GeneralPrinciplesofLaw
GiorgioGaja
Contenttype:
EncyclopediaEntries
Articlelastupdated: May
2013
Product: MaxPlanck
EncyclopediaofPublic
InternationalLaw[MPEPIL]
Subject(s):
Customaryinternationallaw—Statepractice—Arbitralawards,recognitionandenforcement—
Internationalcourtsandtribunals,decisions—InternationalCourtofJustice(ICJ)—Internationalcourts
andtribunals,procedure
PublishedundertheauspicesoftheMaxPlanckInstituteforComparativePublicLawandInternational
LawunderthedirectionofRüdigerWolfrum.
From: Oxford Public International Law (http://opil.ouplaw.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2013. All Rights Reserved. Subscriber:
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A.TheDraftingoftheProvisionintheStatuteofthePermanent
CourtofInternationalJusticereferringtoGeneralPrinciplesof
Law
1Referencestogeneralprinciplesoflawmaybefoundinarbitraldecisionsconcerning
internationaldisputeswellbeforetheadoptionoftheStatuteofthePermanentCourtofInternational
Justice(PCIJ).Forinstance,inthearbitrationbetweenFranceandVenezuelaintheAntoineFabiani
Casethearbitratorsaidthathewouldapply‘thegeneralprinciplesofthelawofnationsonthe
denialofjustice’anddefinedthoseprinciplesas‘therulescommontomostlegislationsortaught
bydoctrines’(at117).However,onlyArt.38(c)PCIJStatutegavegreatprominencetotherolethat
generalprinciplesoflawmayplayininternationaladjudicationwhenitstatedthatthePCIJwas
requiredtoapplythe‘generalprinciplesoflawrecognizedbycivilizednations’(CivilizedNations).
2Thiswording—whichwasreproducedinArt.38(1)(c)StatuteoftheInternationalCourtofJustice
(ICJ)—hasgivenrisetocriticisminrecenttimes,sinceitappearstobebasedonthedatedconcept
thatonlycertainnationsmayberightlycalledcivilized.Thiscriticism,whichwasvoicedespecially
inJudgeAmmoun’sseparateopinionintheNorthSeaContinentalShelfCases([FederalRepublicof
Germany/Denmark;FederalRepublicofGermany/Netherlands]132–33),ledtoaproposal,which
was,however,notinsistedupon,byGuatemalaandMexicotoamendtheICJStatutebydeletingthe
termcivilized(UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly‘ReviewoftheRoleoftheInternationalCourtof
Justice:ReportoftheSecretary-General’[15September1971]23–25).Moresignificantly,this
inappropriatewordingmaypartlyexplainwhytheICJhasbeensofarreluctanttorefertospecific
rulesofoneorothermunicipalsystem,lestitimplythatsomeothersystemshadtoberegardedas
lesscivilized(InternationalLawandDomestic[Municipal]Law).
3AperusalofthepreparatoryworkofthePCIJStatuteshowsthatthedraftershaddifferentviews
aboutwhatthereferencetogeneralprinciplesoflawwasintendedtocover.BaronDescamps,the
chairmanoftheAdvisoryCommitteeofJurists(‘Committee’)fromwhichthetextoriginated,had
proposedtoincludeamongtherulesthatthePCIJwouldapply‘therulesofinternationallawas
recognizedbythelegalconscienceofcivilisednations’(PermanentCourtofInternationalJustice:
AdvisoryCommitteeofJuristsProcès-verbauxoftheProceedingsoftheCommittee,June16th–July
24th1920,withAnnexes306).AsBaronDescampslaterexplained,hemeantbythis‘thelawof
objectivejustice,atanyrateinsofarasithastwofoldconfirmationoftheconcurrentteachingsof
jurisconsultsofauthorityandofthepublicconscienceofcivilisednations’(ibid324).TheUnited
StatesofAmericamember,ERoot,heldthatthisreferencewastoowideandwouldhave
empoweredthePCIJto‘applyprinciples,differentlyunderstoodindifferentcountries’(ibid308).In
thefollowingdebate,LordPhillimore,theUnitedKingdommember,maintainedthat‘alltheprinciples
ofcommonlawareapplicabletointernationalaffairs.Theyareinfactpartofinternationallaw’(ibid
316).ERootthensubmittedanamendedproposal,whichreferredto‘thegeneralprinciplesoflaw
recognizedbycivilisednations’(ibid344).ThistextwasadoptedbytheCommitteewithoutchange
(ibid567,584,605,and648).InthediscussionrelatingtoERoot’sproposal,theBrazilianmember,
MFernandes,suggestedthatthePCIJshouldapply‘thoseprinciplesofinternationallawwhich,
beforethedispute,werenotrejectedbythelegaltraditionsofoneoftheStatesconcernedwiththe
dispute’(ibid346).Ontheotherhand,inanoftenquotedpassageLordPhillimore‘pointedoutthat
thegeneralprinciplesreferredto…werethosewhichwereacceptedbyallnationsinforo
domestico,suchascertainprinciplesofprocedure,theprincipleofgoodfaith(bonafide),the
principleofresiudicata,etc.’(ibid335).TheFrenchmember,MdeLapradelle,‘admittedthatthe
principleswhichformedthebasesofnationallaw,werealsosourcesofinternationallaw’(Sources
ofInternationalLaw);however,he‘thoughtitpreferabletokeeptoasimplephrase:such,for
example,as“thegeneralprinciplesoflaw”,withoutindicatingexactlythesourcesfromwhichthe
principlesshouldbederived’(ibid335–36).Theseexcerptsfromthesummaryrecordsofthe
debateshowthatthecompromisetextadoptedbytheCommitteecoveredadivisionofopinions,
especiallyonthequestionwhetherageneralprinciplewastoberegardedaspartofinternational
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lawonlybecauseitwasalreadypresentinmunicipalsystems.TheCommittee’sreportdidnot
provideanyadditionalexplanation(ibid729),norwasthereanysubstantialdiscussiononthe
principlesoflawinthedebatesthatledtotheformaladoptionofthePCIJStatutebytheLeagueof
Nations(DocumentsconcerningtheActionTakenbytheCounciloftheLeagueofNationsunder
Article14oftheCovenantandtheAdoptionbytheAssemblyoftheStatuteofthePermanent
Court).
B.TheReferencetoGeneralPrinciplesofLawintheStatuteof
theInternationalCourtofJustice
4Aswasnotedabove(para.2),inArt.38(1)(c)ICJStatuteonefindsthesamewordingasinArt.
38(c)PCIJStatute.NodiscussiontookplaceattheSanFranciscoConferenceaboutthereference
intheICJStatuteto‘generalprinciplesoflawrecognizedbycivilizednations’.
5ThechapeauofArt.38PCIJStatuteunderwentanexpansion.Whileitoriginallyread:‘TheCourt
shallapply’,itnowstates:‘TheCourt,whosefunctionistodecideinaccordancewithinternational
lawsuchdisputesasaresubmittedtoit,shallapply’.Thischangehadthepurposeofstressingthe
Court’sfunctionwithregardtointernationallaw(seethestatementofAl-FarayasRapporteurof
CommitteeIV/1,UnitedNationsInformationOrganization[ed]DocumentsoftheUnitedNations
ConferenceonInternationalOrganization:SanFrancisco,1945[UnitedNationsInformation
OrganizationNewYork1945]vol13CommissionIV:JudicialOrganization427 ).Itwasnot
intendedtoaffectthemeaningofanyofthereferencestothevarioussourceslistedinArt.38ICJ
Statute.
6GITunkinarguedthat
theamendmentinvalidatestheunderstandingofArt.38(1)(c)thatwasprevailinginthe
CommissionofJuristsin1920.ItmakesimpossibletheinterpretationofArt.38(1)(c)
accordingtowhich‘generalprinciplesoflaw’aresimplyprinciples‘commontoallcivilised
nations’.Itclearlydefinesthat‘generalprinciplesoflaw’areprinciplesofinternationallaw.
(Tunkin525)InternationalCommissionofJurists[ICJ];InterpretationinInternationalLaw).
However,eventhedraftersoftheoriginaltexthadnotstatedthatthereferencetogeneral
principlesoflawwouldentitletheICJtodecideonabasisotherthaninternationallaw.Theyhad
ratherviewedgeneralprinciplesoflawaspartofinternationallaw.
C.TheApplicationbytheInternationalCourtofJusticeof
PrinciplesofInternationalLawthatFindaParallelinMunicipal
Laws
7Generalprinciplesthatexistinmunicipalsystemsoflawdonotnecessarilyformpartof
internationallaw(seealsoInternationalLawandDomestic[Municipal]Law).Themainreasonliesin
thedifferenceinstructurebetweeninternationalsocietyandmunicipalsocieties.Thisdifference
maymakeitinappropriatetotransposetointernationalrelationsaprinciplethatispartofmunicipal
law.
8Whenaprincipleexistsbothinmunicipallawsandininternationallaw,theoriginoftheprinciple
islikelytobeinmunicipalsystems,giventhegreaterdevelopmentandwiderpracticerelatingto
thosesystems.However,theapplicationoftheprincipleininternationallawdoesnotnecessarily
dependonthefactthattheprincipleiscommontoanumberofmunicipalsystems.
9ThecaselawofboththePCIJandtheICJprovidessomeexamplesofdecisionsinwhicha
principleofinternationallawwasregardedashavingaparallelinmunicipallaws.Forinstance,in
theCaseconcerningtheFactoryatChorzów(GermanyvPoland),thePCIJfoundthat
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Itis…aprinciplegenerallyacceptedinthejurisprudenceofinternationalarbitration,as
wellasbymunicipalcourts,thatonePartycannotavailhimselfofthefactthattheother
hasnotfulfilledsomeobligationorhasnothadrecoursetosomemeansofredress,ifthe
formerPartyhas,bysomeillegalact,preventedthelatterfromfulfillingtheobligationin
question,orfromhavingrecoursetothetribunalwhichwouldhavebeenopen,tohim.
(CaseconcerningtheFactoryatChorzów[GermanyvPoland][ClaimforIndemnity]
[Jurisdiction]31;seealsoGermanInterestsinPolishUpperSilesia,Casesconcerningthe)
ThispassagewasapprovinglyquotedbytheICJintheGabčíkovo-NagymarosCase
(Hungary/Slovakia)(para.110).
10IntheCorfuChannelCasetheICJnotedthat
ByreasonoftheexclusiveterritorialcontrolofaStatewithinitsfrontierstheotherState,
thevictimofabreachofinternationallaw,isoftenunabletofurnishdirectproofoffacts
givingrisetoresponsibility.SuchaStateshouldbeallowedamoreliberalrecourseto
inferencesoffactandcircumstantialevidence.Thisindirectevidenceisadmittedinall
systemsoflawanditsuseisrecognizedbyinternationaldecisions.(TheCorfuChannel
Case[UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandvAlbania][Merits][‘Corfu
ChannelCase’]18)
Thereferenceto‘allsystemsoflaw’hasapparentlythepurposeofconfirmingwhatisalready
establishedunderinternationallaw.
11Agreaterreadinesstoaccepttheviewthatageneralprincipleoflawappliedinmunicipal
systemsisrelevantassuchforaninternationalcourtortribunalappearsinapassageoftheICJ’s
advisoryopiniononEffectofAwardsofCompensationMadebytheUnitedNationsAdministrative
Tribunal.(seealsoAdministrativeBoards,CommissionsandTribunalsinInternational
Organizations;AdvisoryOpinions).TheICJnotedthattheUnitedNationsAdministrativeTribunal
was‘anindependentandtrulyjudicialbodypronouncingfinaljudgmentswithoutappealwithinthe
limitedfieldofitsfunctions’andsaid:‘Accordingtoawell-establishedandgenerallyrecognized
principleoflaw,ajudgmentrenderedbysuchajudicialbodyisresiudicataandhasbindingforce
betweenthepartiestothedispute’(EffectofAwardsofCompensationMadebytheUnitedNations
AdministrativeTribunal[AdvisoryOpinion]53).TheICJhintedagainattheexistenceof‘general
principlesofprocedurallaw’intheCaseconcerningtheLand,IslandandMaritimeFrontier
Dispute([ElSalvador/Honduras]ApplicationofNicaraguaforPermissiontoIntervene[Judgment]
para.102;Land,IslandandMaritimeFrontierDisputeCase[ElSalvador/Honduras:Nicaragua
Intervening]).
12TheICJmayhavereferredtoageneralprincipleoflawexistinginmunicipalsystemsalsointhe
TempleofPreahVihearCasewhenitfoundthat
Itisanestablishedruleoflawthatthepleaoferrorcannotbeallowedasanelement
vitiatingconsentifthepartyadvancingitcontributedbyitsconducttotheerror,orcould
haveavoidedit,orifthecircumstancesweresuchastoputthatpartyonnoticeofa
possibleerror.(CaseconcerningtheTempleofPreahVihear[CambodiavThailand]
[Merits]26)
13Thegreatvarietyofapproachesthataretakenonspecificlegalissuesbymunicipallaws—
evenwhentheymayleadtothesamepracticalresult—oftenmakesitdifficulttoascertainwhether
ageneralprincipleexists.ThedoubtwasevenexpressedbyHKelsen‘whethersuchprinciples
commontothelegalorderofthecivilizednationsexistatall’(Kelsen539).
14InseveraldecisionstheICJconcludedthattherewasnogeneralprincipleoflawthatcouldbe
appliedtothequestionsraised.Thus,forinstance,intheSouthWestAfricaCasestheICJnoted
thatanargumentraisedbytheclaimantStateamountedto
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apleathattheCourtshouldallowtheequivalentofan‘actiopopularis’,orrightresidentin
anymemberofacommunitytotakelegalactioninvindicationofapublicinterest.But
althougharightofthiskindmaybeknowntocertainmunicipalsystemsoflaw,itisnot
knowntointernationallawasitstandsatpresent:noristheCourtabletoregarditas
importedbythe‘generalprinciplesoflaw’referredtoinArt.38,paragraph1(c),ofits
Statute.(SouthWestAfricaCases[EthiopiavSouthAfrica;LiberiavSouthAfrica]
[SecondPhase]para.88;SouthWestAfrica/Namibia[AdvisoryOpinionsandJudgments])
15Similarly,intheadvisoryopiniononApplicationforReviewofJudgmentNo158oftheUnited
NationsAdministrativeTribunal,theICJheldthattherewasno
generalprincipleoflawwhichrequiresthatinreviewproceedingstheinterestedparties
shouldnecessarilyhaveanopportunitytosubmitoralstatementsoftheircasetothe
reviewtribunal.GeneralprinciplesoflawandthejudicialcharacteroftheCourtdorequire
that,eveninadvisoryproceedings,theinterestedpartiesshouldeachhavean
opportunity,andonabasisofequality,tosubmitalltheelementsrelevanttothequestions
whichhavebeenreferredtothereviewtribunal.(ApplicationforReviewofJudgmentNo
158oftheUnitedNationsAdministrativeTribunal[AdvisoryOpinion]para.36;United
NationsAdministrativeTribunal,ApplicationsforReview[AdvisoryOpinions])
16Oftengeneralprinciplesareonlyvagueandareoflittleuseshouldoneintendtoapplywhatis
commontoalargenumberoflegalsystems.Unlikecertainarbitrationtribunals,theICJhasbeen
understandablyreluctanttoapplygeneralprinciplesinawaythatwouldimplyaselectionamong
municipalrulesandthustheuseofalargeamountofdiscretioninfindingthemoreappropriate
rule.TheICJwouldnotonlyrunintothedifficultyofengagingitselfinacomparativeanalysis.It
wouldalsohavetofacetheriskoftransgressingintotheapplicationofequity(Equityin
InternationalLaw),whichaccordingtoArt.38(2)ICJStatutewouldrequirethespecificconsentof
thepartiestothedispute.AswasobservedbyGFitzmaurice,
theconceptofthegeneralprinciplesissofluidthataquasi-legislativeelementwouldoften
beintroducedintotheCourt’sdecisionsbyany‘bold’applicationofthem,and…
considerableharmmightbedonetothedesideratumofincreasedresorttotheCourt
unlessareasonablepredictabilityasthebasisofitsdecisionscanbemaintained.
(Fitzmaurice325)
D.ReferencesbytheInternationalCourtofJusticetoPrinciples
thatareRelevantonlyunderInternationalLaw
17WhentheICJreferredtoprinciplesofinternationallawortogeneralprinciplesitoften
consideredprinciplesthatdonotfindaparallelinmunicipallaws.Thus,forexample,intheCorfu
ChannelCasetheICJfoundthattheAlbanianauthoritieswereundertheobligationtonotifythe
existenceofaminefieldintheirterritorialwaters(TerritorialSea)andtowarntheapproachingships
oftheimminentdanger.TheICJsaid
Suchobligationsarebased…oncertaingeneralandwell-recognizedprinciples,namely:
elementaryconsiderationsofhumanity,evenmoreexactinginpeacethaninwar;the
principleofthefreedomofmaritimecommunication;andeveryState’sobligationnotto
allowknowinglyitsterritorytobeusedforactscontrarytotherightsofotherStates.(Corfu
ChannelCase22)
InitsadvisoryopiniononReservationstotheConventiononthePreventionandPunishmentof
theCrimeofGenocide(GenocideConvention,Reservations[AdvisoryOpinion];seealso
Genocide),theICJnotedthat‘theprinciplesunderlyingtheConventionareprincipleswhichare
recognizedbycivilizednationsasbindingonStates,evenwithoutanyconventionalobligation’
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(ibid23).Again,initsadvisoryopiniononWesternSaharatheICJstated‘theprincipleofselfdetermination,definedastheneedtopayregardtothefreelyexpressedwillofpeoples’(Western
Sahara[AdvisoryOpinion]para.59).;WesternSahara[AdvisoryOpinion];seealsoSelfDetermination).Asafurtherexample,theChamberjudgmentintheFrontierDisputeCase(Burkina
Faso/RepublicofMali)considered‘theprincipleofutipossidetisjuris’as‘afairlyestablished
principleofinternationallawwheredecolonizationisconcerned’andas‘ageneralprinciple,which
islogicallyconnectedwiththephenomenonoftheobtainingofindependence,whereveritoccurs’
para.20;UtipossidetisDoctrine).
18TherelativelyfrequentreferencebytheICJtoprinciplesthatarenotpartofmunicipallawsis
explained,atleastinpart,bythenarrowdefinitionofcustomaryinternationallawthatisprovidedin
Art.38(1)(b)ICJStatute.Shouldcustomberegarded,asstatedinthatprovision,as‘evidenceofa
generalpracticeacceptedaslaw’,giventheinsufficiencyofpractice,severalrulesofinternational
lawwhicharenotbasedontreatieswouldnotfitinthedefinitionofcustom.Hencethereferenceto
principlesorgeneralprinciples.Onlyincertaincasescouldtheseprinciplesappearasan
abstractionfromspecificnormsofcustomaryinternationallaw.Thiswouldbe,forexample,the
caseoftheprincipleofthefreedomofmaritimecommunication,whichisreferredtointhepassage
fromtheCorfuChannelCase(seepara.17above).
19Art.38(1)(c)ICJStatuterequiresageneralprincipleoflawtobe‘recognizedbycivilized
nations’.Whenagivenprincipleisonlypartofinternationallaw,recognitionofthatprinciplewould
reflecttheattitudethatistakeninitsregardbytheinternationalcommunity,andthusessentiallyby
States.Inotherwords,foraprincipletoexistitwouldbenecessarythatStatesacknowledge,albeit
implicitly,thatthisprincipleappliestotheirinternationalrelations.Thus,forinstance,intheFrontier
DisputeCase,whenassessingwhethertheprincipleofutipossidetisappliesininternationallaw,
theChambernotedthat
thenumeroussolemnaffirmationsoftheintangibilityofthefrontiersexistingatthetimeof
theindependenceofAfricanStates,whethermadebyseniorAfricanstatesmenorby
organsoftheOrganizationofAfricanUnityitself,areevidentlydeclaratoryratherthan
constitutive:theyrecognizeandconfirmanexistingprinciple,anddonotseekto
consecrateanewprincipleortheextensiontoAfricaofarulepreviouslyappliedonlyin
anothercontinent.(FrontierDisputeCasepara.24);seealsoAfricanUnion[AU]).
20TheassertionbytheICJofageneralprincipleoflaw,whetherornotitfindsaparallelin
municipalsystems,isonlyrarelyaccompaniedbyanadequatedemonstrationofitsexistencein
internationallaw.AsimilarremarkcouldbemadewithregardtotheascertainmentbytheICJof
internationalcustomaryrules.
E.TheRelationsbetweenGeneralPrinciplesandCustomaryor
TreatyRules
21Evenifgeneralprinciplesoflawareoftenvague,theymaycomplementtoacertainextent
otherrulesofinternationallawandthuscontributetofillingingaps(GeneralInternationalLaw
[Principles,RulesandStandards]).Principlesdonotnecessarilyhaveasubsidiarycharacter.Some
oftheprinciplesreferredtointheprecedingparagraphsclearlydonothavethatcharacter.Inany
event,theircharacterwouldnotdependonwhetherornottheyfindaparallelinmunicipal
systems.
22Onecannotassumethattreatyrulesalwaysprevailovergeneralprinciplesoflaw.Thiswould
normallybethecasewhenthetreatyandthegeneralprinciplecoverthesameground.However,a
generalprinciplecouldalsoaffectthewayinwhichacertaintreatyruleistobeapplied.Itcould
impingeontheapplicationofthetreatyruleinlimitedcircumstances.Inthatcaseitwouldbemore
appropriatetosaythattheprincipleprevails.
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23Thepositionofgeneralprinciplesoflawinthelistofsourcesofinternationallawcontainedin
Art.38(1)ICJStatuteisnotindicative.AsLordPhillimorepointedoutduringthepreparatoryworkof
thePCIJStatute,‘theordermentionedsimplyrepresentedthelogicalorderinwhichthesesources
wouldoccurtothemindofthejudge’(PermanentCourtofInternationalJustice:AdvisoryCommittee
ofJuristsProcès-verbauxoftheProceedingsoftheCommittee,June16th–July24th1920,with
Annexes333).
24Ageneralprincipleoflawmaybeembodiedinatreatyprovisionorbecomepartof
internationalcustomarylaw.Theoriginofatreatyorcustomaryruleinageneralprincipleoflaw
wouldnotbematerial.TheICJgaveanexampleofsuchanembodimentintheCaseofthe
MonetaryGoldremovedfromRomein1943whenitstatedthat‘toadjudicateuponthe
internationalresponsibilityofAlbaniawithoutherconsentwouldruncountertoawell-established
principleofinternationallawembodiedintheCourt’sStatute,namely,thattheCourtcanonly
exercisejurisdictionoveraStatewithitsconsent’(CaseoftheMonetaryGoldremovedfromRome
in1943[ItalyvFrance,UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandandUnitedStates
ofAmerica][PreliminaryQuestions]32;MonetaryGoldArbitrationandCase;seealso
InternationalCourtsandTribunals,JurisdictionandAdmissibilityofInter-StateApplications).
F.TheApplicationofGeneralPrinciplesofLawbyInternational
Tribunals
25Generalprinciplesareoftenappliedbyinternationaltribunalsirrespectiveofwhetherthereisa
specificreferenceintheirconstituentinstrument.Certaindecisionsrefer,liketheICJ,toprinciples
thatfindaparallelinmunicipalsystems.
26Thus,thearbitrationawardintheBoundaryDisputebetweenArgentinaandChileconcerning
theFrontierLinebetweenBoundaryPost62andMountFitzroystatedthat
Adecisionwiththeforceofresjudicataislegallybindingonthepartiestothedispute.This
isafundamentalprincipleofthelawofnationsrepeatedlyinvokedinthelegalprecedents,
withregard[to]theauthorityofresjudicataasauniversalandabsoluteprincipleof
internationallaw.(atpara.68)
Similarly,thearbitrationawardintheCaseconcerningtheLoanAgreementbetweenItalyand
CostaRicareferredtothefundamentalcharacteroftheprincipleofgoodfaithininternationallaw
andincludeditamongthegeneralprinciplesoflawrecognizedbycivilizednations(atpara.14).
27Whentherearedifferencesinthewayinwhichmunicipalsystemsaddressanissue,the
AppealChamberoftheInternationalCriminalTribunalfortheFormerYugoslavia(ICTY)notedinthe
TadićCasethat
nationallegislationandcaselawcannotberelieduponasasourceofinternational
principlesorrules,underthedoctrineofthegeneralprinciplesoflawrecognizedbythe
nationsoftheworld:forthisreliancetobepermissible,itwouldbenecessarytoshowthat
most,ifnotall,countriesadoptthesamenotion…Morespecifically,itwouldbenecessary
toshowthat,inthatcase,themajorlegalsystemsoftheworldtakethesameapproachto
thisnotion.(ProsecutorvTadić[OpinionandJudgment]para.225)
ThiscautiousattitudecorrespondstothatoftheICJ,butismoreexplicitlydefined.
28Otherinternationaltribunalshavehadlesshesitationinapplyinggeneralprinciplesoflaweven
inthepresenceofdiscrepanciesamongmunicipalsystems.Forinstance,inBPExploration
Company(Libya)LimitedvGovernmentoftheLibyanArabRepublic,thearbitratorwasrequired
tointerprettherelevantcontract
inaccordancewiththeprinciplesofthelawofLibyacommontotheprinciplesof
internationallawandintheabsenceofsuchcommonprinciplesthenbyandin
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accordancewiththegeneralprinciplesoflaw,includingsuchofthoseprinciplesasmay
havebeenappliedbyinternationaltribunals.(at303)
Thearbitratorfoundthatthecorporationwasentitledtocompensationbutnottorestitution,which
wouldhavebeenrequiredundercertainmunicipalsystems,because‘[a]ruleofreason…dictates
aresultwhichconformsbothtointernationallaw,asevidencedbyStatepracticeandthelawof
treaties,andtothegoverningprincipleofEnglishandAmericancontractlaw’(ibid354).seealso
CorporationsinInternationalLaw).
29InthefirstInternationalCentreforSettlementofInvestmentDisputes(ICSID)arbitrationawardin
AmcoAsiaCovRepublicofIndonesia(AmcovIndonesiaCase),thepanelfoundthat‘thefull
compensationofprejudice,byawardingtotheinjuredpartythedamnumemergensandthelucrum
cessansisaprinciplecommontothemainsystemsofmunicipallaw,andtherefore,ageneral
principleoflawwhichmaybeconsideredasasourceofinternationallaw’(AmcoAsiaCov
RepublicofIndonesia[Awardof20November1984]para.267).
30Thechoiceofwhatisconsideredthebetterlawundertheguiseoftheapplicationofprinciples
oflawisfrequentincommercialarbitration,wherethereferencetogeneralprinciplesprovidesan
apparentlyobjectivecriterion(seealsoCommercialArbitration,International).Asimilarapproachis
takenbytheEuropeanCourtofJustice,whichonlyrarelyreferstothepertinentrulesofmunicipal
lawsandattemptstofindagenuinelycommondenominator.
G.Assessment
31Whendeterminingtheapplicablelaw,referencestogeneralprinciplesoflawundoubtedly
provideinternationalcourtsandtribunalswithdiscretion.Onlyrarelycouldonesaythatacertain
principlemaybeinferredfrommorespecificrulesofinternationallaw.Whilethedistinctionbetween
principlesandruleshasnotbeenelaboratedinjudicialorarbitraldecisions,theuseoftheterm
principlesdenotesthegeneralnatureofthenorminquestion.
32TheICJgenerallyassertedtheexistenceofprinciplesininternationallawirrespectiveoftheir
correspondencetoprinciplespertainingtomunicipallaws.TheICJthusincludedingeneral
internationallawnormsthatcouldnotbedefinedaspartofcustomarylaw.Principlesdrawnfrom
municipallawswereappliedonlywithcautionbytheICJ.Onthecontrary,arbitrationtribunalshave
shownlittlehesitationinreferringtomunicipalsystemsevenwhentheyarguablyofferavarietyof
solutionsandtheadoptionofoneortheothersolutionnecessarilyimpliesaconsiderable
discretion.
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Peace Palace Library; date: 12 August 2014
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