Rachael Clark
Garland High School, TX
A mastery of Greek vocabulary can be a skill which alleviates the strain of learning
Greek, so a structured and coherent presentation of vocabulary benefits both teachers and students.
This paper examines vocabulary usage and frequency in two popular textbooks, Athenaze and
From Alpha to Omega, and compares the vocabulary of each textbook with the 50% word list and
80% word list of core Greek vocabulary developed by Wilfred E. Major (CPL Online 4.1 [2008]
1-24). The results of this study provide some preliminary work toward the broader goal of
providing teachers with vocabulary aids for commonly used Greek textbooks. In particular, this
paper provides a list of key vocabulary words that correspond to the two textbooks in the study
(appendices 1-4). Some additional suggestions for teachers on how to help students with
vocabulary acquisition are provided.
Vocabulary Frequency, Vocabulary Acquisition, Corpora (Linguistics), Ancient Greek Textbooks
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Learning Greek can be a very difficult and daunting process for many students. In Greek,
students encounter a language that is full of complex forms, grammatical intricacies, accent
marks with seemingly complex rules, and syntactical irregularities, all of which is presented in a
completely foreign-looking alphabet. We ask a lot of our beginning Greek students, and we must
if they are to adequately learn the language in a timely manner. One way we may be able to ease
our students’ journey through the early levels of Greek is to focus on orienting students to the
most commonly used vocabulary.1
The Greek language has approximately half the core vocabulary of other languages,
including English and Latin (Major 2). One of the first things we introduce to our beginning
Greek students is a list of vocabulary, yet vocabulary seems to be one of the last things students
master. Students of both Greek and Latin often complain that they have trouble remembering the
vocabulary in all the readings and that they have trouble recognizing those words in their various
forms. The smaller size of the core vocabulary of Greek can be used to our advantage by
stressing these words over others less likely to be encountered in ancient Greek texts. By
regularly reinforcing this core vocabulary, students who continue their studies in Greek will have
acquired a working vocabulary that will serve them well regardless of the texts used at
intermediate or advanced levels. The intent of this paper is to provide a list of key vocabulary
words that correspond to the two textbooks chosen for this study. This study compares the 50%
1
I would like to thank Emily Vinci for verifying the data and Ann Cannon for help with the tables and figures.
and 80% word list of core Greek vocabulary, as compiled by Wilfred Major from the Perseus
database (Major 4, 12-24), with the vocabulary in From Alpha to Omega and the Athenaze series.
Four appendices are included that identify the vocabulary in each textbook that corresponds to
the 50% list and 80% list. Finally, some additional suggestions on how to help students with
vocabulary acquisition are provided.
The methodology for compiling the original 50% and 80% word lists is explained in
Wilfred Major’s publication, “It’s Not the Size, It’s the Frequency: The Value of Using a Core
Vocabulary in Beginning and Intermediate Greek,” and is restated here. The 50% word list was
compiled using the 4.1+ million words in the Perseus Project database and was compiled March
31st, 2006 and subsequently revised. It updates a similar list compiled by Professor Helma Dik of
the University of Chicago. The 80% list was similarly compiled and revised in stages from 2004
to 2006. It began with the raw list of lemmas generated by the Perseus vocabulary tool. The raw
list consists of 1,193 lemmas, but Major modified it in three basic ways. First, most proper nouns
and related words were eliminated. Second, lemmas (e.g., a type of viper) that are generated
because they share the same form with a more common word (i.e., ) have also been deleted.
Finally, 79 additional lemmas have been incorporated into this newly reduced list based on
cultural importance, English derivative possibilities, or other factors (Major 3, 6-7). 2 The
resulting list is made up of 1,106 words and was the starting point for this article. The lists
attached here are revised to match the two textbooks used in this study. The words not contained
in the textbooks are included at the end of each 80% list.
%
The 50% list (Major 4) consists of 63 high-frequency words that make up 50% of ancient
Greek texts. In From Alpha to Omega, all 63 high-frequency words from the 50% list are
represented at some point in the book, which contains 50 chapters based on various grammar
points with the more complex grammar points held to the second half of the book.3 Again, taking
the seven high-frequency verbs from the 50% list, one finds that five of those are introduced in
the early chapters and two in later chapters. The deferral of two verbs, and for
later chapters is due to the author’s decision to introduce - verbs in the last few chapters of her
book. However, if the readings at the end of each chapter are taken into consideration, then
is actually first introduced in chapter 13, which is significantly earlier than the official
introduction in chapter 32. Other high-frequency words are treated in a similar manner; they are
introduced in the short readings at the end of various chapters, but only officially introduced
sometime later. It is possible to begin working with many more high-frequency words sooner by
paying close attention to which words in the readings are also on the 50% list (see appendix 1).
In Athenaze, Book I, 59 of these words are introduced in the first few chapters with seven
of the eight verbs introduced by chapter six.4 This means that approximately 94% of the 50% list
is represented at some point in Athenaze, Book I. The remaining four words not introduced in
2
Major’s original lists are also available at http://www.dramata.com.
Groton’s book is divided into two parts with the more sophisticated syntactical points discussed in the second half
of the book.
4
is introduced later in chapter 11 as the aorist of 3
Athenaze, Book I, are at least glossed in Athenaze, Book II. 5 Therefore, the 50% list is fully
represented in the Athenaze series, but some words may need to be reinforced outside of the text
in order for students to truly master them because they are not used frequently (see appendix 2).
In order to examine the frequency of some words throughout the first half of From Alpha
to Omega and throughout Book I of Athenaze, I counted the number of times the seven6 verbs
from the 50% list appeared in these areas. I chose these verbs because they are the most common
and are often the hardest for students to recognize in their various forms. I found that some
words are used frequently in a variety of forms, while others are introduced early, but only used
a handful of times in later chapters.7 This is true for both books and involves some of the same
words. Based on the above findings, with the exception of the most frequently used verbs in
ancient Greek may not be used frequently enough by the authors of the two textbooks.
The 80% list consists of the 1106 words which make up 80% of Greek texts (Major). In
From Alpha to Omega, 463 of the 1106 words are formally introduced in the chapter vocabulary
lists, with that number climbing to 586 words introduced if the short readings at the end of each
chapter are factored in (Table 1). These numbers represent approximately 42% and 53% of the
list respectively. Of the same 1106 words on the 80% list, 602 are formally introduced in the
Athenaze series. These 602 words represent approximately 54% of the 80% list. If the words
glossed in the reading are considered, the number of words in Athenaze that are represented on
the 80% list jumps up to more than 725 words8, approximately 66% of the 80% list.
Table 1
Number and Percentage of Vocabulary Words from the 80% List
in Two Beginning Greek Textbooks
At first, these may seem like small numbers, but they are not. If students of beginning
Greek can master approximately half or more of the most frequent words used in Greek texts (i.e.,
the 80% list) by the end of their first year of college (or second year of high school), they will be
able to proceed to intermediate Greek with more confidence and, hopefully, more success. The
is only glossed as being in the grammar section of chapters 22 and 25; it is not explicitly introduced in any
chapter vocabulary.
6
One of the eight verbs on the list is the aorist form of which I did not count as a separate verb.
7
For example, is introduced in the first chapter of Athenaze book I and used ~ 140 times in various forms
throughout the book, while and are used less than 20 times each after they are introduced.
8
The words in the Athenaze readings are usually conjugated verbs and are often more grammatically advanced, and
consequently require more extensive explanation.
5
remainder of the 80% list can bee stressed at the intermediate level so that students reaching the
advanced levels of Greek shouldd only need to concentrate on learning vocabularry peculiar to the
author being studied.
It is important to remem
mber that high-frequency words in ancient Greeek texts are not
always the high-frequency wordss of a Greek textbook, and it is up to each instru
uctor to regularly
reinforce the importance of the w
words on the 80% word list over words that do not
n appear on the
80% list.
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In order to examine wordd frequency within the stories and practice senten
nces, I took three
chapters from each of the two teextbooks, one from the beginning, one from thee middle, and one
from the end, 9 and compared every word in the stories found there to th
he 80% list. Not
unexpectedly, in both textbookss the percentage of words from the 80% list was
w higher in the
exercises than in the readings (Figure 1). Textbook authors have more con
ntrol over which
vocabulary is utilized in the exeercises than in the readings where the demandss of the narrative
take precedence.10
Figure 1
9
From Alpha to Omega, chapters 5, 25, and 45; Athenaze, chapters 1, 17, and 24. From Alpha to
o Omega, chapter 5,
was chosen because it is the first one too include a connected prose reading.
10
For purposes of this study, exercises and readings in Athenaze never include Word Building ex
xercises, nor the
additional passage for reading comprehhension at the end of each chapter and the English to Greeek exercise
associated with it, nor the passages of G
Greek Wisdom or the New Testament.
When the two textbooks are compared in the percentage of words from the 80% list that
are used in the exercises, it becoomes clear that there is little difference between From Alpha to
Omega and Athenaze (Figure 2)). Many of these words consist of articles and prepositions that
necessarily come up often, but aare on the 80% list. Most of the words that do not
n correspond to
the 80% list are proper nouns sppecific to the events in the story !"
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agricultural terms that are not uused frequently enough to make the 80% list (e.g.,
(
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), or words from the samee root as words on the 80% list, but simply not quite as frequent
(the feminine rather thhan the masculine #
, the verb instead of the more
frequent noun , or the com
mpound $ rather than simply %).
Figure 2
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The same is true when rreading passages are compared. Aside from thee anomaly of the
chapter 5 reading in From Alphha to Omega, “A Fowl Plan Backfires” (Aesop 55), the reading
passages in the two textbooks utiilize words from the 80% with similar frequency
y (Figure 3).
Figure 3
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Figure 4 graphically illuustrates the number of words used in the exerrcises in the two
textbooks.11 While From Alphaa to Omega, after the first few chapters, has roughly
r
the same
number of exercises and words pper exercise in every chapter, the number in Atheenaze depends on
the specific grammatical items bbeing covered. The beginning chapter compariso
on is not reliable,
because Athenaze, chapter 1, iss both the first chapter to include a reading and the first to
introduce any grammar while F
From Alpha to Omega has already introduced four chapters of
grammar before it presents its fiirst reading passage in chapter 5. The comparisson of the middle
and end chapters presents more rreliable data. Each chapter in From Alpha to Om
mega consistently
provides ten Greek-to-English seentences and five English-to-Greek sentences. In
I Athenaze, Part
a of each chapter has at a minim
mum one Greek-to-English exercise containing ten
t sentences and
one English-to-Greek containingg five sentences; the minimum for Part b off each chapter in
Athenaze is one Greek-to-Englissh exercise (ten sentences). Depending on the grrammatical items
covered, however, Parts a and b frequently have an additional exercise, either fo
ocusing on forms
or more sentences to translate ffrom Greek to English. Athenaze, chapter 17, for example, has
additional exercises in both Parrt a and b: in Part a there is a transformation
n exercise asking
students to transform fifteen verbbs from active to passive, and Part b includes an
a additional five
English-to-Greek sentences.12 Evven if the beginning chapter comparison is exclu
uded, the number
of distinct words in the exercisses may be slightly greater in From Alpha to
o Omega than in
Athenaze. In addition, since Froom Alpha to Omega contains fewer words from
m the 80% list, it
may be possible that students enccounter those words more frequently.
Figure 413
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11
Word counts include repeats (i.e. if a word appears three times, it is counted three times).
Part a of Athenaze, chapter 24, adds a second exercise of five Greek-to-English sentences; Parrt b has the minimum,
one Greek-to-English exercise of ten seentences.
13
Because From Alpha to Omega has ffifty chapters compared to the twenty-eight chapters of Ath
henaze, I have noted
the results for Athenaze Part a and Part b separately in Figures 4 and 5 in order to make the comp
parison more
xtracts from
equitable. (Athenaze presents most of thhe new grammar by chapter 28; chapters 29-30 present ex
Thucydides and Aristophanes.)
12
o compares the
The most striking differeence between the two textbooks occurs when one
raw number of words used in thhe readings. In Figure 5, it is possible to see that, on average,
students of Athenaze encounter nearly twice the number of words per reading
g that students of
From Alpha to Omega do. Whhile the number of words in Athenaze, chapteer 17, Part b, is
exceptionally high, it is not uncoommon for Part b of each chapter to contain a reeading that is five
to ten lines longer than Part a of the same chapter. Even given the slight advantaage that Athenaze
has over From Alpha to Omegaa in number of distinct vocabulary words from the 80% list14, it
seems that students encounter significantly more repetitions of those words in
n the readings of
Athenaze than they do in the readding passages in From Alpha to Omega, and thu
us may have more
opportunities to learn the 80% m
most common words in Greek.
Figure 5
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Although it seems that thhe readings in both textbooks have a large am
mount of valuable
vocabulary, the stories may not aalways reinforce the high-frequency vocabulary from the 50% or
80% word list. In both textbookss, words that appear on the 80% list may only bee glossed below a
random paragraph in a story annd never used again. In both textbooks, most of the practice
sentences are made up of high-ffrequency words from the 80% list, but these sentences do not
always feature the most frequennt words that make up the 50% list. Additionally, many highfrequency words are used sparinngly in both textbooks and should be reinforceed by the teacher
more regularly through a variety of ways.
I believe that supplementtal vocabulary materials and actions on the part of
o teachers might
facilitate retention of the most ccommon vocabulary needed in further studies of Greek. Some
suggestions for teachers are listedd here:
1) All Greek I students could be provided with the 50% list (see appendices 1-2), as it is a
single page and makes for an easy handout. Greek I or Greek II sttudents could be
14
An average of 12.9 new words per secction in Athenaze versus 11.7 per chapter in From Alpha to
o Omega. See Table 1.
provided with the corresponding 80% list for their text book.15 The complete 80% list
(Major) is approximately 14 pages and contains vocabulary not immediately useful to
students using Athenaze or From Alpha to Omega. These pages could be held back for
the intermediate level or given to students toward the end of Greek II as words to be
mastered later. Perhaps a sheet of vocabulary from the 80% list for each new chapter
would be reasonable (see appendices 3-4). One other option is to skip the 50% list
altogether and simply hand out the 80% list as it relates to each chapter.
2) Regular vocabulary quizzes, focusing on either the 50% list or 80% list, would reinforce
high-frequency words. These quizzes could be limited to either the 50% list or the 80%
list words depending on how the information has been presented and at what level of
Greek the students are studying. Students would have a set number of words that must be
mastered in order to perform well on these quizzes, which will, in turn, build their
confidence. If using a reading quiz instead of a vocabulary quiz, words from the 50% or
80% lists could be underlined in a reading passage and students could be asked to
identify these words in a separate section of the quiz. As some students learn vocabulary
better through context and recognizing words in context is the ultimate goal, it is
reasonable to use reading quizzes to reinforce high-frequency words, while moving the
focus away from words that do not appear on either list. This is also an important way to
move away from potential problems with vocabulary lists, such as students associating
meaning only with the first principal part of a verb or identifying only a single meaning
of a word with multiple meanings.
3) Where appropriate, derivative exercises can be created to reinforce words on the 50% or
80% word list. Although not all Greek words lend themselves to this kind of exercise,
those that do will be reinforced even more, and students will have the added benefit of an
increased English vocabulary as well. These exercises can come in a variety of forms,
including anything from matching to filling out derivative trees. Using derivative trees
can also help create word families with the high-frequency vocabulary (Distler 69-72).
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Vocabulary acquisition continues to be a major obstacle, even for many advanced
students. A focus on the vocabulary necessary for their later success will ultimately serve
students better than a focus on story specific vocabulary that appears less frequently in ancient
texts. Coordinating the vocabulary lists from the textbook with the core vocabulary that makes
up 80% of Greek texts can help students establish a working vocabulary that will facilitate the
difficult leap from the grammar books to ancient Greek texts. The techniques used in this paper
to evaluate the vocabulary of two commonly used textbooks can be applied to the textbook of
choice by rearranging the original 50% list or the 80% list to fit the textbook used. Additionally,
since I advocate that teachers and professors of Greek make up their own vocabulary exercises
and quizzes to correspond to the vocabulary in their textbook, the above suggestions can also be
applied to any text for elementary Greek.
15
See the 80% lists as they correspond to From Alpha to Omega (appendix 3) and to the Athenaze series (appendix
4).
&"
Balme, Maurice, and Gilbert Lawall. Athenaze: An Introduction to Ancient Greek, Books I-II. 2nd
ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2003.
Distler, Paul. Teach the Latin, I Pray You. Nashville, TN: Wimbledon Publishing Company Ltd.,
2000.
Groton, Anne H. From Alpha to Omega: A Beginning Course in Classical Greek. 3rd ed.
Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing, 2000.
Major, Wilfred E. “It’s Not the Size, It’s the Frequency: The Value of Using a Core Vocabulary
in Beginning and Intermediate Greek.” CPL Online 4.1 (Winter 2008) 1-24.
<http://www.camws.org/cpl/cplonline/cplonline.html>.
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From Alpha To Omega
This appendix contain all of the words in From Alpha to Omega that also appear on Wilfred Major's list of the 1,106
words that make up 80% of the Greek database of 4.1 millions words in the Perseus Project. The list is divided into
two parts: a chapter-by-chapter listing of the words that occur in both the textbook as well as on the 80% list,
followed by the words from the 80% list that do not appear in the textbook.Words appear twice if they were first
introduced in a reading, then later in the chapter vocabulary. Words that appear first in chapter vocabulary or are
listed in multiple readings only are inserted with the earliest chapter to which they would be associated.
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!
This appendix contain all of the words in Athenaze that also appear on Wilfred Major's list of the 1,106 words that
make up 80% of the Greek database of 4.1 millions words in the Perseus Project. The list is divided into two parts: a
chapter-by-chapter listing of the words that occur in both the textbook as well as on the 80% list, followed by the
words from the 80% list that do not appear in the textbook.Words appear twice if they were first introduced in a
reading, then later in the chapter vocabulary. Words that appear first in chapter vocabulary or are listed in multiple
readings only are inserted with the earliest chapter with which they would be associated.
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