MODULE HANDBOOK 2013/2014
Drugs, Brain and Behaviour (c8528)
3rd year
15 Credits
Autumn Term 2013
Convenor: Hans S. Crombag, Ph.D.
Co-convenor: Eisuke Koya, Ph.D.
Behavioural & Clinical Neuroscience (BCN) Research Group
School of Psychology
The University of Sussex
NOTE: Most of the questions you need answers to about this module are in this
document. Please read it fully and carefully before your first meeting.
NOTE: This document concerns the structure and content of the module. If you have
questions about procedures, please consult the School of Psychology Administration Office in
Pev1 2A13 or via psychology@sussex.ac.uk.
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MODULE HANDBOOK 2013/2014
Module Structure Aims & Objectives
The ‘Drugs, Brain and Behaviour’ module explores the biological- and behavioural bases of
drugs of abuse and addiction, by integrating knowledge from neurobiology, behavioural
pharmacology, psychopharmacology and clinical psychology. The module assumes that you
have taken both Psychobiology (c8003) and Brain & Behavior (c8518) modules (or equivalent
modules elsewhere) and that you have an interest in biological approaches to the study of
behaviour. The module begins by reviewing some basic drug nomenclature, pharmacological
factors and actions of drugs of abuse and the long-term (persistent) consequences of using
them. The acute and long-term effects of selected drugs of abuse on behavior, mood,
cognition and neuronal function are discussed, using material from studies with humans
integrated with basic studies on the neurobiological basis of drug action and drug abuse -including coverage of synaptic transmission and the distribution, regulation and integration of
brain neurotransmitter systems. The focus is on addictive and/or illicit drugs, and some of the
major classes are discussed, including: opiates (heroin, morphine, opium), sedative hypnotics (alcohol), psychomotor stimulants (amphetamine, cocaine), marijuana,
hallucinogens (LSD, mescaline), and hallucinogenic-stimulants (MDA, MDMA).
Additionally we will be exploring some of the major theoretical approaches to explain drug
abuse and addiction. These 'theories of addiction' will be the main focus of the 3 seminars
and we will discuss opponent-process/negative reinforcement views, positive incentivelearning views and prefrontal dysfunction views of addiction. In doing so, we further explore
the neurobiology of conditioning and reward, including the role of dopamine and the nucleus
accumbens and its connections, and the long-term actions (plasticity) of addictive drugs on
these brain systems.
Note that he module does not deal with social aspects of addiction nor does it explicitly cover
therapeutic approaches to treat addiction and relapse, simply because there is insufficient
time to cover all these topics in a single module. It will be clear that a complex behaviour such
as addiction may or must have several levels of explanation and the module outlines attempts
to integrate these different levels of explanation to provide an account of drug abuse and
addiction.
Module learning outcomes
More specifically, the learning outcomes of the module are:
• Understand concepts and principles in pharmacology, behavioral pharmacology and the
neuroscience of drugs of abuse;
• Understanding how drugs alter biological function and behaviour in the context of
addiction;
• Understanding the relevance of underlying biological phenomena to the explanation of
drug abuse and addictive behaviour;
• Critically discussand analyze (including in the form of an extended essay) major concepts
and theoretical models of drug abuse addiction.
Pre-requisites
If you are a psychology student, you should (will) have taken Psychobiology in your 1st year
and Brain & Behaviour in your 2nd year. If you are from Life Sciences, or a visiting (V&E)
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MODULE HANDBOOK 2013/2014
student, you should have taken equivalent biological psychology/neuroscience module(s) in
the preceding years.
Module Contact Information
Module convener:
Location:
Telephone:
E-mail:
Dr. Hans Crombag
John Maynard Smith (JMS) Building Rm. 5D9
8059
h.crombag@sussex.ac.uk
Module co-convenor:
Location:
Telephone:
E-mail:
Dr. Eisuke Koya
John Maynard Smith (JMS) Building Rm. 5D5
7776
e.koya@sussex.ac.uk
Teaching and Learning
Lectures
Each of the lectures has been timetabled for 1 hour (see below for a more detailed - though
tentative- lecture schedule). To avoid disruption to others, please arrive at least 5 minutes
before the start time of the lecture (see lecture attendance etiquette in Psychology course
handbook).
Seminars
The 3 seminars for this module will last for two ‘teaching hours’ each and will occur in
specified weeks (see below). Your timetable on Sussex Direct will provide you with the details
of when and where your seminars are held. You will be allocated to a particular group. If this
proves difficult for you for timetabling reasons, and you therefore wish to swap groups, you
will need to find another student with whom you can swap. However, you must notify us and
the Psychology office about any such arrangements.
Office Hours
Your module convenors will hold office hours each week. Please see the Psychology Office
for when and where this will be held. Students may use these office hours (without
appointment) to discuss or ask about anything module-related.
Study Direct
All the critical module materials are provided through the module’s Study Direct site, including
the Essential and Supplementary Readings. Additionally, the lecture slides (in PPT and PDF)
are available for download the day (usually, but perhaps not always, 24 hrs) before the actual
lecture meeting so you are able to print these before attending the lectures.
One of the best ways to share ideas amongst your fellow students and ask questions about
the module is through the Study Direct Forum. The module convenor will monitor the Forum
and, if necessary, answer specific questions that you may have and that have not been
addressed already by fellow students, correct and/or add to ongoing discussions etc. But, to
encourage discussion between the students, the convener will wait for students to engage in
discussion first.
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MODULE HANDBOOK 2013/2014
Assessment
Formal assessment for Drug, Brain and Behaviour comprises of module course work (100%
of your final mark) consisting of an extended assay due at the end of the term (worth 50% of
your modulework mark), and an extended (3000 word) essay at the end of the academic year
(worth 50% of your final mark). Further details about this are given during the module and/or
via Study Direct.
1) In-class tests (combined, 50% of final mark)
You will be required to complete 2 in-class tests consisting of multiple choice question and
short answer questions. Each test will be worth 25% of your final mark and will focus on the
materials covered in the lectures and the readings from the text book. Further details about
the tests will be provided by the end of week 2 and through Study Direct.
2) A 3000 word essay (50% of final mark)
Information about the essay, including requirements, expectations, and essay titles that you
can choose from will be made available at the end of week 2 through the module Study Direct
side.
Submission deadlines and late penalties
The deadline for the extended essay will be published on Sussex direct. Two copies of your
essay must be submitted to the Psychology Departmental office, Pevensey 1 2A13 before the
deadline.
Assessment policy and procedures regarding late submission, plagiarism, and mitigating
evidence are provided here:
http://www.sussex.ac.uk/studentlifecentre/mitigation
and
http://www.sussex.ac.uk/studentlifecentre/academic/academicmisconduct
Important note: Appropriately completing and submitting formally assessed work is your
responsibility. Definitive guidelines on this are provided in the 'Handbook for Candidates'
available on the web or via departmental offices. If you are in any doubt about the rules
concerning submissions check with the departmental office.
V&E students.
V&E students should ensure that they discuss with the module convenor any alternate
assessment submission deadlines.
Student Evaluations
Towards the end of the module you will be asked to complete an anonymous student
evaluation form, allowing you to comment on and criticise all aspects of the module. You may
also comment on the module at any time, either to convenors or lecturers, and you may do
this directly or via some intermediary (e.g. a student representative). Feedback received in
this way will be collated and shown to all tutors and module convenors for the module. It will
also be reported to the psychology teaching and learning committee. Module Evaluation
summaries from the previous year are available on the School web pages. Reactions and
responses to such student feedback will be reported back to students via student
representatives (who attend School meetings). In addition, module convenors meet regularly
with seminar tutors to discuss how the module is progressing and whether and when
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MODULE HANDBOOK 2013/2014
improvements might be made. We want the module be as good as it possibly can be so all
and any feedback is gratefully received.
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MODULE HANDBOOK 2013/2014
Lectures and seminar schedule (subject to some change)
Wk
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Day
Date
Lecture topic (lecturer)
Test
Fri
20-Sep 1. Introduction & basic concepts (Crombag)
Tues
24-Sep 2. Pharmacokinetics (Crombag)
Fri
28-Sep 3. Pharmacodynamics (Crombag)
See SD for
times and
location
4. Behavioral Pharmacology (Crombag)
Tues
7-Oct
5. Synaptic transmission (Koya)
Fri
11-Oct
6. Synaptic transmission and glutamate (Koya)
Tues
15-Oct
Fri
18-Oct
7. Drug-induced plasticity (Koya)
Tues
22-Oct
8. Psychomotor stimulant drugs (Koya)
Fri
25-Oct
9. Stimulants and catecholamines (Koya)
See SD for
times and
location
No lecture
No lecture
Test 1
Seminar 2
No lecture
5-Nov
10. Opioid drugs (Crombag)
Fri
8-Nov
11. Opioid drugs and tolerance (Crombag)
Tues
12-Nov 12. Non-pharmacological factors (Crombag)
Fri
15-Nov 13. Associative learning and relapse (Crombag)
Tues
18-Nov 14. Hallucinogenics: LSD, MDMA (Koya)
Fri
22-Nov 15. Hallucinogenics: Marijuana (Koya)
See SD for
times and
location
Seminar 1
No lecture
Tues
16. Alcohol and GABA (Stephens)
Seminar 3
No lecture
Tues
2-Dec
No lecture
Fri
6-Dec
17. Drug Toxicity: Meth and MDMA (Koya)
Tues
9-Dec
18. Summary (Crombag)
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Seminars
Test 2
MODULE HANDBOOK 2013/2014
Module materials
Books
The required text for this module is: J. S. Meyer and L. F. Quenzer, Psychopharmacology:
Drugs, the Brain and Behavior, Sinauer, 2013. (ISBN 978-0-87893-510-9).
Lecture
Readings from M & Q
1. Introduction & basic concepts (Crombag)
-
2. Pharmacokinetics (Crombag)
Chapter 1, pp. 6-24
3. Pharmacodynamics (Crombag)
Chapter 1, pp. 25-32
4. Behavioral Pharmacology (Crombag)
Chapter 4, pp. 108-135
5. Synaptic transmission (Koya)
Chapter 2 (quick review), Chapter 3, pp. 78-93
6. Synaptic transmission and glutamate (Koya)
Chapter 3, pp. 78-93, Chapter 8, pp. 202-214
7. Drug-induced plasticity (Koya)
Chapter 8, pp. 202-214
8. Psychomotor stimulant drugs (Koya)
Chapter 12, chapter 5
Chapter 12, chapter 5
9. Stimulants and catecholamines (Koya)
10. Opioid drugs (Crombag)
Chapter 11
11. Opioid drugs and tolerance (Crombag)
Chapter 11
12. Non-pharmacological factors (Crombag)
TBA
13. Associative learning and relapse (Crombag)
Chapter 9
14. Hallucinogenics: LSD, MDMA (Koya)
Chapter 15, pp. 430- 440, Chapter 6
15. Hallucinogenics: Marijuana (Koya)
Chapter 14
16. Alcohol and GABA (Stephens)
Chapter 8, 217-216, Chapter 10
17. Drug Toxicity: Methamphetamine and MDMA (Koya) TBA
Chapter 9
18. Summary (Crombag)
Journals
A variety of additional published and excellent sources of information are freely available to
you through the library and online that you may want to explore. Of module, these sources
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MODULE HANDBOOK 2013/2014
often go well beyond what is covered in the module but for those interested they all provide
outstanding reviews of the ‘state-of-the-art’ in the field.
•
There is a very useful issue of Nature Neuroscience (Vol 8, Number 11, November
2005) on Addiction. Just about every article in this collection is useful in one-way or
another, especially the article by Everitt and Robbins.
•
A recent series of reviews by leaders in addiction research is available in the Oct 2008
issue of Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society (B) dedicated to the topic of
Addiction. Some of these are updates on the authors’ earlier theoretical writings, but
will give you an excellent insight into current thinking.
•
Finally, there is a good set of reviews available from a recent exercise carried out by
the “Foresight Project on Brain Science, Addiction and Drugs”, that reviews the stateof-the-art in addiction research, across a range of approaches. These reviews are
available at: http://www.bis.gov.uk/foresight/our-work/projects/published-projects/brainscience/reports-and-publications/research-reviews
Seminars and essential readings
The seminar are
Seminar 1. Conditioned withdrawal and tolerance
With repeated use of drugs of abuse, tolerance to some of their effects is common, and you
will become more familiar with the nature of tolerance at both psychological and biological
levels. Once tolerant to the effects of a drug, enforced abstinence may result in withdrawal
symptoms which are usually the opposite of the normal drug effect. A major theoretical
approach to understanding addictive behaviour proposes that a great deal (if not all) drugtaking by regular users of certain drugs (most notably opiates) may result from withdrawalavoidance, withdrawal-reversal or both. However, while models of this kind can be quite
convincing accounts of behaviour for current drug users, these models run into difficulty when
trying to account for phenomena such as relapse -where abstinent users start taking the drug
again even though no longer tolerant/dependent, etc. The 1st seminar will discuss a recent
theory - the Allostasis theory of addiction - that tries to account for the difficulty of relapse.
The prepare for this seminar it will be very useful if you also read one of the Additional
readings listed below (Solomon & Corbit, 1973) as the ideas outlined in this paper set the
foundation for Allostasis theory.
Essential Readings
1.
Koob, G.F.,& Le Moal, M.(1997). Drug abuse: hedonic homeostatic dysregulation.
Science, 278(5335), 52-58.
2.
Knackstedt, L.A., Samimi, M.M.,& Ettenberg, A. (2002). Evidence for opponent-process
actions of intravenous cocaine and cocaethylene. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 72(4),
931-936.
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3.
Kenny, P.J., Chen, S.A., Kitamura, O., Markou, A.,& Koob,G.F. (2006).Conditioned
withdrawal drives heroin consumption and decreases reward sensitivity. J Neurosci,
26(22), 5894-5900.
Additional Readings
Wikler, A. (1984). Classics revisited. Conditioning factors in opiate addiction and relapse. J
Subst Abuse Treat, 1(4), 277-285.
Solomon, R.L.,& Corbit, J.D.(1973). An opponent-process theory of motivation. II. Cigarette
addiction. J Abnorm Psychol, 81(2), 158-171.
Koob,G.F.(2008).Hedonic Homeostatic Dysregulation as a Driver of Drug-Seeking Behavior.
Drug Discov Today Dis Models, 5(4), 207-215.
Ahmed SH, Koob GF. (1998) Transition from moderate to excessive drug intake: change in
hedonic set point. Science, 282(5387): 298-300.
O'Brien,C.P., Testa,T., O'Brien,T.J.,Brady,J.P.,& Wells,B.(1977).Conditioned narcotic
withdrawal in humans. Science, 195(4282), 1000-1002.
Siegel, S., Hinson, R. E., Krank, M. D., & McCully, J. (1982). Heroin "overdose" death:
contribution of drug-associated environmental cues. Science, 216(4544), 436-437.
Siegel, S., & Ramos, B. M. (2002). Applying laboratory research: drug anticipation and the
treatment of drug addiction. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 10(3), 162-183.
Ehrman, R., Ternes, J., O'Brien, C. P., & McLellan, A. T. (1992). Conditioned tolerance in
human opiate addicts. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 108(1-2), 218-224.
Seminar 2. Incentive learning and craving
More recently, the ‘simple’ view that people take drugs in order to avoid the withdrawal
symptoms resulting from not taking them, has largely given way to positive-incentive
explanations of drug abuse. Closely related has been the notion that cue-elicited craving is an
important prerequisite for drug taking behaviour. Thus, it is widely hypothesised that craving is
a state resulting from an associative learning process between external or internal cues
experienced in the presence of drug and the drug’s rewarding properties. For instance, it has
been argued that conditioned stimuli associated with drug taking come to arouse neural
states that mimic those produced by the drugs themselves, and exposure to such stimuli then
gives rise to the incentive to take drug. This approach, initiated by Stewart and her colleagues
(Stewart et al, 1984; additional readings) is heavily influenced by theories of incentive
motivation (as promulgated by learning theorists such as Bolles and Bindra). Stewart and her
colleagues point out that stimuli conditioned to drug taking, as well as inducing an incentive
state which will lead to drug seeking and drug taking (conditioned incentives), are likely to
induce drug-related thoughts that are interpreted by the addict as drug-craving.
The notion then that, rather than drug-opposite withdrawal-associated states, cue-elicited
drug-like, incentive motivational states are key to driving drug taking was further developed by
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a number investigators and, in 1993, culminated in an influential theory of addiction by
Robinson and Berridge called the Incentive-sensitization theory. This theory build on Stewart’s
initial ideas in a number of ways, in particular as to the role of drug-induced neuroplastic
changes (sensitization) in critical brain areas. These persistent changes in the brain are
hypothesized to render the organism progressively hypersensitive to the influence of
conditioned cues on their behavior, leading to increasingly greater levels of craving (wanting)
and drug taking – but, interestingly, in the absence of any changes in affective responses or
liking.
Essential Readings
1.
Robinson,T.E. & Berridge, K.C.(2001). Incentive-sensitization and addiction. Addiction,
96(1), 103-114.
2.
Wyvell, C.L.,& Berridge, K.C.(2001). Incentive sensitization by previous amphetamine
exposure: increased cue-triggered "wanting" for sucrose reward. J Neurosci, 21(19),
7831-7840.
3.
Flagel, S. B., Clark, J. J., Robinson, T.E., et al (2011). A selective role for dopamine in
stimulus–reward learning. Nature, 469(7328), 53-57.
Additional readings
•
Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (1993). The neural basis of drug craving: an incentivesensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res Rev, 18(3), 247-291. (this is the original
publication but it is also very long and detailed)
•
Everitt,B.J.,Dickinson,A.,&Robbins,T.W.(2001).The neuropsychological basis of addictive
behaviour. Brain Res Rev, 36(2-3), 129-138.
•
Koya, Eisuke and et al, (2009) Targeted disruption of cocaine-activated nucleus
accumbens neurons prevents context-specific sensitization. Nature Neuroscience, 12
(8). pp. 1069-1073.
•
Crombag HS, Gorny G, Li Y, Kolb B, Robinson TE. (2005) Opposite effects of
amphetamine self-administration experience on dendritic spines in the medial and orbital
prefrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex. 2005 Mar;15(3):341-8.
•
Volkow,N.D.,Wang,G.J.,Telang,F.,Fowler,J.S.,Logan,J.,Childress,A.R.,et al. (2006).
Cocaine cues and dopamine in dorsal striatum: mechanism of craving in cocaine
addiction. J Neurosci, 26(24), 6583-6588.
•
De Wit, H., & Stewart, J. (1981). Reinstatement of cocaine-reinforced responding in the
rat. Psychopharmacology, 75(2), 134-143.
•
Stewart,J.,de Wit,H.,& Eikelboom, R.(1984). Role of unconditioned and conditioned drug
effects in the self-administration of opiates and stimulants. Psychological Review 91(2),
251-268.
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•
Shalev, U., Grimm, J. W., & Shaham, Y. (2002). Neurobiology of relapse to heroin and
cocaine seeking: a review. Pharmacological Reviews, 54(1), 1-42.
Seminar 3. Loss of control and inhibition
Loss of control is a fundamental aspect of addiction. While certain individuals may have a
predisposition to fail to control undesirable behaviours (e.g. risk taking), it is becoming
increasingly recognized that repeated drug taking itself can have long-term effects on certain
brain areas resulting in (further) disinhibition, impulsivity and failure to control future drug
taking. The papers to be discussed in the 3rd seminar offer recent accounts from animal
experimentation of the neural mechanisms that may underlie “compulsive” drug taking, by
focusing on impulse control mechanisms. Related but with a slightly different focus, a number
of recent publications have emphasized neurobiological mechanisms that mediate habitformation – stimulus-bound behavior that is independent of its consequences – thereby
changing the focus entirely away from outcome-based motivational processes towards
prepotent stimulus-response mechanisms. These models have the benefit of not having to
explain why addicts often tell us that the drugs they take produce much less of the pleasure
they initial did, as the propose that the behavior of drug taking and the consequences of
ingesting the drug are largely uncoupled.
Essential Readings
•
Jentsch, J.D. & Taylor, J.R.(1999). Impulsivity resulting from fronto-striatal dysfunction in
drug abuse: implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli.
Psychopharmacology, 146(4), 373-390.
•
Schoenbaum,G. & Setlow, B.(2005). Cocaine makes actions insensitive to outcomes but
not extinction: implications for altered orbitofrontal-amygdalar function. Cereb Cortex,
15(8), 1162-1169.
•
Dalley, J.W., Fryer, T.D., Brichard L., Robinson E.S. et al (2007). Nucleus accumbens
D2/3 receptors predict trait impulsivity and cocaine reinforcement. Science, 315: 1267-70
Additional readings
•
Nelson, A., & Killcross, S. (2006). Amphetamine exposure enhances habit formation. J
Neurosci, 26(14), 3805-3812.
•
Volkow, N.D. & Fowler, J.S.(2000). Addiction,a disease of compulsion and drive:
involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex, 10(3), 318-325.
•
Schoenbaum,G. & Shaham,Y. (2008).The role of orbitofrontal cortex in drug addiction: a
review of preclinical studies. Biol Psychiatry, 63(3), 256-262.
•
Verdejo-Garcia, A., Bechara, A., Recknor, E. C., & Perez-Garcia, M. (2006). Executive
dysfunction in substance dependent individuals during drug use and abstinence: an
examination of the behavioral, cognitive and emotional correlates of addiction. J Int
Neuropsychol Soc, 12(3), 405-415.
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•
Morgan,D.,Grant,K.A.,Gage,H.D.,Mach,R.H.,Kaplan,J.R., Prioleau,O.,et al. (2002).
Social dominance in monkeys: dopamine D2 receptors and cocaine self- administration.
Nat Neurosci, 5(2), 169-174.
•
Blum, K., Sheridan, P. J., Wood, R. C., Braverman, E. R., Chen, T. J., Cull, J. G., et al.
(1996). The D2 dopamine receptor gene as a determinant of reward deficiency
syndrome. J R Soc Med, 89(7), 396-400.
Supplementary Review Articles by Topic
In addition to the above readings and, and some additional source material that will be
pointed out in lectures, the following published review articles (some of which have already
been mentioned) offer both broad and/or specific information on various relevant topics.
Methodological and theoretical issues
•
Shalev U, Grimm JW, Shaham Y (2002) Neurobiology of relapse to heroin and cocaine
seeking: a review. Pharmacol Rev, 54:1-42.
•
Sanchis-Segura C and Spanagel, R (2006) Behavioural assessment of drug
reinforcement and addictive features in rodents: an overview. Addiction Biolog, 11:
1-38
•
Stephens DN (2006) Animal models of addiction: a quest for the Holy Grail, or the
pursuit of wild geese? Addiction Biology, 11: 39-42.
•
Stephens DN et al. 2010 Reward dysregulation: Issues of measurement, and achieving
concilience between animal and human phenotypes. Addiction Biology, 15(2);
145-168.
Theories of drug abuse
•
Gardner EL (ed) (1993) Neurobiology of drug addiction/dependency. Seminars in the
Neurosciences 5: 313 - 382
•
Drummond DC (2001) Theories of drug craving ancient and modern. Addiction 96:
33-46.
•
Wise R.A. (2004) Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nat Rev Neurosci, 5: 483-94
•
Koob, GF and Le Moal M. (2005) Plasticity of reward neurocircuitry, and the “dark” side
Tolerance and sensitisation
•
Siegel. S (1990) Classical conditioning and opiate tolerance and withdrawal. In
D.J.K.Balfour (ed) Psychotropic Drugs of Abuse. (Pergamon Press, New York) pp 59 85. Or
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•
Siegel S (1989) Pharmacological conditioning and drug effects. In A. Goudie and M
Emmett-Oglesby (eds) Psychoactive drugs: tolerance and sensitisation. (Humana,
Clifton, NJ) pp 115 - 180.
•
Stewart J and Baldini A (1993) Tolerance and sensitization to the behavioural effects of
drugs. Behavioural Pharmacology 4: 289 - 312.
•
Robinson TE, Berridge KC. (2001) Incentive-sensitization and addiction. Addiction, 96;
103-14.
•
Robinson TE and Berridge KC (2003) Addiction. Annual Rev Psychology 54: 25-53
Cognitive approaches
•
Tiffany ST (1990). A cognitive model of drug urges and drug use behavior: role of
automatic and nonautomatic processes. Psychological Reviews, 97: 147- 168
•
Tiffany ST (1999). Cognitive concepts of drug craving. Alcohol Research and Health
23: 215-224
•
Marlatt GA et al (1973) Loss of control of drinking in alcoholics: an experimental
analogue. J. Abnorm Psychol 81: 233-241
Non-pharmacological factors
•
Crombag, Hans and Robinson, Terry E (2004) Drugs, Environment, Brain, and
Behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13 (3). pp. 107-111.
•
Crombag, Hans S and Shaham, Yavin (2002) Renewal of drug seeking by contextual
cues after prolonged extinction in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 116 (1). pp. 169-173
•
Falk JL, Feingold DA (1987) Environmental and cultural factors in the behavioral
actions of drugs. In: Psychopharmacology: the third gener- ation of progress (Meltzer
HY, ed), pp 1503–1510. New York: Raven.
•
Anagnostaras, Stephan G.; Robinson, Terry E. Sensitization to the psychomotor
stimulant effects of amphetamine: Modulation by associative learning. Behavioral
Neuroscience, Vol 110(6), Dec 1996, 1397-1414.
•
O'Brien,C.P., Testa,T., O'Brien,T.J.,Brady,J.P.,& Wells,B.(1977).Conditioned narcotic
withdrawal in humans. Science, 195(4282), 1000-1002.
•
Siegel, S., Hinson, R. E., Krank, M. D., & McCully, J. (1982). Heroin "overdose" death:
contribution of drug-associated environmental cues. Science, 216(4544), 436-437.
•
Siegel, S., & Ramos, B. M. (2002). Applying laboratory research: drug anticipation
and the treatment of drug addiction. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 10(3), 162-183.
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•
Ehrman, R., Ternes, J., O'Brien, C. P., & McLellan, A. T. (1992). Conditioned tolerance
in human opiate addicts. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 108(1-2), 218-224.
Neural basis of addiction
•
Vanderschuren L and Kalivas PW (2000) Alterations in dopaminergic and glutamatergic
transmission in the induction and expression of behavioural sensitization. A critical
review of preclinical studies. Psychopharmacology, 151: 99-120.
•
Everitt BJ and Robbins TW (2005) Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction:
from actions to habits to compulsion. Nature Neuroscience, 8: 1481-1489.
•
Kalivas PW and Volkow ND (2005) The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of
motivation and choice Am J Psychiatry 162: 1403-1413.
•
Nestler EJ (2005) Is there a common molecular pathway for addiction? Nature
Neuroscience 8: 1445-1449.
•
De Vries TJ and Shippenberg TS (2002) Neural systems underlying opiate addiction. J
Neurosci 22: 3321-3325.
•
Hyman SE, Malenka, RC and Nestler, EJ (2006) Neural mechanisms of addiction: the
role of reward-related learning, and memory. Annual Rev Neurosci 29: 565-598.
Vulnerability and genetic influences
•
Blum et al (1996) Reward deficiency syndrome. American Scientist 84: 132-145.
•
Kreek, MJ (2005) Genetic influences on impulsivity, risk taking, stress responsivity and
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