Søren Prip Beier & Peter Dybdahl Hede
Chemistry
2nd edition
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2
Chemistry – 2nd edition
© 2010 Søren Prip Beier & Peter Dybdahl Hede & Ventus Publishing ApS
ISBN 978-87-7681-535-6
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3
Chemistry
Contents
Contents
Preface
8
1.
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.1.6
1.1.7
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.3
Atoms
Atomic nucleus, electrons, and orbitals
Components of the atom
Electron movement and electromagnetic radiation
Bohr’s atomic model
Photons
Radioactive decay
Wave functions and orbitals
Orbital configuration
Construction of the periodic table
Aufbau principle
Electron configuration
Categorization of the elements
Periodic tendencies
Summing up on chapter 1
9
9
9
11
13
15
18
21
22
25
25
26
33
35
41
2.
2.1
2.1.1
Chemical compounds
Bonds and forces
Bond types (intramolecular forces)
42
43
43
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Chemistry
2.1.2
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.5
Intermolecular forces
Covalent bonds
Energy considerations
Molecular orbital theory
Lewis structure
VSEPR theory
Orbital hybridization
Metallic bonds
Band theory
Lattice structures
Ionic bonds
Ionic character
Lattice structures for ionic compounds
Energy calculations for ionic compounds
Summing up on chapter 2
44
48
49
50
54
64
68
74
74
76
84
84
86
89
92
3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Reaction kinetics
Chemical reactions
Reaction rate
Rate expressions
Kinetics and catalysts
Kinetics of radioactive decay
Summing up on chapter 3
93
93
94
96
97
100
103
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Chemistry
Contents
Chemical equilibrium
Solubility product
Relative solubility
Ion effects on solubility
Precipitation
Selective precipitation
Summing up on chapter 4
104
104
105
107
109
111
112
5.
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.3
5.4
5.4
5.5
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.6
Acids and bases
About acids and bases
Acid strength
The pH-scale
The autoprotolysis of water
pH calculations
Calculation of pH in strong acid solutions
Calculation of pH in weak acid solutions
Calculation of pH in mixtures of weak acids
Polyprotic acids
Acid properties of salts
Ion effects on pH
Buffer
The Buffer equation
Buffer capacity
Titrations and pH curves
113
113
113
114
115
116
117
117
119
121
123
125
127
127
131
131
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4.
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.2
4.2.1
4.3
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Chemistry
Contents
5.6.1
5.6.2
5.7
Titration of a polyprotic acids
Colour indicators for acid/base titration
Summing up on chapter 5
137
140
141
6.
6.1
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.2
6.2.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
Electrochemistry
Oxidation and reduction
Level of oxidation
Methods for balancing redox reactions
Galvanic cells
Cell potentials
Standard reduction potentials
Concentration dependency of cell potentials
Batteries
Corrosion
Electrolysis
Summing up on chapter 6
142
142
143
145
150
152
152
157
162
169
172
174
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Chemistry
Preface
Preface
This book is written primarily to engineering students in the fields of basic chemistry, environmental
chemistry, food production, chemical and biochemical engineering who in the beginning of their
university studies receive education in inorganic chemistry and applied chemistry in general.
The aim of this book is to explain and clarify important terms and concepts which the students are
supposed to be familiar with. The book can not replace existing educational textbooks but it gives a
great supplement to the education within chemistry. Many smaller assignments and examples
including solutions are given in the book.
The book is divided into six chapters covering the introductory parts of the education within chemistry
at universities and chemical engineering schools. One of the aims of this book is to lighten the shift
from grammar school/high school/gymnasium to the university.
We alone are responsible for any misprints or errors and we will be grateful to receive any critics and
suggestions for improvement.
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Søren Prip Beier
Copenhagen, November 2009
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Søren Prip Beier & Peter Dybdahl Hede
Peter Dybdahl Hede
Chapter 6
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8