Intertextuality and the Discourse Community
Author(s): James E. Porter
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Rhetoric Review, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Autumn, 1986), pp. 34-47
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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JAMESE. PORTER
at FortWayne
IndianaUniversity-Purdue
University
and the DiscourseCommunity
Intertextuality
At theconclusionof Eco's TheNameoftheRose, themonkAdso ofMelk
returns
totheburnedabbey,wherehefindsintheruinsscrapsofparchment,
the
onlyremnants
fromone ofthegreatlibraries
in all Christendom.
He spendsa
daycollecting
thecharred
fragments,
hopingtodiscoversomemeaninginthe
scatteredpieces of books. He assembleshis own "lesser library. . . of
fragments,
quotations,unfinished
sentences,amputatedstumpsof books"
(500). To Adso, theserandomshardsare"an immenseacrosticthatsaysand
repeatsnothing"
(501). Yettheyare significant
to himas an attempt
to order
experience.
We mightwellderiveourownorderfromthisscene.We mightsee Adso as
representing
thewriter,
andhisdesperate
activity
attheburnedabbeyas a model forthewriting
inthisimageis a collector
an
process.Thewriter
offragments,
fromremnants
of the
archaeologist
creatingan order,buildinga framework,
past.Insofaras thecollectedfragments
helpAdso recallother,losttexts,his
he learnedfromhismaster,
WilliamofBaskerexperienceaffirms
a principle
ville: "Not infrequently
booksspeakof books"(286). Not infrequently,
and
perhapseverandalways,textsrefertoothertextsandinfactrelyon themfor
a textonlyinsofar
theirmeaning.All textsareinterdependent:
We understand
as we understand
itsprecursors.
theprinciple
Thisis theprinciple
thatall writing
we knowas intertextuality,
and speech-indeed,all signs-arise froma singlenetwork:
whatVygotsky
label Textor Writing
called "theweb of meaning";whatpoststructuralists
age perhapsknewas logos.Exam(Barthes,ecriture);andwhata moredistant
meanslookingfor"traces,"thebitsandpiecesof
iningtexts"intertextually"
Textwhichwriters
to createnew disor speakersborrowand sew together
course.' The mostmundanemanifestation
ofintertextuality
is explicitcitation,
butintertextuality
Forthe
animates
alldiscourseandgoesbeyondmerecitation.
intertextual
critics,Intertext
is Text-a greatseamlesstextualfabric.And,as
theyliketo intonesolemnly,
no textescapes intertext.
withanimportant
onecurrently
Intertextuality
providesrhetoric
perspective,
I believe.Theprevailing
neglected,
composition
pedagogiesbyandlargecultias free,uninhibited
vatetheromantic
imageof writer
spirit,as independent,
natureof disand stressing
theintertextual
creativegenius.By identifying
and
as individual
we shiftourattention
course,however,
awayfromthewriter
34
RhetoricReview,Vol.5, No. 1, Fall 1986
Intertextuality
and theDiscourseCommunity
35
focusmoreonthesourcesandsocialcontexts
fromwhichthewriter's
discourse
arises.According
tothisview,authorial
is less significant
thansocial
intention
thewriter
is simplya partofa discoursetradition,
context;
a member
ofa team,
and a participant
in a community
of discoursethatcreatesitsown collective
meaning.Thustheintertext
constrainswriting.
My aimhereis todemonstrate
thesignificance
ofthistheory
torhetoric,
by
itsconnection
explaining
intertextuality,
tothenotionof"discoursecommuniforcomposition.
ty,"and itspedagogicalimplications
The Presenceof Intertext
has been associatedwithbothstructuralism
Intertextuality
and poststructuralism,
withtheorists
likeRolandBarthes,JuliaKristeva,JacquesDerrida,
HaydenWhite,HaroldBloom,MichelFoucault,andMichaelRiffaterre.
(Of
course,thetheoryis mostoftenappliedin literary
analysis.)The centralassumption
ofthesecriticshasbeendescribed
byVincentLeitch:"Thetextis not
an autonomous
or unifiedobject,buta set of relationswithothertexts.Its
systemof language,itsgrammar,
its lexicon,dragalongnumerous
bitsand
a Cultural
pieces-traces--ofhistory
so thatthetextresembles
SalvationArmy
Outletwithunaccountable
collectionsof incompatible
ideas, beliefs,and
sources"(59). It is these"unaccountable
collections"thatintertextual
critics
focuson,notthetextas autonomous
In fact,thesecriticshaveredefined
entity.
thenotionof"text":Textis intertext,
orsimplyText.The traditional
notionof
thetextas thesingleworkofa givenauthor,
andeventheverynotionsofauthor
and reader,are regardedas simplyconvenient
disfictions
fordomesticating
course.The old bordersthatwe used to ropeoffdiscourse,proclaimthese
critics,are no longeruseful.
We can distinguish
betweentwo typesof intertextuality:
iterability
and
presupposition.
Iterability
refersto the "repeatability"
of certaintextual
tocitation
initsbroadest
fragments,
sensetoincludenotonlyexplicitallusions,
references,
and quotations
withina discourse,butalso unannounced
sources
andinfluences,
Thatis to say,every
cliches,phrasesintheair,andtraditions.
discourseis composedof"traces,"piecesofothertextsthathelpconstitute
its
inmyanalysisoftheDecmeaning.(I willdiscussthisaspectofintertextuality
larationof Independence.)
refers
Presupposition
to assumptions
a textmakes
aboutitsreferent,
itsreaders,anditscontext-toportions
ofthetextwhichare
read,butwhichare notexplicitly
"there."Forexample,as Jonathan
Culler
discusses,thephrase"Johnmarried
Fred'ssister"is an assertion
thatlogically
presupposes
thatJohnexists,thatFredexists,andthatFredhasa sister."Open
thedoor"containsa practicalpresupposition,
assumingthepresenceof a decoderwhois capableofbeingaddressedandwhois better
abletoopenthedoor
36
RhetoricReview
thantheencoder."Onceupona time"is a tracerichinrhetorical
presupposition,
narrative.
signaling
toeventheyoungest
readertheopeningofa fictional
Texts
notonlyreferto butin factcontainothertexts.2
of threesampletextswill illustrate
thevariousfacetsof
An examination
ofIndependence,
intertextuality.
Thefirst,
theDeclaration
is popularly
viewed
as theworkofThomasJefferson.
Yetifweexaminethetextcloselyinitsrhetorical milieu,we seethatJefferson
wasauthor
onlyintheveryloosestofsenses.A
number
ofhistorians
andatleasttwocomposition
Theoresearchers
(Kinneavy,
withinterry393-49;Maimon,Readings6-32)haveanalyzedtheDeclaration,
estingresults.TheirworksuggeststhatJefferson
was by no meansan originalframer
ora creative
genius,as someliketosuppose.Jefferson
wasa skilled
writer,
to be sure,butchiefly
becausehe was an effective
borrower
oftraces.
To producehis originaldraftof theDeclaration,Jefferson
seemsto have
orunconsciously,
borrowed,
eitherconsciously
fromhisculture's
Text.Much
has been made of Jefferson's
relianceon Locke's social contracttheory
(Becker).Locke'stheory
influenced
colonialpoliticalphilosophy,
emerging
in
variouspamphlets
andnewspaper
articlesofthetimes,andservedas thefoundationfortheopeningsectionof theDeclaration.The Declarationcontains
manytracesthatcanbe foundinother,
Therearetracesfrom
earlierdocuments.
a FirstContinental
a Massachusetts
Councildeclaration,
Congressresolution,
of RightsforVirginia,"
a politicalpamphlet
of
GeorgeMason's"Declaration
JamesOtis,anda variety
ofothersources,including
a colonialplay.Theoverall form
oftheDeclaration
(theoretical
argument
followed
bylistofgrievances)
strongly
resembles,ironically,
theEnglishBill of Rightsof 1689, in which
Parliament
liststheabusesofJamesII anddeclaresnewpowersforitself.Several of theabusesin theDeclarationseemto havebeentaken,moreor less
verbatim,
froma Pennsylvania
EveningPostarticle.Andthemostmemorable
"Thatall menarecreated
phrasesintheDeclaration
seemtobe leastJefferson's:
comwhichJefferson
equal"is a sentiment
from
Euripides
copiedinhisliterary
ofHappiness"was a
monplacebookas a boy;"Life,Liberty,
andthepursuit
clicheof thetimes,appearingin numerous
politicaldocuments
(Dumbauld).
hisin
draftof theDeclarationcan hardlybe considered
ThoughJefferson's
underwent
stillmoreexproprianyexclusivesenseofauthorship,
thedocument
ationatthehandsofCongress,whomadeeighty-six
Theochanges(Kinneavy,
ry438). Theycutthedraft
from211 linesto 147.Theydidconsiderable
editing
to temperwhat they saw as Jefferson's
emotionalstyle: For example,
Jefferson's
phrase"sacred& undeniable"
was changedto themorerestrained
"self-evident."
Congressexcisedcontroversial
passages,suchas Jefferson's
tonote,Jefferson's
condemnation
ofslavery.
Thus,we shouldfinditinstructive
fewattempts
werethoseleastacceptableto Congress.
at originalexpression
Intertextuality
and theDiscourseCommunity
37
IfJefferson
theDeclarationfora collegewriting
submitted
class as hisown
writing,
he mightwell be chargedwithplagiarism.3
The idea of Jefferson
as
authoris butconvenient
shorthand.
Actually,theDeclarationaroseoutof a
culturaland rhetorical
milieu,was composedof traces and was, in effect,
teamwritten.
Jefferson
deservescreditforbringing
disparatetracestogether,
forhelpingto moldand articulate
themilieu,forcreatingtheall-important
draft.
skillas a writer
toborrow
Jefferson's
washisability
traceseffectively
and
to find appropriatecontextsfor them. As Michael Halliday says,
doesnotconsistinproducing
newsentences.
Thenewnessofa
"[C]reativeness
sentenceis a quiteunimportantandunascertainableproperty
and'creativity'inlanguageliesinthespeaker'sabilitytocreatenewmeanings:
torealizethe
potentiality
oflanguagefortheindefinite
ofitsresources
tonewconextension
textsof situation..
.
. Our most 'creative' acts may be preciselyamong those
thatare realizedthrough
formsof behaviour"(Explorations
highlyrepetitive
42). The creativewriter
is thecreativeborrower,
in otherwords.
Intertextuality
can be seenworking
similarly
in contemporary
forums.Recall thisscenefroma recentPepsicommercial:
A youngboyinjeansjacket,
accompaniedbydog, standsin somedesolateplainscrossroadsnextto a gas
station,nexttowhichis a softdrinkmachine.An alienspacecraft,
resembling
theone in Spielberg'sClose Encountersof the ThirdKind, appearsoverhead.
To theboy'sjoyfulamazement,
thespaceshiphoversoverthevending
machine
andbeginssuckingPepsicansintotheship.IttakesonlyPepsi's,theneventuallytakestheentiremachine.Thead closeswitha graphic:"Pepsi.TheChoiceof
a New Generation."
withSpielberg'smovieor,
Clearly,thecommercial
presupposes
familiarity
at least,withhispacificvisionof alienspacecraft.
We see severalAmerican
cliches,well-worn
signsfromtheDepressionera:thedesolateplains,thegeneral store,thepop machine,thecountry
boy withdog. These distinctively
Americantracesarejuxtaposedagainstimagesfromsciencefictionand the
sixtiescatchphrase
inthecoda. Inthisarrayofsigns,we have
"newgeneration"
tradition
andcounter-tradition
harmonized.
Pepsisqueezesitselfinthemiddle,
and thusbecomesthegreatAmericanconciliator.
The ad's use of ironymay
serveto distractviewersmomentarily
fromnoticinghow Pepsi achievesits
purposeby assigningitselfan exaltedrolethrough
use of theintertext.
We findan interesting
exampleofpracticalpresupposition
inJohnKifner's
New YorkTimes headlinearticlereporting
on theKentStateincident
of 1970:
Fourstudentsat KentStateUniversity,
two of themwomen,
wereshotto deaththisafternoon
by a volleyof NationalGuard
At least8 otherstudents
werewounded.
gunfire.
Rhetoric
Review
38
Theburstofgunfire
cameabout20 minutes
aftertheguardsmen
brokeup a noonrallyon theCommons,a grassycampusgathering
spot,bylobbingteargas at a crowdofabout1,000youngpeople.
Fromoneperspective,
thephrase"twoofthemwomen"is a simplestatement
theevent,horrible
of fact;however,it presupposesa certainattitude-that
enoughas it was, is moresignificant
becausetwoof thepersonskilledwere
women.It mightbe goingtoo farto say thatthephrasepresupposes
a sexist
attitude
("womenaren'tsupposedtobe killedinbattles"),butcan we imagine
thephrase"twoof themmen"in thiscontext?Thoughequallyfactual,this
wording
wouldhavebeenconsidered
oddin 1970(andprobably
todayas well)
becauseitpresupposes
a culturalmindsetalienfromtheone dominant
at the
time."Twoofthemwomen"is shocking
(andhenceitwasreported)
becauseit
upsetsthesenseof orderof thereaders,in thiscase theAmericanpublic.
thetextcontainsa number
of
Additionally
(andmorethana littleironically),
traceswhichhavetheeffect
ofblunting
theshockoftheevent.Noticethatthe
students
werenotshotbyNationalGuardsmen,
butwereshot"bya volleyof
. . . gunfire";the tear gas was "lobbed"; and the event occurredat a "grassy
campusgathering
spot.""Volley"and "lobbed"are military
terms,butwith
connections
tosportas well;"grassycampusgathering
spot"suggests
a picnic;
"burst"canrecalltheglorioussightofbombs"bursting"
in"TheStar-Spangled
Banner."Thispasticheof signscaststhetextintoa certaincontext,
makingit
distinctively
American.We mightsay thattheturbulent
milieuof thesixties
provideda distinctive
arrayof signsfromwhichJohnKifnerborrowedto
producehis article.
Each of thethreetextsexaminedcontainsphrasesor imagesfamiliar
to its
Thustheintertext
audienceorpresupposes
certainaudienceattitudes.
exertsits
influence
partly
intheformofaudienceexpectation.
Wemight
thensaythatthe
foritsproduction
as thewriter.
audienceofeachofthesetextsis as responsible
creatediscourse.
That,in essence,readers,notwriters,
The Power of DiscourseCommunity
criticssuggest,thosewho
And,indeed,thisis whatsomepoststructuralist
tothe
orwholookbeyondtheintertext
ofintertext
a broaderconception
prefer
to whatMichelFoucaultcalls
textualproduction:
socialframework
regulating
communiwhatStanleyFishcalls"theinterpretive
"thediscursive
formation,"
ty,"and whatPatriciaBizzell calls "thediscoursecommunity."
is a groupof individualsboundby a common
A "discoursecommunity"
whocommunicate
interest
through
approvedchannelsandwhosediscourseis
Intertextuality
and theDiscourseCommunity
39
regulated.
Anindividual
maybelongtoseveralprofessional,
public,orpersonal discoursecommunities.Examples would include the communityof
engineers
whoseresearchareais fluidmechanics;alumnioftheUniversity
of
Michigan;Magnavoxemployees;the membersof the Porterfamily;and
members
of theIndianaTeachersof Writing.
The approvedchannelswe can
call "forums."
Each forum
hasa distinct
andrulesgoverning
history
appropriatenessto whichmembers
areobligedto adhere.Theserulesmaybe moreor
less apparent,
moreorlessinstitutionalized,
moreorlessspecifictoeachcommunity.
Examplesof forumsincludeprofessional
publications
likeRhetoric
Review, English Journal, and Creative Computing;public media like
NewsweekandRunner'sWorld;professional
conferences
(theannualmeeting
of fluidpowerengineers,
the4C's); companyboardmeetings;
familydinner
tables;and themonthly
meetingof theIndianachapterof theIzaak Walton
League.
A discoursecommunity
sharesassumptions
aboutwhatobjectsareappropriateforexamination
anddiscussion,whatoperating
functions
areperformed
on
thoseobjects,whatconstitutes
"evidence"and"validity,"
andwhatformal
conventionsare followed.A discoursecommunity
mayhave a well-established
ethos;oritmayhavecompeting
factions
andindefinite
Itmaybe in
boundaries.
a "pre-paradigm"
state(Kuhn),thatis, havingan ill-defined
regulating
system
and no clearleadership.Some discoursecommunities
are firmly
established,
suchas thescientific
community,
themedicalprofession,
andthejusticesystem,to cite a fewfromFoucault'slist. In thesediscoursecommunities,
as
Leitchsays,"a speakermustbe 'qualified'totalk;hehastobelongtoa communityof scholarship;
andhe is requiredto possessa prescribed
bodyofknowledge (doctrine).. . . [This system]operatesto constraindiscourse;it
establishes
limitsandregularities.
. . . whomayspeak,whatmaybe spoken,
andhowitis tobe said;inaddition[rules]prescribe
whatis trueandfalse,what
is reasonableandwhatfoolish,andwhatis meantandwhatnot.Finally,they
workto denythematerialexistenceof discourseitself'(145).
A textis "acceptable"within
a forum
thecommunionlyinsofar
as itreflects
tyepisteme(to use Foucault'sterm).On a simplelevel,thismeansthatfora
manuscript
tobe acceptedforpublication
intheJournalofAppliedPsychology,
itmustfollowcertainformatting
conventions:
Itmusthavetheexpectedsocial
sciencesections(i.e., reviewofliterature,
methods,
results,
discussion),
andit
mustuse thejournal'sversionofAPAdocumentation.
However,theseareonly
of theforum.On a moreessentiallevel,themanuscript
superficial
features
mustrevealcertaincharacteristics,
have an ethos(in thebroadestpossible
tothestandards
sense)conforming
ofthediscoursecommunity:
Itmustdemonstrate(oratleastclaim)thatitcontributes
tothefield,itmustdemknowledge
40
RhetoricReview
onstrate
familiarity
withtheworkofpreviousresearchers
in thefield,itmust
inanalyzing
usea scientific
method
itsresults
(showingacceptance
ofthetruthvalueof statistical
demonstration),
itmustmeetstandards
fortestdesignand
analysisofresults,
itmustadheretostandards
determining
degreeofaccuracy.
Theexpectations,
conventions,
andattitudes
ofthisdiscourse
community-the
readers,writers,
andpublishers
ofJournalofAppliedPsychology-will
influenceaspiring
psychology
researchers,
shapingnotonlyhowtheywritebutalso
theircharacter
withinthatdiscoursecommunity.
thatwriting
is
Thepoststructuralist
viewchallenges
theclassicalassumption
a simplelinear,one-waymovement:
createsa textwhichproduces
The writer
rhetoric
somechangein an audience.A poststructuralist
examineshowaudience(intheformofcommunity
expectations
andstandards)
influences
textual
production
and, in so doing,guidesthedevelopment
of thewriter.
foritsapparent
This view is of courseopen to criticism
for
determinism,
devaluingthecontribution
ofindividual
writers
andmakingthemappearmerelytoolsofthediscoursecommunity
(chargeswhichFoucaultanswersin"Disareso constraining,
courseonLanguage").Iftheseregulating
systems
howcan
an individual
merge?Whathappenstotheideaoftheloneinspired
writer
and
text?
thesacredautonomous
is difficult
within
Bothnotionstakea pretty
hardknock.Genuineoriginality
theconfines
ofa well-regulated
system.Geniusis possible,butitmaybe constrained.Foucaultcitestheexampleof GregorMendel,whoseworkin the
was excludedfromtheprevailing
ofbiologists
nineteenth
century
community
andplacedhimself
within
a
becausehe "spokeofobjects,employedmethods
theoreticalperspectivetotallyalien to the biology of his time. .
.
. Mendel
spokethetruth,
buthe was notdans le vrai(withinthetrue)"(224). Frank
RobertFrost
Lentricchia
citesa similarexamplefromtheliterary
community:
"achievedmagazinepublication
onlyfivetimesbetween1895and 1912,a periofpoemslateracclaimed. . . [because]in
od duringwhichhe wrotea number
thedominant
senseofthepoeticintheUnitedStatesinthe
ordertowritewithin
decadeofthetwentieth,
one
lastdecadeofthenineteenth
andthefirst
century
had to employa diction,syntax,and prosodyheavilyfavoring
Shelleyand
Tennyson.One also had to assumea certainstance,a certainworld-weary
totheworldofwhichone
idealismwhichtookcarenottorefertooconcretely
was weary"(197, 199).
Bothexamplespointto theexclusionary
powerof discoursecommunities
of thewriter:
does the
and raiseseriousquestionsaboutthefreedom
chiefly,
Can anytextbe saidtobe
writer
haveany?Is anywriter
doomedtoplagiarism?
a creative
andgeniusactuallypossible?WasJefferson
new?Arecreativity
genius or a blatantplagiarist?
Intertextuality
and theDiscourseCommunity
41
we wanttoavoidbothextremes.
Evenifthewriter
is lockedintoa
Certainly
culturalmatrix
andis constrained
bytheintertext
ofthediscoursecommunity,
thewriter
has freedom
withintheimmediate
rhetorical
context.4
Furthermore,
successful
writing
helpstoredefine
thematrix-andinthatwaybecomescreative.(Jefferson's
Declaration
contributed
todefining
thenotionofAmericafor
itsdiscoursecommunity.)
Everynewtexthas thepotential
to altertheTextin
someway;infact,everytextadmitted
intoa discoursecommunity
changesthe
of thecommunity-and
constitution
discoursecommunities
can revisetheir
discursivepractices,as theMendeland Frostexamplessuggest.
is an attempt
Writing
toexercisethewill,toidentify
theselfwithin
theconstraints
of somediscoursecommunity.
insofaras we must
We areconstrained
inevitably
borrowthetraces,codes,andsignswhichwe inherit
andwhichour
discoursecommunity
imposes.We are freeinsofaras we do whatwe can to
encounter
andlearnnewcodes,tointertwine
codesinnewways,andtoexpand
oursemioticpotential-with
ourgoal beingtoeffect
changeandestablishour
identities
withinthediscoursecommunities
we chooseto enter.
The Pedagogyof Intertextuality
is notnew.It mayremindsomeofEliot'snotionoftradition,
Intertextuality
though
theparameters
Itis an important
arecertainly
broader.
concept,though.
Itcounters
whatI see as oneprevailing
composition
a
pedagogy,onefavoring
romantic
imageofthewriter,
offering
as rolemodelsthecreativeessayists,
the
SundaySupplementfreelancers,
the JoanDidions, E. B. Whites,Calvin
Trillins,andRussellBakers.Thisdashingimageappealstoourneedforintellectualheroes;butunderlying
itmaybe an anti-rhetorical
view:thatwriters
are
is individual,
born,notmade;thatwriting
notsocialbut
isolated,andinternal;
eccentric.
This view is firmly
set in theintertext
of our discipline.Our anthologies
theindividual
glorify
essayists,whoseworkis valuedforitstimelessness
and
creativity.
Freshman
rhetorics
announceas thewriter's
propergoals personal
insight,originality,
and personalvoice, or tellstudents
thatmotivations
for
writingcome from"within."Generally,
thispedagogyassumesthatsuch a
thingas thewriteractuallyexists-an autonomouswriterexercisinga free,
creativewill through
thewriting
act-and thatthewriting
processproceeds
fromwriter
to texttoreader.Thispartialpictureoftheprocesscan all
linearly
too readilybecomethepicture,and ourstudents
can all too readilylearnto
overlookvitalfacetsof discourseproduction.
Whenwe romanticize
theautonomy
composition
byoveremphasizing
ofthe
writer,
important
questionsareoverlooked,
thesamequestionsan intertextual
42
RhetoricReview
viewof writing
wouldprovoke:To whatextentis thewriter's
productitselfa
partofa largercommunity
writing
process?How doesthediscoursecommunityinfluence
writers
andreaderswithin
it?Theseareessentialquestions,
butare
perhapsoutsidethe prevailingepistemeof compositionpedagogy,which
presupposes
theautonomous
statusofthewriter
as independent
cogito. Talking
thewriter"
aboutwriting
interms
of"socialforcesinfluencing
raisesthespecter
of determinism,
and so is anathema.
David Bartholomae
summarizes
thisissueverynicely:"The struggle
ofthe
studentwriteris notthestruggle
to bringout thatwhichis within;it is the
struggle
tocarryoutthoseritualactivities
thatgrantourentrance
intoa closed
society"(300). Whenwe teachwriting
onlyas theactof"bringing
outwhatis
within,"
we riskundermining
ourownefforts.
Intertextuality
reminds
us that
out ritualactivities"is also partof thewritingprocess.Barthes
"carrying
reminds
us that"the'I' whichapproaches
thetextis alreadyitselfa plurality
of
othertexts,of codes whichare infinite"
(10).
Intertextuality
suggests
thatourgoalshouldbe tohelpstudents
learntowrite
forthediscoursecommunities
needhelpdeveloptheychoosetojoin. Students
ingoutof whatJosephWilliamscalls their"pre-socialized
cognitivestates."
toWilliams,pre-socialized
writers
arenotsufficiently
immersed
in
According
theirdiscoursecommunity
toproducecompetent
discourse:Theydo notknow
of
whatcan be presupposed,
arenotconsciousofthedistinctive
intertextuality
withexplicitconventions.
thecommunity,
maybe onlysuperficially
acquainted
(Williamscitestheexampleofthefreshman
whosepaperfortheEnglishteacher begins"Shakespeareis a famousElizabethandramatist.")
Our immediate
whoarefull-fledged
members
oftheir
goal is to produce"socializedwriters,"
thatcomdiscoursecommunity,
producing
competent,
usefuldiscoursewithin
thosewho
munity.
Our long-range
goal mightbe "post-socialized
writers,"
in
haveachievedsucha degreeofconfidence,
authority,
power,orachievement
thediscoursecommunity
so as tobecomepartoftheregulating
body.Theyare
able to varyconventions
and questionassumptions-i.e.,effectchangein
fearof exclusion.
communities-without
Intertextuality
has thepotential
toaffectall facetsofourcomposition
pedaas a mechanism
for
gogy.Certainly
it supports
writing
acrossthecurriculum
It
introducing
students
to theregulating
systemsof discoursecommunities.
raisesquestionsaboutheuristics:
Do different
discoursecommunities
apply
different
It assertsthevalueof criticalreadingin thecomposition
heuristics?
our ideas aboutplagiarism:Certainly
classroom.It requiresthatwe rethink
of thewriter.
imitatiois an important
stagein thelinguistic
development
The mostsignificant
applicationmightbe in theareaof audienceanalysis.
Current
pedagogiesassumethatwhenwriters
analyzeaudiencestheyshould
and theDiscourseCommunity
Intertextuality
43
focuson theexpectedflesh-and-blood
readers.Intertextuality
suggests
thatthe
properfocusofaudienceanalysisis nottheaudienceas receivers
perse, butthe
intertext
of thediscoursecommunity.
Insteadof collectingdemographic
data
aboutage, educationallevel, and social status,thewritermightinsteadask
questionsabouttheintertext:
Whataretheconventional
presuppositions
ofthis
community?
In whatforums
do theyassemble?Whatarethemethodological
assumptions?
Whatis considered
"evidence,""validargument,"
and"proof'?
A sampleheuristic
forsuch an analysis-whatI term"forumanalysis"-is
includedas an appendix.
A criticalreadingof thediscourseofa community
maybe thebestwayto
understand
it. (We see a versionof thismessagein theadviceto examinea
articlesforpublication.)
journalbeforesubmitting
Traditionally,
anthologies
haveprovided
students
withreadingmaterial.
However,thetypicalanthologies
havetwoseriousproblems:(1) limitedrange-generally
theyoveremphasize
remove
or expressivediscourse;(2) unclearcontext-theyfrequently
literary
theirintertextual
nature.
readingsfromtheiroriginalcontexts,
thusdisguising
toprovidea broaderselecSeveralrecently
publishedreadershaveattempted
tion of readingsin variousforums,and actuallydiscuss intertextuality.
intheLiberal
Maimon'sReadingsintheArtsandSciences,Kinneavy'sWriting
areespeciallynoteworthy.
ArtsTradition,
andBazerman's
TheInformed
Writer
Ifweregard
eachwritintertextual.
Writing
assignments
shouldbe explicitly
tenproductas a stagein a largerprocess-thedialecticprocesswithina diswriter's
coursecommunity-then
theindividual
workis partofa web,partofa
community
searchfortruth
andmeaning.Writing
assignments
mighttakethe
inresponsetoarticles
formofdialoguewithotherwriters:
letters
is one
Writing
kind of dialectic(e.g., lettersresponding
to AtlanticMonthlyor Science
articles).Researchassignments
might
be morecommunity
oriented
rather
than
topicoriented;
students
mightbe askedtobecomeinvolvedincommunities
of
in
researchers
(e.g., thesociologistsexamining
changingreligiousattitudes
inMaimon'sWriting
Americancollegestudents).
The assignments
intheArts
and Sciencesare excellentin thisregard.
Intertextual
thatthekeycriteria
forevaluating
should
theory
suggests
writing
inbe "acceptability"
withinsome discoursecommunity.
"Acceptability"
It includes
cludes,butgoes well beyond,adherenceto formalconventions.
theappropriate
criticalmethodology,
adchoosingthe"right"topic,applying
heringto standardsforevidenceand validity,and in generaladoptingthe
discoursevalues-and of course borrowingthe appropriate
community's
traces.Successis measured
bythewriter's
abilitytoknowwhatcanbe presuptraceseffectively
to createa textthat
posed and to borrowthatcommunity's
to themaintenance
of thecommunity.
contributes
or,possibly,thedefinition
44
RhetoricReview
andbyitsintertextual
preferences
Thewriter
is constrained
bythecommunity,
writer
worksto assertthewillagainstthose
and prejudices,buttheeffective
community
constraints
to effectchange.
usesof
andtheKentStatenewsarticleshoweffective
ThePepsicommercial
the intertext.
In the Kent State piece, JohnKifnermixespicnicimagery
("burst
("grassycampusgathering
spot,""youngpeople")withviolentimagery
combinetwounlikely
ofgunfire")
todramatize
theevent.ThePepsiad writers
Americanimagery
withsci-fiimsetsof traces,linking
folksydepression-era
of traces,both
agery"stolen"fromSpielberg.For thiscreativeintertwining
forums.
discoursescan probablybe measuredsuccessfulin theirrespective
Coda
supportsis alreadyinstitutionalized
Clearlymuchof whatintertextuality
programs).And yet,in freshman
comp
(e.g., writing-across-the-curriculum
to
as
there
is
this
tendency
see
writing
individtextsandanthologies
especially,
thatthe
demonstrating
quiteconvincingly
ual, as isolated,as heroic.Evenafter
froma culturalintertext,
borrowing
Declarationwas written
bya teamfreely
ElaineMaimoninsists,againstall theevidencesheherself
hascollected,that
andchangesinwording
thatitwentthrough,
"Despitetheadditions,
deletions,
the Declarationis stillJefferson's
writing"(Readings26). Her sayingthis
presupposesthatthereaderhasjustconcludedtheopposite.
romantic
rolemodelslike E. B. White,Joan
Whenwe give ourstudents
expectations.
This typeof
Didion,and Lewis Thomas,we createunrealistic
statuswithin
somediscourse
commuwriter
hasoftenachievedpost-socialized
forinstance).Can we realistically
nity(Thomasin thescientific
community,
first
toachievethisstatewithout
becoming
socialized,withexpectourstudents
out learningfirstwhatit meansto writewithina social context?Theirrole
like
heroesbutalso community
writers
modelsoughtnotbe onlyromantic
ofthePepsicommercial-theAdsosofthe
writers
theanonymous
Jefferson,
whoseproducts
aremore
world,notjusttheAristotles.
Theyneedtosee writers
evidently
partofa largerprocessandwhoseworkmoreclearlyproducesmeaning in social contexts.
Notes
too simplistically
are discussedby Owen Millerin
'The dangersof defining
intertextuality
"Intertextual
Identity,"
Identity
oftheLiterary
Text,ed. MarioJ.ValdesandOwenMiller(Toronto:
of
U ofTorontoP,1985), 19-40.Millerpointsoutthatintertextuality
"addressesitselftoa plurality
concepts"(19).
Intertextuality
and theDiscourseCommunity
45
2Forfullerdiscussionsee Jonathan
Culler,The Pursuitof Signs (Ithaca:CornellUP, 1981),
ofpresupposition
100-16.MichaelHallidayelaborates
onthetheory
somewhat,
too,differentiating
relieson
Themeaning
ofanytextatleastpartly
betweenexophoric
andendophoric
presupposition.
intheform
Endophoric
references
ofcohesive
exophoric
references,
i.e., external
presuppositions.
meaning,
butcohesionina textdependsultimately
devicesandconnections
within
a textalso affect
thatmaynotbe cuedby
on theaudiencemakingexophoric
connections
topriortexts,connections
explicitcohesivedevices. See M. A. K. Hallidayand RuqaiyaHasan, Cohesionin English
(London:Longman,1976).
3Millercautionsus aboutintertextuality
andposthoc ergopropterhoc reasoning.All we can
Whether
ornot
earlierdocuments.
safelynoteis thatphrasesintheDeclaration
also appearinother,
on Jefferson's
thepriordocuments
"caused"the
theborrowing
was intentional
partor whether
Declaration(in anysenseof theword)is notascertainable.
4RobertScholesputsit thisway:"If you playchess,you can onlydo certainthingswiththe
tellyouwhat
do notinthemselves
pieces,otherwise
youarenotplayingchess.Butthoseconstraints
movesto make."See TextualPower(New Haven:Yale UP, 1985), 153.
WorksCited
Barthes,Roland.SIZ. Trans.RichardMiller.New York:Hill and Wang,1974.
David. "WritingAssignments:
WhereWriting
Begins."fforum.Ed. PatriciaL.
Bartholomae,
Stock.UpperMontclair,
NJ:Boynton/Cook,
1983.
Bazerman,Charles.TheInformed
2nded. Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1985.
Writer.
2nded. New York:Random,Vintage,1942.
Becker,Carl. TheDeclarationofIndependence.
andCertainty:
WhatWeNeedtoKnowaboutWriting."
Bizzell,Patricia."Cognition,
Convention,
PREITEXT3 (1982): 213-43.
Culler,Jonathan.
ThePursuitofSigns. Ithaca:CornellUP, 1981.
Dumbauld,Edward.TheDeclarationofIndependence.
2nded. Norman:U ofOklahomaP, 1968.
BraceJovanoEco, Umberto.
TheNameoftheRose. Trans.WilliamWeaver.San Diego:Harcourt
vich, 1983.
Fish, Stanley.Is Therea Textin ThisClass? Cambridge:HarvardUP, 1980.
Foucault,Michel.TheArchaeology
ofKnowledgeand theDiscourseon Language.Trans.A. M.
SheridanSmith.New York:Harper& Row, 1972.
Halliday,M. A. K. Explorations
in theFunctionsofLanguage.New York:Elsevier,1973.
Halliday,M. A. K., and RuqaiyaHasan. Cohesionin English.London:Longman,1976.
Kifner,John."4 KentStateStudentsKilledby Troops."New YorkTimes5 May 1970: 1.
1971.
Kinneavy,JamesL. A TheoryofDiscourse.EnglewoodCliffs:Prentice-Hall,
in theLiberalArtsTradition.New York:Harper& Row, 1985.
---,et al. Writing
2nded. Chicago:U ofChicagoP. 1970.
Kuhn,ThomasS. TheStructure
ofScientific
Revolutions.
Leitch,VincentB. Deconstructive
Criticism.New York:CornellUP, 1983.
Lentricchia,
Frank.AftertheNew Criticism.Chicago:U of ChicagoP, 1980.
Maimon,ElaineP, et al. Readingsin theArtsand Sciences.Boston:Little,Brown,1984.
---. Writing
in theArtsand Sciences.Cambridge:Winthrop,
1981.
Miller,Owen. "Intertextual
Identity."
Identity
oftheLiterary
Text.Ed. MarioJ.ValdesandOwen
Miller.Toronto:U of TorontoP, 1985, 19-40.
Scholes,Robert.TextualPower.New Haven:Yale UP, 1985.
Williams,Joseph."CognitiveDevelopment,
CriticalThinking,
and theTeachingof Writing."
Conference
on Writing,
of Chicago, 15
Meaning,and HigherOrderReasoning,University
May 1984.
46
Rhetoric
Review
APPENDIX
ForumAnalysis
Background
-Identifytheforumby nameand organizational
affiliation.
ofbelief?What
orexpression
-Is therean expressededitorial
policy,philosophy,
purposedoes theforumserve?Whydoes itexist?
-What is thedisciplinary
orientation?
-How largeis theforum?Who are itsmembers?
Its leaders?Its readership?
-In whatmanner
does theforum
assemble(e.g., newsletter,
journal,conference,
weeklymeeting)?How frequently?
-What is theoriginof theforum?Whydid itcome intoexistence?Whatis its
history?
Its politicalbackground?
Its traditions?
-What reputation
doestheforum
haveamongitsownmembers?
Howis itregarded
by others?
DiscourseConventions
WhoSpeakslWrites?
-Who is granted
Whodecideswhospeaks/writes
inthe
statusas speaker/writer?
are speakers/writers
forum?By whatcriteria
selected?
-What kindofpeoplespeak/write
inthisforum?
Credentials?
Disciplinary
orientation?Academicor professional
background?
-Who aretheimportant
is most
figures
inthisforum?
Whoseworkorexperience
frequently
cited?
-What are theimportant
sourcescitedin theforum?Whatare thekeyworks,
of theforumknow?
thatit is assumedmembers
events,experiences
To WhomDo TheySpeaklWrite?
-Who is addressedin theforum?Whatare thecharacteristics
of theassumed
audience?
-What are theaudience'sneedsassumedto be? To whatuse(s) is theaudience
expectedto puttheinformation?
-What is theaudience'sbackground
assumedto be? Levelofproficiency,
experiCredentials?
ence, and knowledgeof subjectmatter?
-What are thebeliefs,attitudes,
values,prejudicesof theaddressedaudience?
WhatDo TheySpeaklWrite
About?
-What topicsor issuesdoes theforumconsider?Whatare allowablesubjects?
Whattopicsare valued?
or methodologies
-What methodology
areaccepted?Whichtheoretical
approach
or induction
is preferred:
deduction(theoretical
argumentation)
(evidence)?
-What constitutes
"validity,"
"evidence,"and"proof'intheforum
(e.g., personal
experience/observation,
testingand measurement,theoreticalor statistical
analysis)?
It?
How Do TheySaylWrite
Form
-What typesofdiscoursedoestheforum
admit(e.g., articles,reviews,speeches,
poems)?How longare thediscourses?
-What are thedominant
modesof organization?
Intertextuality
and theDiscourseCommunity
47
-What formatting
conventions
arepresent:headings,tablesandgraphs,illustra-tions,abstracts?
Style
-What documentation
form(s)is used?
-Syntactic characteristics?
-Technical or specializedjargon?Abbreviations?
-Tone? Whatstancedo writers/speakers
takerelativeto audience?
-Manuscriptmechanics?
Other Considerations?
atFort
ofEnglishatIndianaUniversity-Purdue
JamesE. Porter
is Assistant
Professor
University
composition,
technicalwriting,
Wayne,wherehe teachesfreshman
and graduaterhetoric.
His
researchfocuseson theconnections
criticaltheory,
betweenpoststructuralist
historical
rhetoric,
and contemporary
notionsof audienceand audienceanalysis.He has publishedin Journalof
TeachingWriting,in RhetoricReview,and in the RhetoricSocietypublicationOldspeakl
a bookentitled
Newspeak:Rhetorical
Transformations.
He is currently
completing
Contemporary
TheoriesofAudience.