Morality and Social Structure in the Icelandic Sagas
Author(s): Vilhjálmur Árnason
Source: The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Vol. 90, No. 2 (Apr., 1991), pp. 157174
Published by: University of Illinois Press
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Morality
and
Social
Structure
in the Icelandic Sagas*
Vilhj?lmur Arnason,
University
of Iceland
The
Icelandic
conflicts between
the rea
individuals,
sagas describe
sons for the disputes,
and the process of their resolution. As a rule the
as a series of
narrative proceeds
killings with its action structured
by
to
exact
the duty
inflicted on oneself,
revenge for death or for offense
a friend, or a family member.
This pattern
is shot through with ethi
cal threads because fundamental
values and interests are at stake for
both individuals
and the community.
The morality
of the sagas has, I
interested
the general
reader but it has not been a
believe,
always
for saga scholars.1 The
theoretical
ap
major
subject of investigation
that
have
taken up most of the writings on saga
proaches
traditionally
can be divided
into two major
Her
morality
categories.
Following
mann P?lsson,
I shall call them the romantic and the humanistic inter
In this paper I first argue that the two traditional
inter
pretations.2
of
the
of
the
pretations
provide
inadequate
understanding
morality
not
a
do
because
its
social
roots.31
then
consider
sagas
they
recognize
more
of
and
show
third,
saga morality
sociological interpretation
why
this recent approach
leads to a richer understanding
of the matter,
it is not without
of its own.
problems
although
i
The romantic view is the older of the two traditional
It
approaches.
in some form by the majority
has been followed
of past saga scholars
*
Earlier versions
of this paper were delivered
in Salt Lake City at the meeting
of the
of Scandinavian
Can
Society for the Advancement
1989, and in Victoria,
Study in May
of the Richard
Beck Society
and the Vancouver
Medieval
ada, at the invitation
Sym
in June
and Helga
Kress at the
1989. I thank my friends ?str?Our
posium
Eysteinsson
at the
of Iceland, V?steinn
Olason
of Oslo,
and Janet Rasmussen
University
University
at Pacific Lutheran
comments
for helpful
and criticism.
University
11 talk about morality rather than the ethics of the sagas, because
there is an
although
structure
of norms
and rules of conduct
in the sagas (morality),
there
is no
implicit
ethical analysis or theory
in the text.
(ethics) presented
2
Hermann
? A?alboli,"
P?lsson,
Sk?rnir, 144 (1970), 31.
"Heitstrenging
go?ans
3
Some of the ideas in this paper were presented
in an article I wrote
in 1984 entitled
um t?lkun ? si?frae?i
T?marit Mais
"Saga og si?fer?i: Huglei?ingar
og
Islendingasagna,"
menningar,
46
(1985),
21-37.
of English
and Germanic
Journal
? 1991 by the Board of Trustees
Philology?April
of the University
of Illinois
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Vilhj?lmur Arnason
158
about the sagas.
still to prevail in the public consciousness
as
to
this
the
Icelandic
sagas are regarded
interpretation,
According
stories of individual heroes whose values and virtues are of Nordic
from Christian
different
heathen
ideals. The
fundamentally
origin,
terms
in
of
the
is
of
sagas
analyzed primarily
morality
personal
quali
ties and attitudes. The physical and moral
indi
strength that enabled
is the main criterion by which
viduals to fulfill their duty of vengeance
and
seems
their
are
characters
measured.
view
This
was
popular
non
among
in the early decades
of this century, when writers
Icelandic
scholars
such as Walter Gehl and Vilhelm Gr0nbech
the relation
emphasized
between
and
heathen
ideas.4
Several
Icelandic
saga
ship
morality
scholars hold similar views on saga morality without
their
grounding
a
as
in
heathen
Olafur
for
Briem,
strictly
analyses
example,
religion.
echoes the romantic view of the sagas when he states that the sense of
honor and pride is the pivot of most Icelandic sagas. He observes
that
sense of honor was hurt
almost all disputes
started when somebody's
and he or his family had to make up for it. In the sagas, Olafur Briem
honor was worthless,
and the only thing of a
argues, a life without
value
lasting
was
an
honorable
reputation.5
to the romantic view, the Icelandic word drengskapur (no
According
of the heroic character.
signifies best the excellence
bility/manliness)
is
from
the
word
derived
Drengur
(young man)
drangur, which means
an erect rock. Drengskapur
is the sort of moral
substance which you
can
rely
on
in a person,
man
and
woman
whatever
alike,
the
circum
in all their dealings.
and honest
stances; they are upright
SigurSur
to drengskapur
Nordal pointed out that the closest term of equivalence
is goodness-based-on-strength
is contrasted
with
(m?ttargcedi). This
which
is
de
the
(hr dslug d?),
goodness-based-on-fear
exemplified
by
on
is
kind
of
whose
and
person
spicable
"goodness"
only skin-deep
whom
mantic
one
point
can
never
rely.6
of view would
A
good
example
be G?sli Sursson
of
a hero
as described
from
the
in Gisla
ro
saga
4
Walter
l?ndischen
Studien zum Lebensgef?hl
der is
Gehl, Ruhm und Ehre bei den Nordgermanen:
ti
und D?nnhaupt,
Gr0nbech,
1937); Vilhelm
Saga (Berlin: Junker
Vorfolke
V. Pio, 1909-12).
oldtiden, i-iv (Copenhagen:
5
er burOar?sinn
? flestum
Naer aliar deilur
s?gum.
islendinga
"S?matilfinningin
sem aett e?a
risu af saer?ri s?matilfinningu,
hlaut a? reyna a? r?tta vi?.
einstaklingur
var ? raun og veru hi? eina, sem
An saemdar var lifi? einskis
vir?i, og or?stirinn
gaf
Almenna
(Olafur Briem,
s?gur og n?t?minn
Islendinga
[Reykjavik:
gildi"
1972], pp. 32-33).
1
Islenzk menning,
Nordal,
1942), p. 195. The
(Reykjavik:
Heimskringla,
6Sigur?ur
master
and slave is obvious;
cf. his Jenseits von Gut und
pair of
kinship with Nietzsches
B?se (Leipzig: CG.
der Moral;
eine Streit
Naumann,
1886), ?260, and Zur Genealogie
notion of the "great-souled
1887), first essay. Aristotle's
schrift (Leipzig: C. G. Naumann,
to mind.
man"
in the Ethica Nicomachea
(1169a) also comes
(megalopsychia)
\)vi varanlegt
bokafelagi?,
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Morality
and
Social
Structure
in
Sagas
159
S?rssonar.1 Gisli was a great man, who in his killings was fulfilling his
and defending
his family honor. Gisli does
duty to his fosterbrother
what a man must do even if itmeans killing his sister's husband, who is
also his brother's best friend and the family's chieftain,
that is, their
are
not
The
"romantics"
that
this
is "a good
political mainstay.
saying
to
to
it
On
the
is
do."
understand
that the
contrary,
important
thing
is tragic because
heroic
situation
there is no good solution
and the
hero will lose his life because he will never give up his honor. More
evaluate morality
in terms of individual
char
over, the "romantics"
or
acter traits rather than classes of actions
that are deemed
right
wrong.
The
position
humanistic
to
the
view of saga morality
Hermann
"romantics."
is best understood
P?lsson,
the
major
by its op
spokesman
for the humanists,
in several books and articles that the
has argued
of saga morality
if not positively
romantic conception
is misleading
wrong.8
He
invites
us
to
concentrate
on
the
moral
ideas
of
the
text
of individuals.9
If we do so we will see, he
rather than the qualities
are
to
as Christian
be understood
lessons about
argues, that the sagas
the well-deserved
defeat of those who show excessive
pride and ar
in order to glorify the so-called
rogance. The sagas were not written
to
in the spirit
pagan heroes but rather
preach peace and moderation
to
of medieval
Christianity.
They have the conscious moral objective
teach people what to aim for and what to avoid in their own lives. The
in the romantic view is the vehicle of the
which
duty of vengeance,
a cruel
from
heroic
becomes
the humanistic
virtues,
perspective
From this humanistic
is far from honorable.
criminal act which
view
a
Gisli
Sursson
is
cold-blooded
who
criminal
murders
his
point
and therefore justly deserves his defeat.10
brother-in-law
On the surface, at least, these are diametrically
opposed
interpreta
to
in the Icelandic
tions of morality
it is possible
sagas. Nevertheless,
to
out
are
two
not
reconcile
the
that
inter
try
they simply
by pointing
the same thing. While
the "romantics"
focus on the moral
preting
7"G?sla saga S?rssonar,"
?slend
s?gur, v, ed. Gu?ni
Islendinga
J?nsson
(Reykjavik:
trans.
In English:
The Saga of G?sli the Outlaw,
1946), pp. 1-100.
ingasagna?tg?fan,
notes
with
and
introduction
Foote
Univ.
of
(Toronto:
Johnston
by Peter
George
Toronto
Press,
1963).
8
Hermann
P?lsson,
See, for example,
Si?fr diHrafnkels
s?gu (Reykjavik: Heimskrin
Art and Ethics inHrafnkels
Munks
version,
saga (Copenhagen:
gla, 1966); in its English
Ethics," Medieval
Scandinavia,
7 (1974),
1971); "Icelandic
gaard,
Sagas and Medieval
and Ur hugmyndaheimi Hrafnkelssogu
Isl?ndica,
og Grettlu, Studia
39 (Reykjavik:
61-75;
1981).
Menningarsj?Our,
9
Ur hugmyndaheimi Hrafnkelssogu
Hermann
P?lsson,
10
Hermann
"Icelandic
P?lsson,
Sagas and Medieval
og Grettlu, p. 15.
Ethics," pp. 64-65.
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Vilhj?lmur Arnason
16o
as it appears
in the deeds of the characters,
the
reality of the sagas
are trying to unfold
humanists
the ethical
intention
of the author.
From the romantic point of view, the sagas preserve heathen
ideals by
ethos
of
In
the
historical
the
Icelandic
Free
State.
the hu
describing
text
manistic
the
loaded
with
is
normative
about
judgments
reading
of this time from the viewpoint
the morality
of a Christian
author,
in medieval
well versed
ethics.11 It has been argued
that the major
source of the differences
between
these traditional
lies
interpretations
turn a blind eye to
in their stubborn one-sidedness.
The "romantics"
in the sagas whereas
influences
the humanists
Christianize
to
in
and
view
the
in
of
evidence
sagas
peaceful
"positive"
spite
Christian
every
the
The
contrary.12
manists
then
could
influences
abound
in
the
the differences
Reconciling
manner,
between
opposition
then be reconciled
however,
is not
a
the
how Christian
by showing
various
between
satisfactory
sagas
to what
and
these
solution
and
"romantics"
the
hu
extent.13
two viewpoints
to
the
and hea
question
in this
of mo
the issue by concealing
and shar
rality in the sagas. It oversimplifies
common
presuppositions of these inter
ing the basic problems and the
remains because the focus is still on the
pretations. The basic problem
relative influence of heathendom
and Christendom
upon the moral
has dominated
the research of tradi
ity of the sagas. This question
tional scholars of saga morality
and they have been strikingly unaware
that this Problemstellung
of the influences
has had upon their inter
of both the romantic and the humanistic
Representatives
pretations.
of the sagas can be unfolded
view seem to believe that the morality
by
11
in the thirteenth
Most of the sagas were probably
written
has been
century. There
scholars
the authenticity
debate
about
of the sagas and on that topic
among
major
into two main
schools: The
holds
theories
have been divided
theory which
free-prose
that the sagas are true accounts
of historical
and the book-prose
events,
theory which
of individual
teaches
the creation
authors. There
is no strict
that the sagas are fiction,
one of these views on the historical
of the
between
holding
authenticity
relationship
one of the moral
In recent decades
sagas and maintaining
saga scholars
interpretations.
to take a middle
route between
these two theories,
have
the sagas as
tended
seeing
a
in historical
creative
narratives
rooted
authors whose
events, but recorded
by individual
is also of major
contribution
importance.
"Hrafnkatla:
e?a samf?lagsskipan,"
12See, for example,
Jon Sigur?sson,
Sinnaskipti
Timarit Mais
and Bjarni Gu?nason,
"I>ankar urn si?
og menningar,
36 (1975), 357-63,
frae?i Islendingasagna,"
Sk?rnir, 139 (1965), 65-82.
13
A good example
is M. C. Van den Toorn's
in
of such an attempt
Ethics and Moral
& Co.,
that
Icelandic Saga Literature
(Assen: Van Gorcum
argues
1955). Van den Toorn
to whether
a Nordic
heroic
into three categories
the sagas can be divided
according
moral wisdom
of H?vam?l
is the ruling moral
ethic, a Christian
ethic, or the common
the
view. For a criticism of this view and an analysis of saga morality
which
goes beyond
see Theodore
M. Andersson,
"The Displace
heathendom/Christendom
dichotomy,
ment
of the Heroic
Ideal in the Family Sagas," Speculum, 45 (1970), 575-93.
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Morality
and
Social
Structure
in
161
Sagas
a presuppositionless
P?lsson
clearly
reading of the text. Hermann
when he maintains
that what is
states this hermeneutical
neutrality
and then discuss its ideas with
is to read the story thoroughly
needed
on letting the story speak for itself can
out prejudice.14 This emphasis
idea of attentiveness
and fairness to the text,
be an important guiding
a
to
naive and dogmatic
claim to a correct meaning
but it can also lead
to
of the ideas that the interpreter
which is
be grasped
independently
are nets:
In Novalis's words,
into the research.
"hypotheses
brings
no
casts
There
is
free
from
will catch."15
presup
reading
only he who
about the subject matter.
and prejudgments
Interpretation
positions
is a process
of
interplay
between
questions
and
answers.
The
mean
are disclosed
hypoth
only in terms of the theoretical
ings of the text
to re
to which
eses that formulate
the text is bound
the questions
us nothing.
which
it
would
tell
without
and
spond
In spite of substantial differences
the "romantics" and the human
is the most
issue of which question
ists have agreed upon the decisive
are
to
to
of the
unravel
the
ask
when
morality
they
trying
important
in
dis
is
their
substantial
hermeneutic
This
sagas.
agreement
implied
of
debate
is
whether
the
ethics
behind
The
issue
agreement.
major
or Christian;
the common
is that the
the sagas is heathen
agreement
answer to this question provides
the key to understanding
saga moral
common
to
and
this
It
of
is
prejudice
major
importance
ity.
recognize
see
and
of
these
to
the
effect
its
upon
quality
variety
interpreta
try
in investigations
of the mat
of this question
tions. The predominance
ter has not only seriously narrowed
their scope but has also been re
to
of
such lines of investigation
for
the
limited
ability
sponsible
out
to
a
account
In
of
order
flesh
theoretical
saga morality.
provide
I will try to show how this question
has led to an im
this accusation
poverished
manists
and
notion
of morality,
"romantics"
are
which
attempting
is, after
all, the issue both
hu
to understand.
11
or
of the sagas is heathen
the morality
a
be
that
is
there
close
Christian,
relationship
they tacitly presume
In effect they see morality
tween morality
and religious beliefs.
pri
are a part of a system of
marily as a set of beliefs and ideals which
When
researchers
ask whether
14
Hermann
P?lsson,
s?gu, p. 23.
Si?fr ?i Hrafnkels
15
of his book
the motto
this phrase
Karl Popper makes
Torchbooks,
(New York: Harper
1965).
The Logic
of Scientific Discovery
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Vilhj?lmur Amason
16 2
is to inquire into the moral
them, therefore,
religion. The task before
and/or medieval
and at
ideas of Old Norse mythology
Christianity
to
in
of
the
words
and
deeds
characters
the
understand
saga
tempt
re
task and it has provided
is a worthwhile
their light. This
many
into the sagas. Sometimes
markable
analyses of the ethical/
insights
to
clues
the
of authorship
ideas
answering
question
provide
religious
of great interest to many
of individual
saga
sagas, a topic traditionally
scholars.
Indeed,
romantic
and
humanistic
attempts
to
understand
are often closely linked with arguments
about what the
saga morality
the glory
authors intended with their sagas. Was the author displaying
lived
of the past, portraying
the great heroes of the Free State who
to heathen
both king and
ideals and thrived without
according
was the author attempting
to persuade
his
Christ? Or, alternatively,
of the Christian
virtues by showing
readers of the moral
advantage
the defeat of arrogant and cruel characters?
to these questions may sometimes
Even though
the answers
point
of the story, they do not tell us much
toward the moral
about the
of the sagas. When
interpreters
praise or blame saga charac
morality
ters in light of a system of moral beliefs,
their judgments
often stand
structure of the text. My sug
in the way of understanding
the moral
of the sagas
is that instead of trying to see the morality
gestion
we
to
it in
the
of
need
understand
spectacles
religious beliefs,
through
to sub
terms of the social structure depicted
in the sagas. In order
the
stantiate this claim two things in particular need to be considered:
nature of the saga texts and the nature of morality.
It is a common
to attempt
to unearth
and the humanists
failure of the "romantics"
the moral meaning
of their individual
The text has depth
the
conscious
intention
of the sagas merely
through the words and deeds
and/or
the intention of their authors.
characters
of meanings
that go far beyond
and dimensions
of
their
authors,
and
the
characters
are
merely
one
in light of
thread in the web of the text and need to be interpreted
is imbued with the cul
its context as a whole. This linguistic context
tural significations
of the society where the text is created and must be
discerned
in terms of them.
It remains a question,
how radically the influence of the
however,
out
It has often been pointed
in this matter.
author can be ignored
in that for the most part it lets the
is objective
that the saga narrative
the
in words and deeds. Nevertheless,
speak for themselves
one
has
of
character
of
the
narrative
ways
sagas
objective
favoring
manner.
in a disapproving
the au
while showing
another
Besides,
to
text
which
the
the
thors presumably
structuring
principles
provide
characters
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and
Morality
sometimes
exempla.16 To
may
the
text.
Structure
in Sagas
163
in the spirit of medieval
imply some sort of moralizing
are woven
this extent, ethical views or judgments
into
even
But
Social
when
that
is the
case,
the
actions
of
the
saga
charac
ters still need
to be explained
in terms of the cultural norms
and
in the Icelandic Free State.
that were operating
sociomoral principles
the authors could have arranged
the events of the sagas in a
Although
reflects their ethical/religious
way which
they could not
viewpoints,
have created
the sociomoral
reality that is always there in the back
if we are to explain the duties, virtues, and moral
ground. Therefore,
at work in the sagas, they need to be understood
principles
against the
social context of medieval
the moral
Iceland,
reality that nourished
both
the
saga
characters
and
the
saga
writers.
can be
at this
of morality
helpful
between Moralit?t, which refers to the con
point. Hegel distinguishes
scientious moral beliefs of the individual who is typically critical of the
social norms,
and Sittlichkeit, the objective
ethical order
that is the
structure of rules, obligations,
and normative
principles which people
internalize by living in a particular ethical community.17 This objective
in terms of the moral
ethical substance needs to be analyzed
institu
as the family, social organizations,
tions of the society?such
and the
not the subjective moral vision of individuals. The
indi
state?and
to these moral
viduals belong
which
their
them
institutions,
assign
roles and identity. Hegel
teaches that in traditional
societies the bonds
of Sittlichkeit, or customary
ethical
than in
life, are much
stronger
autonomous
modern
societies where
the idea of the morally
individ
In a closed, traditional
ual becomes predominant.
society the individ
ual is preoccupied
with acting out his or her customary
role and re
flective ethical questions
do not even arise. A wavering Hamlet would
be impossible
in such a society.18 Typically
saga characters accept what
to
have
do
and
do
it
without
moral
reflection.
This does not
they
mean
that individual qualities are not important, but it is the unreflec
A distinction
tive character
cultural
between
two senses
of the virtues,
circumstances,
that
shaped
matters
by particular
rather
than
social practices
the
ideas
of
and
consci
16
see Theodore
M. Andersson,
of such arguments,
For recent examples
"Ethics and
in Hrafnkels
60
Politics
and Davi?
Studies,
293-309,
(1988),
saga," Scandinavian
T?marit H?sk?lans,
3 (1988),
og skilningsstyri,"
"H?f?ingsskaparspegill
Erlingsson,
19-41
der Philosophie
des Rechts (Berlin: Nicolaische
Grundlinien
Buchhand
17Georg Hegel,
of Hegel
Charles
see, for example,
1821). For an interpretation
lung,
Taylor,
Hegel
Press,
1975).
(Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
18
a
came
I
This
discussion
had with
the Canadian
writer William
Val
up in
point
in Victoria.
gardson
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Vilhj?lmur Arnason
164
This
individuals.
social
deep-rooted
practice
entious
the
heroic
character
of
the
reflection
lack of moral
and moral norms which
is indicative
of a
are constitutive
of
sagas.
in
It seems to me that the type of morality we need to understand
the Icelandic
sagas is one of Sittlichkeit, objective ethical order, rather
that the ethical
than subjective moral beliefs. By this I do not mean
moral
substance
order of the Icelandic Free State was a homogenous
which bred only one type of values and moral characters. To the con
trary, I will argue that the saga Sittlichkeit is characterized
by an aporia
a
essence
in the sagas.
conflict which
is of the
that creates
sociomoral
At this point I only want to emphasize
that every individual
quality,
or of
that of the saga characters
whether
value, or ethical judgment,
the
ethical substance
the saga authors,
is dependent
upon
objective
in the sagas. The romantic and humanistic
portrayed
interpretations
are both attempts
to deal with the subject matter
of saga morality
without
the social duties and
substance,
tracing its roots to this moral
to the Free State. Instead, either
rules of conduct
that were peculiar
which is not
superstructure
they look to an imaginary ethical/religious
to be found in the sagas or they see morality merely
in terms of indi
as if the sagas could be under
vidual moral qualities and sentiments,
to the social network of which they are a part.
stood without
reference
and religious presumptions
of both the romantic
individualistic
for the inability of these
views are responsible
and the humanistic
fail to come to grips with the
schools to explain
saga morality. They
of ancient
and
social
institutions
Iceland;
they
existing
nonexisting
and
cultural
which are
the
sociomoral
substance
significations
ignore
the soil of the peculiar ethos of saga society.
The
in
moral
Alasdair Maclntyre
has argued
philosopher
along He
lines that in so-called heroic
which he in
gelian
societies?among
in the Icelandic
and
cludes
the society described
sagas?morality
one
same. There
are
structure
and
the
is no morality
social
distinct
to do is implied in what
from social roles because what one is obliged
one is: "For the given rules which assign men their place in the social
order and with it their identity also prescribe what they owe and what
if they
is owed to them and how they are to be treated and regarded
fail and how they are to treat and regard others if those others fail."19
The
19Alasdair Macintyre,
After Virtue:
Notre Dame
Press,
1981), p. 116.
A Study
inMoral
Theory
(South
Bend:
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Univ.
of
Morality
and
Social
Structure
in
Sagas
165
In this passage, Macintyre
uses the verb to "owe" in
appropriately
relation to the moral obligation
that is dominant
in what he calls he
roic societies.
In Icelandic
the verb is skulda, from which
the words
are
and
the
former
"blood-related"
derived,
skyldur
skylda
meaning
and the latter meaning
As in English
it also
"duty" or "obligation."
we
to
to
we
are
the
have
toward
those
whom
in
points
obligations
in
debted
some
way
or
other.
Ties between
individuals
still imply moral duties, even in societies
where various social institutions and agencies are specifically
designed
to protect the rights and welfare of the citizens. In a
society which had
no such official
the obligations
institutions,
implicit in the ties that
to family, friends, and alliances were not
bound
the individual
only
from a sociomoral
important
point of view; they were also of vital
because
individuals
could rely only on other individuals
importance,
if their lives were threatened.
The single most
factor that
important
accounts
for the specific features of the morality
of the sagas is the
in the Icelandic Free State of most social institutions
absence
that are
as
to
in
order
maintain
law and
necessary
today generally
perceived
order.
dures
tions
rather
sions
are intricate
It had its laws?there
of legal proce
descriptions
in the sagas?but
it had no executive
power or public institu
to
enforce
court
than an exercise
was
to
reinstate
decisions,
which
of justice. The
order
and
secure
were
primary
peace,
"stylized
objective
which
vengeance,"20
of court deci
meant
that
the
more
party to the case was likely to receive the lion's share.21
powerful
One of the most interesting and important questions
in this context
to function without
is how the Icelandic Free State managed
central
account of
A fruitful
law enforcement
and institutions.
authorities
this is to be found in Jesse Byock's Feud in the Icelandic Saga.22 Byock
how an original system of
argues that the Icelandic sagas demonstrate
as a
and
functioned
conflict-solving
decision-making
governmental
as
a
He
of
describes
this
process.
"system
advocacy" which structured
feuds in the Free State and brought
them to a resolution.
Thus
feud
a
was
in Icelandic
because
the
sys
society
socially stabilizing process
20
Andreas
Das Strafrecht der Isl?ndersagas
und Humblot,
Heusler,
(Leipzig: Duneker
1911), p. 103.
21
"Fr? [)jo?veldi
Gunnar
til konungsr?kis,"
in Sigur?ur
Lindal
Karlsson,
(ed.), Saga
?slenzka b?kmenntaf?lag,
Islands, 2 (Reykjavik: Hi?
1975), p. 31.
22References
to Jesse Byock, Feud in the Icelandic
and Los Angeles:
Saga (Berkeley
Univ.
new
of California
in parentheses
within
the text. Byock's
Press,
1982) appear
book Medieval
Iceland: Society, Sagas and Power
and Los Angeles:
of
Univ.
(Berkeley
California
in this respect,
but the argument
in Feud
Press,
1988) is also of interest
to the subject at issue. See also his paper
"Valdatafl og vinfengi,"
pertains more
directly
162 (1988),
Skirnir,
127-37.
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i66
Vilhj?lmur Arnason
tern of advocacy directed disputes
into socially accepted
and
channels
to
from
the
them
where
the
social
fabric
prevented
point
escalating
would be ruptured. Clearly this was in everybody's
interest, but it also
served the special interests of those powerful men, usually the chief
on behalf of the
tains (godar), who acted as intermediaries
fighting
farmers: "The intrusion of advocates
turned private feuds into com
. . .The
concerns.
munity
system
of
worked
advocacy
to
keep
a lid on
while at the same time giving ambitious men
the
violence,
to
what power and influence
prosper by brokering
opportunity
they
were able to acquire"
(pp. 37-38).
This
is a very brief statement
of Byock's central thesis and I will
have to assume general acquaintance
with his work. What
interests me
here are the implications
for
this perspective
has
the whole discussion
to the humanistic
of morality
in the sagas. Compared
and the roman
a
seems
to
tic viewpoints,
have
different
understand
Byock
radically
is most
in Byock's ac
ing of saga morality. What
striking, perhaps,
count is the absolute displacement
of individual heroism
in the sagas:
as a form of
"In saga literature brokerage
is characterized
worldly
societal interchange
rather than as the heroic actions of an individual"
some of the most cherished
heroes of the sagas, like
(p. 42). Besides,
Gisli S?rsson, Gunnar
of HliSarendi
in Nj?ls saga, and Grettir As
as socially inept individu
in Grettis saga are characterized
mundarson
als who do not know how to employ the socially accepted and available
are unable to honor
tools.23 They appear to be misplaced
vikings who
random
the
norms
of
an
agrarian
society
where
peace
and
order
are
vital.
a
"the tradi
Gisli, for example, makes
by following
deadly mistake
tional Norse code of family honor which was no longer appropriate
to
the settled conditions
of Icelandic society" (p. 193).
It is instructive
in this regard to compare Byock's view of saga mo
with
that
of
humanists
and the "romantics." Byock sides with
the
rality
the "romantics"
in seeing Gisli Sursson's intent as honorable,
but he is
closer to the humanists
in judging Gisli's attempt to uphold
the family
honor as socially threatening.
condemn Gisli's
Byock does not morally
actions in light of medieval
ethics but rather points to his "failure to
and attributes his tragedy to "an exaggerated
social
gain brokerage"
s?gur, xi, ed. GuSni J?nsson
(Reykjavik:
23"Nj?ls saga," Islendinga
?slendingasagna
In English:
and
saga, trans. Carl F. Bayerschmidt
1947), pp. 1-434.
Nj?ls
?tg?fan,
New
Lee M. Hollander
York:
York
Univ.
"Grettis
Press,
(New
1955).
saga ?smundar
sonar,"
J?nsson
s?gur, vi, ed. Gu?ni
(Reykjavik:
Islendinga
?slendingasagna?tg?fan,
ln
Grettir's Saga, trans. Dent?n
Fox and Hermann
P?lsson
1946), pp. 1-295.
English:
Univ. of Toronto
Press,
(Toronto:
1974).
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and
Morality
Social
Structure
in
Sagas
167
flaw," namely, his "idealized honor" (p. 193). This makes sense in light
of Byock's analysis of social interchange
in the sagas where the central
moral virtue is that of h?f or moderation.
The essence of h?f accord
is moderation
in seeking personal
"A man of
power.
ing to Byock,
to curb his ambitions. H?f was more
power," he writes, "was expected
than an ethical judgment;
it specified
the kind of conduct
looked for
in those who held power" (p. 218). The opposite of h?f, and hence the
most serious social vice of saga characters,
or
is ?jafnadur, immoderate
conduct
which
An
threatened
the social balance.
overbearing
to Byock,
is "[a] man who
the
?jafnadarmadur,
according
ignored
or who
terms of his contractual
agreements,
aggressively
imposed his
will on those around him. . . .He consistently
the norms of
flouted
moderation
and compromise
in social, legal, and financial dealings.
His conduct, marked
by greed and ambition, went beyond acceptable
limits" (pp. 217-18).
There
is certainly nothing new in seeing the pair h?f and ojafna?ur
as important
to saga morality. The novelty of Byock's
analysis lies in
his social grounding
of these phenomena
the
system of ad
through
and
which
distributed
vocacy
brokerage
political power and main
tained social order. In these original
ideas lie both the strengths
and
the weaknesses
of Byock's position. The main strengths of his theory
to other
become apparent when it is compared
of saga
interpretations
Instead
of
individuals
from
their
social
condi
morality.
abstracting
a careful analysis of these conditions
in order
tions, Byock undertakes
to make
sense out of people's actions, thus
some
giving saga morality
social rationale. By analyzing
the social systems and life-processes
that
channel
and condition
individual
in the sagas, Byock
actions
has
in
the
social
which
fruitful
of
every
plowed
saga
ground
investigation
needs to be rooted.
morality
IV
main problem
that I have
to explain
is
its
sagas
tendency
tion of social processes.
Again,
limitations of every theoretical
catch it receives. Admittedly,
in order to understand
employs
in the sagas is intended more
The
ever,
moral
ifMaclntyre's
structure
observation
is correct,
this
on the
this structural perspective
a
to
and
reduce
it
func
away
morality
we must
in
mind
the
inherent
keep
the nets it casts and the
perspective,
the theoretical
framework
that Byock
the actions of farmers and chieftains
as a social than a moral
analysis. How
about the virtual identity of social and
with
may
be
a moot
point.
In
any
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event,
168
Vilhj?lmur Arnason
for a better understanding
of
Byock's theory has major
implications
even though it neglects
of
moral
the
saga morality,
aspects
important
it does not account for the con
dimension
of the sagas. In particular
the unconditional
of personal honor
flict that exists between
morality
val
and the social need for peace which promotes more conciliatory
ues. Byock's analysis thus eschews an aporia which is at the core of the
objective ethical order of the Icelandic saga society.
norms of conduct
in the Icelandic
Byock's account of the ruling
the element of moral virtue and em
Free State severely downplays
in its place the social and political role of hof (moderation),
phasizes
From this perspec
and g?Ogirni (benevolence).
vinfengi (friendship),
is the way it was used to
tive, the most
important aspect of friendship
gain power by forming political alliances. Like the value of modera
in terms of social expediency
is explained
tion, friendship
primarily
ar
and benevolence
is publicly displayed
and personal
prudence,
by
conflicts
and arranging
for their resolutions.
bitrators mediating
are important
social values and I am not saying that they are
These
to moral virtue, but rather that the latter implies goodness
antithetical
as a mere
is never fully captured
and strength of character which
of those powerful
function
of social processes.
Byock's description
men who best exemplifed
h?f, vinfengi, and g?ogirnd shows that these
were above all shrewd brokers and politicians:
are ac
"Such persons
as
Heinrich
social
heroes with 'clear in
Beck]
[by
curately described
with
social
rules'
and
'the
wealth,
reputations,
sight into the existing
a balance,
to guarantee
like ?l?fr
and authority
p?i,' or as bargainers
aware of 'all the shrewd ways of handling
social affairs,
like Snorri
use
In
the
skillful
of
GoSi'"
power and of
Byock's view,
(pp. 90-91).
tools
the
successful
from the
available
socially
distinguishes
socially
losers. They know the rules of the game and they know how to exploit
fares better in Byock's account
than
them. Even M?r?ur Valgar?sson
uses
of
the
tools
his
Gisli Sursson because M?r?ur
"skillfully
political
own advantage"
to
his
(p. 200).
society
It is clear from this that Byock applies a purely strategic or political
measure
in saga society. In the sagas, how
of success to individuals
a moral one where
success
of
is
also
the individual
the
criterion
ever,
and the social norm of reputation
virtue of manliness
play major
roles. Moral virtue, as Aristotle
out, is a state of character
pointed
in such a way that the virtuous deed be
which has been habituated
comes
place
This
like a natural disposition.24
takes
shaping of character
in a social context of praise and blame which
is conditioned
by
24
Aristotle,
Ethica Nicomachea,
Book
II.
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and
Morality
Social
Structure
in Sagas
169
but its result is an individual who
and expediency,
social usefulness
a second nature of virtuous
has acquired
As Nietzsche
dispositions.
has
one
noted,
man
merely
prudential
esse and
ence between
man
dential
uses
virtues
a
between
difference
man
virtuous
morally
and
a
is that in the virtuous man there is no differ
operari.25 He is all in his actions, while the pru
more
as
social
tools
to succeed
or
as
cloaks
to
cover
It may not be realistic to apply this dis
up his real intentions.
tinction to the social reality of the Icelandic Free State, but it makes
perfect sense in the context of the sagas. Perhaps this is one indication
of
of the literary and ideological
character of the sagas. The morality
heroic manliness,
integrity, and honor may then have to be dealt with
not only as virtues bred in a particular
social form of life but also as an
Icelandic nation which was losing
idealized myth of the crisis-ridden
in the thirteenth
its independence
century.26
this ideological
aspect of the heroic morality must not be
Although
it must not be blown out of proportion
either. Halld?r
overlooked,
in the
has argued
that the heroes described
for example,
Laxness,
is an elevated
sagas are purely literary figures and the heroic morality
nation.27 This is certainly true insofar as the
dream of a downgraded
are
heroes
endowed with superhuman
physical qualities, but there is
no reason to see the morality
as a mere
of nobility
and manliness
context
it
in
is
the
of the sagas.
literary fiction although
glorified
as in Fostbr Srasaga, the heroic character
is ridiculed,
but
Sometimes,
the notion of heroic morality
vir
that does not destroy
The
either.28
tues
that
constitute
the
substance
of
drengskapur,
manliness,
courage,
in human relationships,
and integrity, are always important
but they
are exercised
in
different
times
and
differently
places. Friendship
could be much more
costly in the Icelandic Free State than it is in
modern
Iceland and that is why true friendship
takes on a heroic
in
character. Friendship
times
of need, a test
always implies reliability
of a friend's character, but it is the situation which decides
the nature
of the test. And the force of circumstances
in the Free State was cer
to heroic friendship
in a real rather than an ideologi
tainly conducive
cal
sense
of
the
term.
25
zur Macht:
Der Wille
Friedrich
Versuch
einer Um
for example,
Nietzsche,
See,
Werke (Leipzig: C. G. Naumann,
1901), ?304.
werthung aller Werthe. Nachgelassene
26
in his paper
for this interpretation
V?steinn
"The Ideology
of the
?lason
argued
of
in the Icelandic
I>aettir" (annual meeting,
for the Advancement
Free Man
Society
Scandinavian
1989).
Study, Salt Lake City, May
27Halld?r
? vorum d?gum,"
?senn.
"Vandam?l
in Dagur
Kiljan Laxness,
sk?ldskapar
R da og rit (Reykjavik: Helgafell,
1955), pp. 205-6.
"Br?klindi
28Cf. Helga
Kress,
161 (1987), 271-86.
Falgeirs:
Fostbrae?rasaga
og hl?turmenning
Sk?rnir,
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mi?alda,"
Vilhj?lmur Arnason
170
acts of friendship
of such genuine
is Gisli S?rssons's
example
to
V?steinn.
profitable, Gisli's friend
Although
mutually
relationship
can
never
as a formation
to
be
V?steinn
of an
ship
fully explained
One
alliance. The entire drama and destiny of Gisli is, in
advantageous
without
the unconditional
character of heroic per
fact, inconceivable
sonal friendship
which requires
stubborn moral courage
in spite of
to
as
as
individual
the
well
the
He
lose be
may
danger
community.
cause his actions are socially
can
but
be
nevertheless
they
threatening,
and
This
honest.
heroic
feature
of
the
genuinely
straightforward
sagas does not fit well into the model of the feud structure, as Byock
is on social and economic
(Chap. 10). His emphasis
clearly recognizes
issues and not on moral
characteristics.
The question
is, however,
can be separated without
an im
whether
these phenomena
missing
of friendship,
portant point about the sagas. If the moral dimension
for example,
is not seriously
taken into account, one loses sight not
only of an important aspect of human relations in the sagas but also of
some of the basic reasons behind
saga feuds.
v
In order to pursue further the moral
of Byock's analysis,
implications
to take a look at the losers in saga feuds as he describes
it isworthwhile
are mainly
them. They
of two types. One
type is the overbearing
in V?pnfirdingasaga,
like Brodd-Helgi
who
is moti
?jafnadarmadur,
vated by greed and ambition. The other type is the romantic hero,
to his ideas of family honor and
like Gisli Sursson, who acts according
blood vengeance. What
these two types have in common
is a lack of
was
in
in order
and
which,
view,
necessary
Byock's
diplomacy
cunning
to make
use
proper
of
the
social
resources.
The
two
characters
are
in most other respects, however. The most
impor
radically different
one is an ?jafnadarmadur
tant difference
is that of moral
character,
man is unre
and the other a drengskaparmadur. While
the overbearing
liable and rude in his dealings,
the romantic hero is a man of honor
are typically
and integrity whose word can be trusted. Such persons
not
at
in
aimed
individ
their
reasoning,
prudential
engaged
securing
ual or communal
interests; it is their honor that is at stake and it is the
mark of the hero not to bargain with the basic duty of defending
his
reputation.
This
diplomatic
sees
as
process
of saga heroism
is at variance with the
of decision-making
and conflict-solving
that Byock
core
the
unconditional
the
of
character
tion of social processes
sagas.
rather
Because
his
analysis
than the actions
focuses
on
of individuals,
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the
who
func
are
and
Morality
Social
Structure
in
171
Sagas
tends to disregard
the important
the bearers of moral virtue, Byock
and family honor play in the Icelan
roles that the duty of vengeance
dic sagas. The "romantics" are right in describing
saga ethics in terms
their
of honor,
although
drengskapur, and the duty of vengeance,
not
terms is far too individualistic.
of
This
does
these
understanding
account
of the importance
of moderation
and ad
refute Byock's
vocacy; rather it is indicative of one of the basic reasons why advocacy
It is not that a few anachronistic
did not always work successfully.29
were
heroes
of
for
unready
was
necessary
advocacy
a
peace-seeking
because
the
agrarian
Icelandic
society;
Free
State
the
was
system
a so
but could not be af
ideals were widely accepted
ciety where heroic
was
an
one
could
that
there
forded. Perhaps
say
interplay of conflict
means
The
which
each
other.
social
reinforced
system of advocacy
ing
was
a
governmental
aimed
device
at
securing
a workable
order
in a
institutions.
The
central
important
point is that ad
society without
was
of
this
bred
the
for
because
heroic
called
vocacy
morality
society
At the same time, however,
Iceland with
honor and blood vengeance.
climate could afford only limited
its fragile agriculture
and northern
structure of advocacy and the heroic morality
violence. The political
are thus not at odds, but are rather reciprocally
related. In fact, they
create the tension that is the very core of the sagas: the social impor
tance of maintaining
one's
peace
and
the moral
importance
of upholding
honor.
the material
interests that are often
Byock is right in emphasizing
behind saga feuds, both the petty interests of the fighting farmers and
But it
interests of the mediating
chieftains.
the monetary
and political
as V?steinn Olason has pointed out, that in
to remember,
is important
re
in getting
is "much more
interested
the last analysis the farmer
at
and
This
is
honor
is
stake
back.'"30
because
than
'his
money
venge
is
sometimes
that is the only reason behind
saga feuds.31 "Honour
conferred
by
one's
peers
and
without
honour
a man
is without
worth,"
in
Honor
is thus an important personal
writes Alasdair Macintyre.32
vestment
it can only be upheld
in saga society and sometimes
through
that the
The
blood vengeance.
sagas are full of examples
indicating
one
was
and
sanctioned
of
revenge
by public opinion
strongly
duty
29
Byock
"Mannfrae?i
this out in Medieval
Eorl?ksson,
Iceland, p. 4. See also Helgi
points
163 (1989),
og saga," Skirnir,
231-48.
takes this into
30V?steinn
Olason,
manuscript.
Byock
"Family
sagas," unpublished
account
in Feud, pp. 43-44.
31
in Sj?tiu ritger?ir
Kress,
See, for example,
"Eigi ti0fu ver kvennaskap,"
Helga
Arna Magnussonar,
Stofnun
1977), pp. 293
(Reykjavik:
helgabar Jakobi Benediktssyni
313
32
p. 118.
Macintyre,
himself
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Vilhj?lmur ?rnason
172
who did not fulfill
art
of
this obligation
compromise,
was a useless
in
exercised
the
person.
of
system
The
diplomatic
often
advocacy,
at
to temper
the effects of this morality
but the chieftains
also
two
In
it
for
end
their
the
these
of
saga
aspects
exploit
personal gain.33
cannot be clearly separated,
both because
morality
they are tightly
in the sagas and because
the standing of many
interwoven
important
This
is understandable
in light of the aporia
characters
is ambiguous.
of the ethical order of saga society which engenders
duties.
conflicting
Even Nj?ll, whose words and deeds often exemplify
the spirit of con
it known when he is offered a chance
ciliation and moderation,
makes
to leave his burning house
he
that
is too old to exact revenge
for his
sons and will not live in such shame.34
This idea of honor
is fully consistent with a sociological
perspective
tempts
on
saga
The
morality.
sense
of
honor,
which
as a character
trait of proud
gically describe
facet of the social structure of saga society
saga
narrators.
The
heroic
character
was
the
"romantics"
nostal
pagan individuals, was a
and was glorified
by the
bred
by
a
society
where
re
the most
characteristics
of the
liability and courage were
important
a
not
so
were
much
of
because
heathen
moral
code
person,
part
they
to
but because they were matters of life and death. It is also important
note that this morality
is part of a society which had no conscious
value system and where human conduct
is not sanc
ethical/religious
a "moral
tioned by a divine
of
retribution.
This
absence
of
system
as
as
a
be
the
absence
of
may
superstructure"
just
important
worldly
nor worldly
is no divine
"sword," as Thomas
sovereign.35 There
Hobbes would put it, over people's heads, scaring them to reflect on
their actions and compare
them to an external
criterion of justice.
The sociomoral bonds between people are so strong in the sagas pre
It is not a question
they are accepted without question.
cisely because
one is to or should take vengeance
of whether
for a slain brother?
In this lies the unreflective
but of how and, primarily, when.
character
a traditional
are
of the morality
in
Sittlichkeit.
The
actions
ingrained
a
virtuous
flow
because
from
strong
genuinely
spontaneously
they
character. As Nietzsche
would put it, reflection breeds
the art of dis
33
Cf.
Gunnar
Timarit
Karlsson,
og lestir ? J)jo?f?lagi
"Dygg?ir
Islendingasagna,"
See also Byock, Feud, pp. 24-46.
og menningar,
46 (1985), 9-19.
in an instructive
129. Robert Cook brought
saga, Chap.
up this point
paper,
MNj?ls
"A Reading
for the Advancement
of Nj?ls
of Scandina
Society
saga" (annual meeting,
vian Study, Salt Lake City, May
1989).
in Mannen
studiar i norr?n etikk (Oslo: Det
og samfunnet,
argues
35Johan Hovstad
Norske
elements
of increased
centralization
of po
1943) that the combined
Samlaget,
of Christianity
litical power and the moral
served to dissolve
the unreflective
teachings
moral
consciousness
of traditional
family society.
Mais
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and
Morality
Social
Structure
in
Sagas
173
simulation which
sunders
the reliable moral
substance of the heroic
character. The reflective
art of advocacy
character of the prudential
are
thus undermines
two
heroic morality,
the
although
reciprocally
related.
When
the sagas are viewed
in this light, we see better than before
so
are
the
moral
duties
in the sagas. They were not
unconditional
why
a
sense
of
in the hero's
generated
by
quasi-Kantian
duty ingrained
in the sense that everything
in life
of worth
heart; duties are absolute
are those who find themselves
is at stake. And heroes
in situations
where there is no choice other than betraying
life or accepting
death.
That
is why the heroic condition
is one of fate; the whole weight of
circumstances
brings about destiny which can only be accepted with
humorous
courage
and
stoic
P?rdar
serenity.
saga
hre?u
a
provides
are being
t>or?ur and Eyvindur
good example of the heroic attitude.
attacked.
?>?rour suggests to Eyvindur
that he should ride home. Ey
vindur responds:
"Illa helda ek }}? f?lagsskap vi? go?an dreng, ef ek
vi?. Skal J)at ok
skylda p? renna fr? \)?r, er {du {)yrftir heizt manna
re
aldri ver?a, at mik hendi \)? sk?mm."36 This may be an arrogant
on
it
when
is
measured
the
scale
of
itmay also be
sponse
Christianity;
a foolish act from the viewpont of prudential
But it is the
self-interest.
kind of response
that makes
the sagas great. In this also lies the great
ness of the hero. To be sure, Eyvindur
seems only to be thinking
about himself and his reputation. Yet it is different
from the petty egoism
It is the self-respect
of an ojafna?arma?ur.
of a strong character who is
so concerned
about his honor that he sets absolute
limits to his options
in life.
the social order,
Byock is right in showing that this ethic threatened
to be said about its importance
but there is more
in the sagas and its
role
as
a
necessary
counterpart
to
the
system
of
And
advocacy.
the
are
some of the sagas
humanists
criticism of
imply Christian
right that
as
not
this heroism,
Christian
values
have
been
although
integrated
social norms in the sagas. Besides,
the humanists
often confuse Chris
tian influence with the social values of conciliation
and moderation
which are classical premises
for peace and prosperity.37 Most
impor
that the code of honor
tantly the "romantics" are right in maintaining
was basic to the moral
structure as it is described
in the sagas, even
though
their traditional
analysis
of saga morality
is highly
inadequate.
36"I>?rOar saga hre?u,"
?slend
s?gur, vi, ed. Gu?ni
Islendinga
J?nsson
(Reykjavik:
15, p. 441.
1947), Chap.
ingasagna?tg?fan,
37
M. Andersson
Theodore
in "The Displacement
of the Heroic
brings up this point
Ideal in the Family Sagas."
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174
Vilhj?lmur Arnason
need to focus more on the
Social analyses of the sagas, therefore,
the social setting. In the last analysis,
role of the moral virtues within
cannot be understood
to the
structure
the moral
without
reference
and saga society cannot be analyzed
social structure,
without
the
to carry out their roles. The so
moral virtues that enable individuals
cial need for peace and order calls for ways of acting which are in
conflict with the heroic morality
of honor, personal
integrity, and ven
creates
It is this tension which
the moral drama of the Icelan
geance.
dic
sagas.
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