become a new unique individual.
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
chroma, chromo = colored

cyto = cell

di = two

hap = half

homo = same

kin = move

some, soma = body

tetra = four
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THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
ANATOMIC BONE FEATURES
Appendicular skeleton - all the bones of the body that make
up the limbs and the shoulder and pelvic girdles
• Girdles
– Pectoral or shoulder
– Pelvic
• Upper Limbs
– Arm
– Forearm
– Wrist
– Hand
• Lower Limbs
– Thigh
– Leg
– Ankle
– Foot
Terms
Body: main part
Head: enlarged end
Neck: constriction between head and body
Margin or border: edge
Angle: bend
Ramus: branch off body
Condyle: smooth rounded articular surface
Facet: small flattened articular surface
Projections
Process: prominent projection
Tubercle: small rounded bump
Tuberosity: knob
Trochanter: tuberosities on proximal femur
Epicondyle: near or above condyle
Ridges
Line or linea: low ridge
Crest or crista: prominent ridge
Spine: very high ridge
Openings
Foramen: hole
Canal or meatus: tunnel
Fissure: cleft
Sinus or labyrinth: cavity
Depressions
Fossa: general term for a depression
Notch: depression in bone margin
Fovea: little pit
Groove or sulcus: deeper, narrow depression
UPPER LIMB:
Shoulder girdle: made up of 2 bones
Clavicle
• Acromial end articulates with acromion
• Sternal end articulates with manubrium of
sternum
Scapula
• Acromion process forms protective cover,
attachment for clavicle, attachment for
muscles
• Scapular spine divides posterior surface
into supraspinous fossa and infraspinous
fossa
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•
•
•
Subscapular fossa is the anterior potion of
the blade
Coracoid process is an attachment for
muscles
Glenoid Fossa (cavity) articulates with
humerus
•
o Arm: made up of 1 bone
Humerus
• Head articulates with pectoral girdle
• Greater and Lesser Tubercles are
attachment sites for muscles
• Deltoid tuberosity
• Condyles
o Capitulum: rounded, articulates
with radius
o Trochlea: spool-shaped, articulates
with ulna
• Epicondyles- medial and lateral
• Olecranon fossa –fits olecranon process of
ulna
• Coronoid fossa- fits coronoid process of
ulna
Radius- Lateral (thumb side)
• Proximal end
o Head rotates in radial notch of ulna.
o Radial tuberosity: site of muscle
attachment
• Distal end articulates with carpals and ulna
o Styloid process
o Wrist: 8 bones of the wrist
Carpals
Carpal tunnel: on anterior surface. Enclosed by a
ligament
o Hand: palm and digits
o Forearm: made up of 2 bones
Ulna-Medial (little finger side)
•
o Coronoid process fits into coronoid
fossa of humerus
o Radial notch fits the head of the
radius
Distal end
o Head articulates with radius and
with carpals
o Styloid process
Proximal end
o Trochlear notch fits over trochlea
of humerus
o Olecranon process is the point of
elbow
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Metacarpals- 5 bones of the palm
• Labeled: #1-5 starting from thumb
Phalanges- 3 bones making up each finger of the
hand, except the thumb which only has two bones,
named proximal, middle and distal phalanx and
numbered #1 - #5 starting at thumb
LOWER LIMB:
•
Pelvic Girdle: 2 coxae, sacrum and coccyx (sacrum and
coccyx will be covered with axial skeleton)
Coxa: each made up of 3 fused bones
•
•
•
•
•
Ilium- superior portion of coxa
o Iliac fossa
o Iliac crest
o Anterior superior spine
o Anterior inferior spine
o Posterior superior spine
o Posterior inferior spine
•
o Patella or kneecap: Inside tendon
o Leg: made up of 2 bones
Tibia- Larger of 2 and supports most of weight
•
•
•
Ischium- inferior portion of coxa
o Ischial tuberosity
o Ischial spine
o Greater sciatic notch
o Lesser sciatic notch
Pubis- anterior portion
o Obturator foramen (also made by part of
ischium)
o Pubic crest
o Symphysis pubis (pubic symphysis)
Acetabulum- depression made by all 3 bones,
articulates with the head of the femur
o Thigh: made up of 1 bone
Femur• Head articulates with acetabulum
• Neck
Greater and lesser Trochanters: attachment for
muscles that fasten lower extremity to hip
Medial and lateral distal condyles: articulate with
tibia
Medial and lateral epicondyles: ligament
attachment sites
•
•
Tibial tuberosity: attachment site of muscle
Anterior crest: shin
Medial and lateral condyles articulate with
condyles of femur
Intercondylar eminence
Medial malleolus: medial side of ankle
Fibula• Head articulates with tibia not femur
• Lateral malleolus: lateral wall of ankle
o Ankle: Tarsals- 7 bones making up the ankle
• Talus articulates with Tibia and Fibula
• Calcaneus – heel bone
o Foot: Metatarsals- 5 bones making up the sole of the foot
• Labeled- #1-5 beginning with the big toe
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Phalanges- 3 bones, except the big toe which only has 2
• Labeled- Proximal, Middle and Distal phalanx and
#1-5 beginning with the big toe
WORD PARTS
coraco = bird’s beak
corono = crow’s beak
epi = on top of
infra = inferior
oid = looks like
styl = pen, thin and pointed
sub = beneath, under
supra = superior
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AXIAL SKELETON
Axial skeleton: the bones of the body making up the skull
(covered later), vertebral column, the rib (thoracic) cage, and
the sternum (breastbone).
Intervertebral Disks located between adjacent
vertebrae
Annulus fibrosus: external capsule
Nucleus pulposus: internal and gelatinous
cushion
Disks becomes compressed with age and
height decreases
With age, disks are more susceptible to
herniation - breakage or ballooning of
the annulus fibrosus with a partial or
complete release of the nucleus
pulposus. May push against spinal
nerves impairing function and causing
pain.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN:
Vertebral Curvatures - Four major curvatures found
in adult vertebral column
Cervical: anterior
Thoracic: posterior
Lumbar: anterior
Sacral and coccygeal: posterior
At birth, column is C shaped
When head is raised, cervical curve
appears
When sitting and walking begin, lumbar
curve develops
Vertebral structure
Body main part of vertebra
Transverse process project laterally
Vertebral foramen hole for the spinal cord
Spinous process project posteriorly
Articular processes articulate with other
vertebrae at facets
Spinal nerves exit the vertebral column through
intervertebral foramina.
Abnormal curvatures
Lordosis: Exaggeration of lumbar
curvature
Kyphosis: Exaggeration of thoracic
curvature
Scoliosis: Lateral curvature, often
accompanied by kyphosis
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Lumbar vertebrae- 5 vertebrae
Large thick bodies
Heavy rectangular transverse and
spinous processes
Vertebral regions
Cervical vertebrae- 7 vertebrae
Have very small bodies, tend to
have bifid (split) spinous
processes, and have transverse
foramina
Sacral vertebrae5 vertebrae fused into 1
bone, the Sacrum
Alae: superior lateral parts of fused
transverse processes
Auricular surface: articulates with
pelvic bone
Median sacral crest: partially fused
spinous processes
Sacral foramina: intervertebral
foramina
Atlas
Name of first cervical vertebrae
Articulates with skull and allows
“yes” movement
No body and no spinous process
Axis
Name of second cervical
vertebrae
Dens or odontoid process
extends superiorly into the vertebral foramen of the
atlas
Allows rotation of the atlas on
the axis, the “no” movement
Coccygeal vertebrae- 3-5 vertebrae fused
into 1 bone
the Coccyx or tailbone
Thoracic vertebrae- 12 vertebrae
Long, thin spinous processes directed
inferiorly
Long transverse processes
Articular facets on transverse processes
for ribs (first 10 thoracic vertebrae)
Facets on body for articulation with ribs
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RIBS
WORD PARTS
12 pair of ribs protects vital organs and forms a semirigid chamber for respiration. The costal groove runs
along the deep inferior surface of each rib.
chondra = cartilage
corn = horn
True or Vertebrosternal: superior seven.
Attach directly to sternum via costal cartilages.
False: inferior five
Vertebrochondral - superior 3 of false
ribs joined by common cartilage to
sternum.
Floating or vertebral - most inferior 2
do not attach to sternum.
costa = rib
inter = between
STERNUM
Manubrium articulates with first rib and clavicle
Body articulates with third through seventh ribs
Xiphisternum or Xiphoid process
HYOID
Floating bone in throat.
Body
Greater cornu
Lesser cornu
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THE SKULL
•
•
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKULL
• Protect the brain
• Support facial muscles
• Entry for respiratory system
• Entry for digestive system
• Site of sense of smell, taste, sight, hearing and balance
• Allow nerves and blood vessels to enter & exit brain
The following is a list of the bones of the skull and their
associated structures which you will be required to be able to
identify for examination purposes.
•
CRANIAL VAULT
•
•
•
•
2 Parietal bones
Frontal bone
• Sagittal suture
• Coronal suture
• Sutures become more fused with age
• Supraorbital foramen
Occipital bone
• Occipital condyle
• Foramen magnum-opening where brain
attaches to spinal cord
• Lambdoid suture: between parietals
and occipital
2 Temporal bones
• External auditory meatus –ear canal
•
•
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Mastoid Process
Zygomatic process of the zygomatic arch
(cheekbone)
• Styloid process
• Carotid canal -carotid artery enters brain
through here
• Jugular foramen- jugular vein exits brain
through here
• Mandibular fossa articulates with the mandible
• Squamous suture: joins the parietal and
temporal bone
Sphenoid bone (greater wing)
• Foramen lacerum
• Foramen ovale
• Optic foramen- optic nerve runs through to
brain
• Superior orbital fissure
• Sella turcica houses the pituitary gland
Ethmoid bone
• Nasal conchae
• Crista galli -prominent ridge in center of
anterior fossa
• Cribriform plate –perforated to allow nerves
from nose through to brain
• Perpendicular plate - part of the nasal septum
along with the Vomer
2 Palatine bones
THE FACE
•
•
•
•
•
•
WORD ROOTS
2 Maxilla
• Palatine processes- makes up hard palate along
with palatine bones
• Infraorbital foramen
• Anterior Nasal Spine
Mandible
• Mandibular foramen
• Mandibular condyle
• Mental foramen
• Alveolar processes
• Coronoid process
2 Lacrimal Bones
• Nasolacrimal canal – drains tears into nose
2 Nasal Bones
2 Zygomatic bones –front part of cheekbone
Vomer –part of the nasal septum along with the
Ethmoid
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
PARANASAL SINUSES
•
•
Functions:
– Decrease skull weight.
– Resonating chambers for speech.
Named for bones in which they are found.
– Frontal
– Maxillary
– Ethmoidal
– Sphenoidal
49
alveola = small sac
concha = shell
lacrima = tears
lambda = Greek letter, λ
magnum = big
mast = breast
oc = back of
orbit = eye socket
palate = roof of mouth
sella = saddle
squamous = fish scale
suture = joint between 2 flat bones
turcica = Turkish
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THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
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MUSCLE ANATOMY
MUSCLE TERMINOLOGY
•
Orientation: rectus, oblique
•
Origin or head: muscle end attached to more stationary of
two bones.
•
Origin and insertion: sternocleidomastoid, carpi radialis
•
Number of heads: biceps, triceps
•
Insertion: muscle end attached to bone with greatest
movement.
•
Function: adductor, masseter, flexor, extensor, supinator,
pronator
•
Belly: largest portion of the muscle between origin and
insertion.
HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES
•
Tendons: attach muscles to bones
•
Agonist: muscle that, when it contracts, causes an action.
•
Antagonist: a muscle working in opposition to agonist.
Sternocleidomastoid (Rotates to the opposite side and
flexes head)
•
Splenius capitis (Rotates head)
MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION
– Example: the biceps brachii can be used to lift
weights and is the agonist, but when you move a
bowling ball back to prepare to bowl, the biceps is
the antagonist.
•
•
Origin and insertion of these muscles in the superficial
fascia (connective tissue beneath the skin) rather than
bones.
Move the skin; some act as sphincters.
Synergists: muscles that work together to cause a
movement.
•
Orbicularis oris (closes lips)
NOMENCLATURE
•
Orbicularis oculi (closes eye)
Muscles are named according to:
•
Risorius (laughing)
•
Location: pectoralis, gluteus, brachial
•
Zygomaticus (smiling)
•
Size: maximus, minimus, longus, brevis
•
Occipitofrontalis (Raises eyebrows and moves scalp)
•
Shape: deltoid, quadratus, teres, trapezius, orbicularis
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MUSCLES OF MASTICATION
•
SCAPULAR MUSCLES
Muscles that attach the upper limb to the body and move or
stabilize the scapula and clavicle.
Mastication: chewing. Involves elevation/ depression/
excursion/ protraction/ retraction of the mandible to
grind the teeth together.
Originate on the axial skeleton.
Muscles of the cheek and tongue aid mastication by
pushing the food under the teeth.
•
Masseter (Elevates and protracts mandible)
•
Temporalis (Elevates and retracts mandible)
•
SHOULDER MOVEMENT MUSCLES
Flexes shoulder:
•
ABDOMINAL WALL MUSCLES
•
Aid in forced expiration, vomiting, defecation, urination,
childbirth.
Teres Major, Teres Minor, Latissimus Dorsi
Abducts shoulder:
•
Crossing pattern of muscles adds strength to abdominal
wall to support organs.
Supraspinatus, Deltoid
Rotates shoulder:
Rectus Abdominis (Flexes vertebral column)
•
– Linea alba in center
Subscapularis, Infraspinatus
ARM MUSCLES (ROTATOR CUFF)
– Tendinous intersections divided muscle into
sections
Primary muscles holding humerus in the Glenoid cavity.
Form a cuff or cap over the proximal humerus.
– Creates 6 pack abs
•
Pectoralis Major
Extends shoulder:
Flex and rotate vertebral column, decrease volume of
abdominal and thoracic cavities.
•
Trapezius, Serratus anterior, Pectoralis major
Involved in flexion, extension, abduction, adduction,
rotation and circumduction.
External and Internal abdominal obliques
(Compresses abdomen and laterally rotate trunk)
•
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Infraspinatus, Subscapularis, Supraspinatus,
Teres minor
FOREARM MOVEMENT MUSCLES
THIGH MOVEMENT MUSCLES
Movements at the elbow
Flex the hip
Extends elbow:
•
•
Extend the hip
Triceps brachii
Iliopsoas, Sartorius, Rectus Femoris
Flexes elbow:
•
•
Abduct the hip
Biceps brachii, Brachioradialis, Brachialis
•
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE HAND
Gluteus Maximus
Tensor fascia latae
•
Supinator (Supination)
Adduct the hip
•
Pronator teres (Pronation)
•
Gracilis, Adductor longus
Flexes wrist:
Extend the hip
•
•
Flexor Carpi Radialis, Palmaris longus, Flexor
Carpi Ulnaris
Flexes fingers and thumb:
•
Biceps femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus
(Hamstrings)
LEG MOVEMENTS
Flex the knee
Flexor digitorum, Flexor pollicis longus
Extends wrist:
•
Sartorius
•
•
Biceps femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus
(Hamstrings)
Extensor Carpi Radialis, Extensor Carpi Ulnaris
Extends fingers and thumb:
•
Extend the knee
Extensor digitorum, Extensor pollicis longus
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•
Patellar ligament and tendon
•
Rectus Femoris, Vastus lateralis, Vastus Medialis,
Vastus intermedius (Quadriceps)
FOOT MOVEMENTS
WORD ROOTS
biceps = 2 heads
•
Tibialis anterior (dorsiflexion)
brevis = short
•
Soleus (plantar flexion)
cleido = related to the clavicle
•
Fibularis longus (Plantar flexion and Eversion)
•
Extensor digitorum longus (Extension of toes)
•
Gastrocnemius and Calcaneal (Achilles) Tendon
(Plantar flexion and flexion of leg)
orbicularis = circular
•
Tibialis Posterior (Plantar flexion and Inversion)
rectus = erect (running up and down)
•
Flexor digitorum longus (Flexion (curling) of toes)
teres = cylindrical
•
Flexor hallicus longus (Flexion of big toe)
delta = Greek letter delta = 
gastro = belly
masticate = chew
quadratus = 4 sided, rectangular
trapezius = trapezoid shaped
triceps = 3 heads
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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Sensory input – external and internal stimuli
 Integration – inputs may produce an immediate
response, stored as memory, or ignored

 Homeostasis – regulatory and coordinating activities to
maintain constant internal environment

Sympathetic Nervous System Regulates “flight or fight response”

Enteric Nervous System Regulates digestive functions
Somatic Nervous System – voluntary
muscle action
o Sensory or Afferent Division - Action potentials
(APs) from sensory receptors to CNS
 Mental activity – consciousness, thinking, memory, and
emotions
REFLEX ARC
 Control of muscles and glands
 Basic functional unit of nervous system.
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Simplest portion capable of receiving a stimulus and
producing a response.

Central Nervous System (CNS) - Brain and spinal
cord
 Automatic response to a stimulus that occurs without
conscious thought. Homeostatic.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – sensory receptors
and nerves
 Components of a Reflex Arc
 Stimulus → Sensory receptors → Sensory
neuron → Interneuron → Motor neuron →
Effector organ which responds with a reflex.
o Motor or Efferent Division - APs from CNS to
skeletal muscle

Autonomic Nervous System – involuntary
muscle and gland action

 Types of Reflexes
 Stretch reflex - Muscles contract in response to
a stretching force applied to them.
Parasympathetic Nervous system Regulates resting or vegetative
functions
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 Withdrawal reflex - removes a limb or other
body part from a painful stimulus.
 Some integrated within spinal cord; some within
brain.
 Reciprocal Innervation - causes relaxation of
extensor muscle when flexor muscle contracts in
stretch and withdrawal reflexes.
 Some involve excitatory neurons yielding a
response; some involve inhibitory neurons that
prevent an action.
 Crossed Extensor Reflex - when a withdrawal
reflex is initiated in one lower limb, the crossed
extensor reflex causes extension of opposite
lower limb to prevent falling.
 Higher brain centers can influence, suppress, or
exaggerate reflex responses.
WORD ROOTS
 Golgi Tendon reflex - Prevents contracting
muscles from applying excessive tension to
tendons by producing sudden relaxation of the
muscles.
 Relationship of Brain and Spinal Cord Reflexes
 Sensory information goes to brain as well as
along the reflex arc (e.g., pain.)
 Descending nerves from brain can exaggerate or
suppress reflexes.
 Variety of Reflexes
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
arachna = spiders

cauda = tail

epi = above

equine = horse

homeo = same

mater = mother

stasis = remaining the same

sub = beneath
SPINAL NERVES
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SPINAL NERVES ANATOMY

STRUCTURE OF PERIPHERAL NERVES
Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves.
o Nerve Axon bundles
o 8 pair cervical
o Myelin made of Schwann cells
o 12 pair thoracic
o Connective tissue
o 5 pair lumbar

o 5 pair sacral
Endoneurium: surrounds individual
neurons.

Perineurium: Surrounds axon groups to
form fascicles.

Epineurium: surrounds the entire nerve.
o 1 pair coccygeal
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
First pair exit vertebral column between skull and
atlas.

Last four pair exit via the sacral foramina.

Others exit through intervertebral foramina.
DIVISIONS OF SPINAL NERVES
Spinal Nerve
Division
Dorsal ramus (pl.
rami)
Further Division or Notes
Spinal nerve
origins
Important Nerves
General Muscles
Innervated
Innervates dorsal trunk
Cervical plexus
Brachial plexus
C1 – C4
C5 – T1
Ventral ramus
Phrenic nerve
Diaphragm
Axillary nerve
Deltoid muscle
Radial nerve
Upper limb extensor
muscles
Musculocutaneous
nerve
Arm flexor muscles
Ulnar nerve
Forearm flexor muscles
Median nerve
Forearm flexor muscles
Femoral nerve
Anterior thigh muscles
Obturator nerve
Medial thigh muscles
Tibial and
Lumbosacral plexus
Coccygeal plexus
Communicating
ramus
Ischiadic nerve
L1 – S4
Common Fibular
S4 – Co
Autonomic plexuses; (T1L5)
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Common fibular nerve
Anterior/lateral leg muscles
Tibial nerve
Posterior thigh/leg muscles
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SPINAL CORD ANATOMY

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF SPINAL CORD
Gray commissure - Contains axons that cross
from one side of spinal cord to the other
 Extends from foramen magnum to second lumbar
vertebra


(included in gray matter)

Conus medullaris – conelike region of spinal
cord at L2
Cauda equina – conus medullaris plus the
nerve roots at inferior end of spinal cord
commissure that is continuous with fourth
ventricle of brainstem

 Segments

Cervical Segment

Thoracic Segment

Lumbar Segment

Sacral Segment
Central canal - Canal in center of gray
White commissure - Contains axons that cross
from one side of spinal cord to the other
(included in white matter)

Spinal nerve

Contains sensory axons, Dorsal root
ganglion (DRG) = cell bodies of
 Enlargements of spinal cord


unipolar sensory (afferent) neurons
Cervical
 Inferior cervical region
 Axons enter and leave that supply upper
limb
Lumbar
 Inferior thoracic and superior lumbar
regions
 Axons enter and leave that supply lower
limb

Ventral root - Formed from 6-8
rootlets, Contains motor (efferent) axons
 Cross Section of Spinal Cord

Dorsal root - Formed from 6-8 rootlets,
Anterior median fissure and Posterior
median sulcus - Deep clefts that partially
divides spinal cord into right and left halves
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COVERINGS OF SPINAL CORD (MENINGES)
(Superficial  Deep)

Periosteum of vertebral canal

Epidural space
Subdural space – contains small amount serous fluid

Arachnoid mater – thin and wispy like spider webs

Subarachnoid space
o Contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
o Contains blood vessels, loose connective tissue

(CT), and fat
Pia mater
o Tightly bound to spinal cord
o Site of Epidural anesthesia injected during
o Filum terminale
childbirth



Dura mater
Extension of pia mater beyond spinal
cord
o Outermost covering

o Continous with epineurium of spinal nerves
Anchors spinal cord inferiorly to
coccyx
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BRAIN ANATOMY

Part of CNS contained in cranial cavity.

Control center for many of body’s functions.

Much like a complex computer but much more.

Parts of the brain:

o Cerebellar peduncles connects cerebellum to
brainstem

o Brainstem: connects spinal cord to brain;
integration of reflexes necessary for survival.

Hypothalamus- important in regulation of hormones
o Cerebellum: involved in control of locomotion,
balance, posture.

Mammillary bodies: bulges on dorsal (post.) surface.
o Cerebrum: conscious thought, control.

Olfactory Bulb: site of the detection of smell

Optic Chiasm: crossing of the 2 optic nerves

Corpus Callosum – connects the left and right
hemispheres

Pineal body (gland) – secretes hormones

Corpora quadrigemina – 4 bulges on the posterior
brainstem
BRAINSTEM AND MIDBRAIN
Medulla Oblongata
o Most inferior part, Continuous with spinal cord;
has both ascending and descending nerve tracts.
o Regulates: heart rate, blood vessel diameter,
respiration, swallowing, vomiting, hiccupping,
coughing, and sneezing.

Superior: to midbrain, Middle: to pons,
Inferior: to medulla oblongata
o Cerebral peduncle connects brainstem to
cerebrum
o Midbrain: thalamus and hypothalamus.

Peduncles: fiber tracts that communicate between parts
of brain
o Superior Colliculi – visual reflex area
Pons
o Inferior Colliculi – auditory reflex area
o Superior to the medulla oblongata, contains
Nerve tracts: ascending and descending
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o Sulci are depressions
CEREBELLUM
•
Attached to brainstem posterior to Pons.
•
Cortex folded in ridges called folia.
•
Arbor vitae - White matter resembling a tree.
•
Medulla: center
•
Nuclei: gray matter within the medulla made of cell
bodies of neurons (like ganglion inside CNS)
MENINGES
•
Connective tissue membranes
CEREBRUM
o Dura mater: most superficial layer
•
Largest portion of brain
•
Composed of right and left hemispheres each of which
has the following lobes:
o Arachnoid mater: middle layer
o Pia mater: bound tightly to brain
•
o Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal
•
Spaces
o Subdural: filled with serous fluid
Sulci and Fissures
o Subarachnoid: filled with CSF
o Longitudinal fissure: separates the two
hemispheres
DURA MATER
o Lateral fissure: separates temporal lobe from
frontal and parietal lobes
•
•
Superficial, tightly bound to internal periosteum except:
o Central sulcus: separates frontal and parietal
lobes
o Falx cerebri in longitudinal fissure between the
two cerebral hemispheres
o Transverse fissure: separates the cerebrum
from the cerebellum
o Tentorium cerebelli between cerebellum and
cerebrum
o Falx cerebelli between the two cerebellar
hemispheres.
Cortex: outer surface
o Gyri are folds
o Venous sinuses form at the bases of the three folds.
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VENTRICLES
ARACHNOID MATER; SUBDURAL SPACE
•
Filled with CFS
•
Arachnoid Mater : a thin, wispy layer
•
•
Subdural space: between dura and arachnoid; only a
small amount of serous fluid within
Lateral ventricles: within cerebral hemispheres; separated
by septa pellucidum
•
Third ventricle: within diencephalon
•
Interventricular foramina join lateral ventricles with third
•
Fourth ventricle: associated with pons and medulla
oblongata. Connected to third ventricle by the cerebral
aqueduct, continuous with the central canal of the spinal
cord, and connected to the subarachnoid space by the
lateral and medial apertures
PIA MATER AND SUBARACHNOID SPACE
•
Pia mater: thin, delicate C.T. membrane closely
adhered to brain; follows external contours.
•
Subarachnoid space: contains web-like strands of
arachnoid, blood vessels, and cerebrospinal fluid.
WORD ROOTS
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)
•
Similar to serous fluid, but without most proteins.
•
Bathes brain and spinal cord.
•
Protective cushion around CNS.
•
Choroid plexuses produce CSF which fills ventricles
and other parts of brain and spinal cord.
– Composed of ependymal cells, their support
tissue, and associated blood vessels.
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•
arbor = tree
•
chiasma = cross
•
corpus = body
•
folia = leaves
•
hypo = under, below
•
medulla = middle
•
olfactory = smell
•
vitae = life
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EYE ANATOMY
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE EYE
LAYERS OF THE EYE
Eyebrows: provide shade; inhibit sweat from entering eye
Three coats or tunics (superficial to deep):
Eyelids: protect the eyes from foreign objects
Fibrous: sclera (whites) and cornea (transparent)
Eyelashes: double/triple row of hairs.
Vascular: choroid, ciliary body, iris
Lacrimal Apparatus
Nervous: retina
Lacrimal gland: produces tears to moisten, lubricate,
wash. Tears pass through ducts and then over eye.
THE LENS
Lacrimal canaliculi: collect excess tears through
openings called puncta.
Held by suspensory ligaments attached to ciliary muscles.
Lacrimal sac leads to Nasolacrimal duct: opens into
nasal cavity
Changes shape as ciliary muscles contract and relax.
Surrounded by a highly elastic, transparent capsule.
Transparent, biconvex.
EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLES
THE IRIS
Lateral rectus
The size of the pupil is controlled by the Iris which is made of
two muscles.
Medial rectus
Superior rectus
Dilator pupillae which dilates the pupil
Inferior rectus
Sphincter pupillae which constricts the pupil
Inferior oblique
Superior oblique
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FOCUSING
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE RETINA
Refraction: bending of light.
Pigmented retina: single layer of cells; filled with melanin.
Convergence: light striking a convex surface converges.
With choroid, enhances visual acuity by isolating individual
photoreceptors, reducing light scattering.
Focal point: point where light rays converge and cross.
Focusing: causing light to converge and focus on retina.
Sensory retina: three layers of neurons: photoreceptor,
bipolar, and ganglionic.
Lens changes shape causing adjustment of focal point in front
of the retina.
Nervous signals exit the eye via the Optic nerve.
VASCULAR TUNIC
Ciliary body:
OPTHALMOSCOPIC VIEW OF RETINA
Ciliary muscles: control lens shape.
Macula lutea: dark spot at center of retina.
Ciliary processes: attached to suspensory ligaments
of lens.
Fovea centralis: center of macula lutea. photoreceptor cells
tightly packed.
Choroid: associated with sclera. Very thin, pigmented.
Optic disc: yellow area to the side. Creates a blind spot
because there are no photoreceptors here. Area through which
blood vessels enter eye, where optic nerve exits from eye.
Iris: colored part of the eye. Controls light entering the pupil.
NERVOUS TUNIC
Two layers
Pigmented retina: outer, pigmented layer next to choroid.
Pigment of this layer and choroid help to separate sensory
cells and reduce light scattering
Sensory retina: inner layer of rod and cone cells sensitive
to light.
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COMPARTMENTS OF THE EYE
WORD ROOTS
Anterior compartment: anterior to lens
•
aqueous = watery
Filled with aqueous humor.
•
canaliculi = little canal
Helps maintain intraocular pressure; supplies nutrients
to structures bathed by it; contributes to refraction of
light.
•
convex = rounded
•
humor = body fluid
Anterior chamber: between cornea and iris
•
lacrima = tears
Posterior chamber: between iris and lens
•
pigment = coloring
•
vascular = with blood vessels
•
vitreous = glassy
Posterior compartment: posterior to lens.
Filled with jelly-like vitreous humor.
Helps maintain intraocular pressure, holds lens and
retina in place, refracts light.
Glaucoma: can be caused by an abnormal increase in
intraocular pressure.
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EAR ANATOMY
EXTERNAL EAR
INNER EAR
auricle or pinna- exterior ear structure
Labyrinths (chambers in the temporal bone)
external auditory meatus – ear canal leading from the outside
to the tympanic membrane.
Cochlea: spiral labyrinth that detects sound in hearing.
scala tympani –labyrinth connected to the oval
window. Transmits sound waves to the cochlear duct.
tympanic membrane (eardrum) – vibrates when sound wave
hits it. Separates the external ear from the middle ear.
cochlear duct – Contains the spiral organ with
hair cells which detects the tones and volume of the
sound wave. Nerve impulses are sent to the cochlear
nerve.
MIDDLE EAR
Separated from the inner ear by the membranous oval and
round windows.
scala vestibule – sound wave exits the cochlear
duct into this labyrinth where it is conducted to the
round window.
Auditory Ossicles: transmit and amplify vibrations from
tympanic membrane to oval window.
malleus (hammer)
helicotrema - at cochlear tip.
incus (anvil)
Vestibule: detects static balance (equilibrium).
stapes (stirrup)
Semicircular canals: detects dynamic balance
(equilibrium).
Auditory or eustachian tube – equalizes pressure in middle
ear with the outside.
Oval window: is connected to the stapes and vibrates when the
stapes does.
Round window – dampens the sound after it has traveled
through the cochlea.
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NERVES OF THE EAR
Vestibulocochlear nerve – carries nerve signals (A.P.s) from
inner ear to brain.
Vestibular nerve – carries nerve signals from the
vestibule and semi-circular canals to the brain.
Cochlear nerve – carries nerve signals from the
cochlea to the brain.
WORD PARTS
cochlea = snail
helic (helix) = spiral
labyrinth = maze
ossicle = bone
tympanum = drum
vestibule = entry space
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