CSF Level 5
Primate Information - Background Notes
Primate Information
Background Notes
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Primate Information - Background Notes
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Primate Information - Background Notes
Primate Information
Background Notes
Introduction
This booklet provides information about the primates at
Melbourne Zoo. It has been designed as a resource for studies
in VCE Biology and Psychology, though it can be used in other
areas.
The booklet includes the following information about each
primate group:
• physical characteristics;
• habitat and distribution;
• diet;
• daily activity;
• locomotion;
• group behaviour;
• territoriality;
• communication;
• reproductive information;
• other information.
What is a Primate?
The mammalian order Primates incorporates many varied
animals including lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes and
humans. There is no clear definition of a primate. For almost
all traditionally accepted primate anatomical and physiological
features, there are primates without, and non-primates with,
these features. Therefore, a primate is an animal that has most
of a set of ‘primate’ characteristics.
These characteristics include:
• opposable thumbs (colobus monkeys do not have them,
koalas do);
• divergent big toe - often opposable (except humans);
• digits have nails (except in marmosets and tamarins;
elephants have nails);
• forward facing eyes (also found in many birds and
carnivores);
• posterior protection of the orbit (complete in ‘higher’ primates
forming an eye socket);
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Primate Information - Background Notes
• relatively large brain;
• long gestation period relative to maternal body size;
• relatively slow post-natal growth, late sexual maturity and
long life span.
Primate Classification – an overview
The two main suborders of the order Primates are the
prosimians (lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers) and the anthropoids
(monkeys, apes, and man).
As classified at present, the suborder Prosimii consists of 3
superfamilies; Lemuroidae, Loroidae and Tarsioidea. As Tarsiers
share some characteristics with both the prosimians and the
anthropoids, as well as having their own unique characteristics,
scientists have given them their own infraorder Tarsiformes.
The suborder Anthropoidea comprises two infraorders:
Platyrrhini (New World Monkeys) and Catarrhini (Old World
Monkeys and apes).
Platyrrhini comprises one superfamily Ceboidea with two
families: Callitrichidae (marmosets and tamarins) and Cebidae
(South American monkeys other than marmosets).
Catarrhini comprises two superfamilies: Cercopithecoidea
(African and Asian monkeys) and Hominoidea (apes).
Cercopithecoidea contains one family and two subfamilies:
Cercopithecidae (macaques, baboons and guenons) and
Colobinae (leaf-eating monkeys).
Hominoidea contains 3 families: Hylobatidae (gibbons),
Pongidae (orang-utans) and Hominidae (gorillas, chimpanzees
and humans).
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Primate Information - Background Notes
Slow Loris
Nycticebus coucang
Suborder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Prosimii
Loroidea
Loridae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
Longevity:
Conservation status:
1.2 kg
26 - 38 cm
0.13 - 0.25 cm
20 years
No classification
Color
Slow Loris vary in colour from grey to white. They all possess a dark stripe
down the centre of their back and dark rings around their eyes.
Habitat and distribution
Tropical rainforest throughout Southeast Asia.
Food and feeding
Slow Loris eat mostly fruit, insects and plant gums, with some shoots, bird eggs
and cocoa beans.
Daily activity
These animals are nocturnal and arboreal. Throughout the day, Slow Loris
sleep rolled up in a ball with their head between their thighs. At night time they
forage for food.
Group size
Slow Loris are solitary animals. Females wean their young at six months of
age. The male’s range has been reported to be larger than the female’s,
however, he will be sufficiently close to hear her oestral calls.
Locomotion
Locomotion is quadrupedal, slow climbing through branches. Slow Loris
occasionally hang upside down, holding on with their feet while they eat using
both hands.
Communication
Four different forms of vocalisations have been recorded including a single,
low, rising note for greeting; frequent, high pitched whistles from females during
oestrus; a hiss when disturbed and ultrasounds from infants when distressed.
Development of and care for young
Other information
The Slow Loris has brachial glands
inside its upper arms. These glands
produce a strong smelling substance.
When stressed, the Slow Loris will
scent mark its head and neck with this
chemical.
Infants have silvery white limbs and hands with long, glistening hairs that
disappear at 11 weeks. Young are carried under the mother’s body as she
climbs. They will cling to her for up to 7 weeks. When the mother is foraging
for food, the young one is tucked into a safe place between some branches
until the mother’s return.
Territoriality and aggression
No information available
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
Male: 17 – 21 months;
Female:
17 - 20 months
Gestation period:
191 days
Litter size:
1
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Primate Information - Background Notes
Black and white Ruffed Lemur
Varecia varigeta varigeta
Suborder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Prosimii
Lemuroidea
Lemuridae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
Longevity:
Conservation status:
3.3 - 4.5 kg
50 cm
60 cm
7 years (wild), 27 years (captivity)
Endangered
Color
Black and white fur. Variation of pattern exists within the species.
Habitat and distribution
These lemurs are arboreal animals within the eastern rainforests of Madagascar.
Food and feeding
They are primarily frugivorous, though some leaves, nectar and seeds are also
eaten.
Daily activity
There is some nocturnal activity during the period of greatest activity, summer. A
troop will travel about 1 kilometre per day feeding, travelling and resting within
the canopy at a height of 20 - 25 metres.
Group size
Black & white ruffed lemurs will gather in groups of 2-5 individuals.
Group behaviour
Adults will spend most of the day feeding, resting and travelling together. Subadult offspring are commonly within calling range but do not associate with
adults.
Locomotion
These animals are quadrupeds, combining climbing and leaping with walking.
The back limbs are longer than the forelimbs.
Communication
Adults will scent mark an area and will also exchange calls.
Development of and care for young
Other information
Lemurs have long snouts that are
covered with sensitive whiskers and
are ‘wet’ to add to their olfactory
function. Scent glands are located
around the anus, the underarms and
chest. The animals rub their bodies
around the territory but there does
not appear to be much wafting by
the tail, as with the Ring-tailed
Lemurs.
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The young are left in a nest and do not cling to the mother’s fur. The nests are
built by the mothers, 15 to 20 metres off the ground in large trees. When the
young are carried it is usually in the mother’s mouth. The young are fully mobile
from 3 to 7 weeks and will begin to eat solids from 21 days of age.
Territoriality and aggression
Chorusing loud calls are used for defining territories and the coordination of
movement with the territory. It is the females that defend the territory.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
Male: 18 months;
Female:
20 months
Gestation period:
90-102 days
Litter size:
1-6 per litter (typically 2)
Primate Information - Background Notes
Ring-tailed Lemur
Lemur catta
Suborder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Prosimii
Lemuroidea
Lemuridae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
Longevity:
Conservation status:
2.6-2.7 kg
43 cm
60 cm
27 years
Vulnerable
Color
Grey to brown back with white underparts. Dark brown triangular eye patches
and white ears. Ring-tailed Lemurs are named after their long black and white
tails.
Habitat and distribution
Ring-tailed Lemurs live both in the scrub and the trees of the dry forests of
Madagascar.
Food and feeding
These lemurs eat mostly fruit supplemented by leaves, flowers, bark, sap and
herbs.
Daily activity
Ring-tailed Lemurs spend more time on the ground than other lemurs. They are
diurnal and arboreal. They may sunbathe in tree tops and forage for food
throughout their habitat.
Group size
Group size can vary from 5 animals to 30.
Group behaviour
Females are the dominant animals overall. Hierarchies are not developed,
however individual dominance relationships are. Female Ring-tailed Lemurs
frequently challenge the dominance relationships between each other. Small
groups of females may target and attack an individual female (including relatives).
If the individual loses the fight, she will be exiled from the group.
Locomotion
These animals are quadrupeds and run quickly waving their long tails in the air.
They climb and leap through trees.
Communication
Twenty two vocalisations have been noted. The vocalisations include calls for
group cohesion before a troop moves on and alarm; a call for aerial predators and
a call for terrestrial ones as well as aggressive grunts and fighting squeals.
Other information
Males have a spur near each
wrist. After rubbing the spur
over their scent-producing
brachial glands, the males will
scar branches with the spur,
leaving their scent.
Development of and care for young
Females are only receptive to mating for 24 hours each year. Infants grip the fur
on the mother’s belly as they are carried by her for the first two weeks. After this
time they are carried on her back. The young are weaned at 3 months of age.
Territoriality and aggression
Ring-tailed Lemurs are not highly territorial but will defend their resources. Males
rub their tails over the brachial glands on their inner forearms. These glands
produce a strong smelling substance. The males then face each other and wave
their tails as they fight for breeding rights.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
21-30 months
Gestation period:
134-138 days
Litter size:
1or 2
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Primate Information - Background Notes
Golden Lion Tamarin
Leontopithecus rosalia
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Anthropoidea
Plattyrrhini
Ceboidea
Callitrichidae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
0.36 - 0.79 kg
20.0 - 36.6 cm
31.5 - 40.0 cm.
The tail is not prehensile and is used
predominantly for balance.
15 years + (captivity)
Critically endangered
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Color
Predominantly golden orange, though the young have black faces with black
roots on the top of the head. Light banding on the tail is common.
Habitat and distribution
All tamarins occupy various lowland rainforests of Brazil. Golden Lion
Tamarins are only found in the Rio de Janeiro area.
Food and feeding
Golden Lion Tamarins are mainly frugivorous and insectivorous with their diet
including spiders, snails and even small lizards, birds’ eggs and small birds.
Daily activity
These animals are totally arboreal, preferring to stay 3-10 metres from the
ground. Golden Lion Tamarins are mostly diurnal although during unfavorable
weather they will bed down for the night early.
Group behaviour
Mating is restricted to the dominant
male and female pair in the group.
The males are dominant to the
females and are the only members
within the group that will produce
offspring. When startled, the animals
shelter in the foliage where they
spend most of the day. Little
grooming occurs amongst the
younger animals, though adults will
occasionally groom.
Group size
Golden Lion Tamarins live in family groups of 2-8 individuals although they
may form temporary associations in groups of 16.
Locomotion
Locomotion is mainly quadrupedal and the animals usually run along and
leap among the branches.
Communication
Up to seventeen forms of vocalisations have been recorded including trills,
indicating solo activity; clucks, during foraging; long calls, for vigilance; and
whines, for contact with others.
Development of and care for young
Within days of birth the father carries the infants and returns them to the
mother only for feeding. The newborn make up 9% to 15% of mother’s body
weight. The young become quite independent at 10 weeks and are able to
take solid food from this time.
Territoriality and aggression
Adults of the same sex are aggressive towards each other and, on rare
occasions, may fight to the death.
Reproductive information
8
Sexual maturity:
Male: 24 months;
Oestrus cycle:
2 - 3 weeks
Gestation period:
128 days
Litter size:
twins
Female: 18 months
Primate Information - Background Notes
Emperor Tamarin
Saguinus imperator subgrisescens
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Anthropoidea
Plattyrrhini
Ceboidea
Callitrichidae
0.2 - 0.9 kg
18.5 - 31 cm
20.5 - 42.0 cm.
The tail is not prehensile and is used
predominantly for balance.
15 years (captivity)
No classification
Color
Emperor Tamarins have a distinctive white moustache, grey coat, silverybrown crown and reddish-orange tail.
Habitat and distribution
Their range extends through the Amazonian lowland forest away from rivers
in western Brazil, eastern Peru, and northern Bolivia.
Food and feeding
Their diet consists predominantly of insects, fruit, small vertebrates, leaves,
shoots, buds and flowers. Prey is killed by a bite to the neck.
Daily activity
Similar to other tamarins, they are diurnal. Refer to the information on the
Golden Lion Tamarins for information on similar species.
Group size
They live in groups of up to 9 individuals.
Group behaviour
See Golden Lion Tamarins for further information regarding a similar
species.
Locomotion
Emperor Tamarins move in quick, jerky movements, running and leaping
along and among the foliage on all four limbs.
Communication
These animals use high pitched calls for varying frequency.
Development of and care for young
The male plays a major role in the rearing of the young. The father assists in
the birth and will carry the young from a couple of weeks of age, returning
them to the mother for feeding. The young are carried on their parents’
backs until 6 to 7 weeks of age. After that time they move independently.
Territoriality and aggression
See Golden Lion Tamarins for information regarding a similar species.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
puberty is reached at 15 months
Gestation period:
140-145 days
Litter size:
twins
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Primate Information - Background Notes
Cotton-top Tamarin
Saguinus oedipus
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Anthropoidea
Plattyrrhini
Ceboidea
Callitrichidae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
0.2 - 0.9 kg
18.5 - 31.0 cm
20.5 - 42.0 cm.
The tail is not prehensile and is used
predominantly for balance.
20 years (captivity)
Endangered
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Color
The distinctive white head tuft extends back over the nape as a mane, while
the rest of the body is a mottled brown color.
Habitat and distribution
They occur in rainforests north of the Amazon River.
Food and feeding
Their diet is commonly fruit, vines, epiphytes, insects, newly sprouting leaves
and buds, leaves, leaf-stems and sometimes supplemented with nectar and
pollen.
Daily activity
See Golden Lion Tamarins for information regarding a similar species.
Group size
An average group size is usually 7 individuals.
Group behaviour
Groups consist of extended families of 20 - 40 individuals. Individuals will
form pair bonds within the group. Grooming is a very important social activity.
Locomotion
They are quadrupedal and move with quick jerky movements, leaping from
branch to branch.
Communication
Sound is an important way of communicating, with individuals emitting bird
like calls. Prominent hair displays allow for visual recognition of tamarins in
the rainforest.
Development of and care for young
See Golden Lion Tamarins for information regarding a similar species.
Territoriality and aggression
See Golden Lion Tamarins for information regarding a similar species.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
puberty reached at 15 months
Gestation period:
125 - 140 days
Litter size:
1, 2 or 3
Other information
Claws, rather than nails, are present on all digits except the big toe, assisting
climbing with small hands and feet.
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Primate Information - Background Notes
Common Squirrel Monkey
Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Anthropoidea
Plattyrrhini
Ceboidea
Cebidae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
0.5 to 1.1 kg
25 - 37 cm
37 - 46.5 cm.
The tail is not prehensile and is used
predominantly for balance.
15 years (wild), 20 years (captivity)
No classification
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Color
The color consists of white ears, eyes and throat. The top of the head is greyblack, the body underparts are white, fore arms are black with the hands
and feet being reddish or yellow.
Habitat and distribution
These animals are resident in primary and secondary forests, commonly
found along streams from Colombia to Paraguay. Two subspecies live in
Costa Rica.
Food and feeding
Their diet consists of fruits, berries, nuts, flowers, buds, seeds, leaves, gums,
insects, spiders and small vertebrates.
Daily activity
The Common Squirrel Monkey is arboreal and diurnal. Although they are
active during most of the day, a rest period at midday is common.
Group size
The largest group may be 120 to 300 individuals in unaltered Amazonian
rainforest.
Group behaviour
Squirrel monkeys are polygamous. The large groups split into subgroups of
adult males, pregnant females, nursing females and their young.
Locomotion
Predominantly quadrupedal, squirrel monkeys climb and leap through the
upper canopy of the rainforest.
Communication
These animals produce clicks and squeals with the pitch varying dependent
on the situation. Sight and sound are most important. Males make an
ostentatious penile display to assert dominance.
Development of and care for young
The mother exclusively cares for the young. She gives minimum care to the
single young which clings to her fur unaided, even when asleep. It is carried
on her back, moving round to the front to feed.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
2.5 years
Oestrus cycle:
7-13 days, Oestrus lasts 12-13 hours
Gestation period:
152-168 days
Litter size:
1
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Primate Information - Background Notes
Black-handed Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffroyi
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Anthropoidea
Plattyrrhini
Ceboidea
Cebidae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
7.5 kg
38-52 cm
59-82 cm.
The underside of the tail is hairless and bears ridges
similar to a fingerprint. It has sweat glands and
sensory nerve endings similar to that of the hand. The
hand has a greatly reduced thumb.
Longevity:
4.5 years (wild)
Conservation status: Vulnerable
Color
Black-handed Spider Monkeys may vary from golden brown, red to dark brown
with the hands and tail always colored black.
Habitat and distribution
Black-handed Spider Monkeys inhabit rainforests and montane forests from Vera
Cruz (Mexico) to western Panama.
Food and feeding
Their diet is predominantly fruits and leaves, insects, spiders and small
vertebrates.
Daily activity
Black-handed Spider Monkeys are diurnal and largely frugivorous, spending the
day moving through their range collecting food and feeding.
Group size
Groups vary from 2 to 30 aggregating, during feeding. Most commonly they are
found in sub-groups of approximately 6 individuals with one adult male.
Locomotion
Black-handed Spider Monkeys can support their body weight using their tail and
other limbs. They will walk on their back legs, on all fours or leap and brachiate
through the forest.
Group behaviour
Group sizes vary from one-male
groups of six in ‘islands’ of forest to
multi-male groups of around 33 in
dense virgin forest. They are dispersed
in sub-groups of 2-4 individuals for
most of the time. Grooming is an
important social activity.
Communication
Contact between individuals is maintained using sight.
Development of and care for young
Young are carried on the mother’s abdomen for about 4 months and then later on
her back. Infants use their prehensile tail to hold onto the mother’s tail. From birth
the young is black for up to 6 months, during which time it is almost completely
dependent on the mother.
Territoriality and aggression
The group is semi-nomadic, where the range is presumed to vary with seasonal
variation in fruit supply.
Reproductive information
The females have a pendulous clitoris and therefore it is often difficult to
distinguish males from females based on external features. Males have larger
canines.
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Sexual maturity:
Male: 5 years
Female: 4 years
Oestrus cycle:
24-27 days
Gestation period:
Litter size:
1
226-232 days
Primate Information - Background Notes
Lion-tailed Macaque
Macaca silenus
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Subfamily:
Anthropoidea
Catarrhini
Cercopithecoidea
Cercopithecidae
Cercopithecinae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
6.8 kg
46-61 cm
25-39 cm. The tail is not prehensile, with a tuft at
the end ‘like a lion’s tail’
5 years (wild);
17.5 (captivity)
Endangered
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Color
A ruff of long greyish hair on each side of the face. The main body is black in
color.
Habitat and distribution
This monkey is a rainforest dweller in Western Ghats of southern India living
at altitudes between 610 and 1070 m.
Food and feeding
The diet is predominantly fruits, roots and insects and will include nuts,
flowers and young buds. They break off dead branches and strip them with
their teeth when searching for insects.
Daily activity
A diurnal species, it is primarily arboreal but will go to the ground to forage
(rarely). When disturbed, it sits motionless in the tops of trees.
Group size
Groups will vary between 4 to 34 individuals but are usually 10 to 20 and
include 1 to 3 adult males.
Group behaviour
Groups may temporarily disperse, each subgroup having a male. Pairs will
move away from the group while mating. Grooming is an important social
activity. Extensive mutual grooming and embracing occurs amongst mating
couples.
Locomotion
Lion-tailed Macaques move on all fours, rarely jump in the wild and are
reportedly good swimmers.
Communication
Some vocalisation occurs with 10 distinctive calls identified. Visual cues
include facial expressions and body posturing.
Development of and care for young
Little information is known for the Lion-tailed Macaque.
Territoriality and aggression
The home ranges of groups overlap. When groups meet, males whoop but
no direct fighting has been observed. The groups may stay together for
awhile with no signs of aggression amongst peripheral individuals.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
Male: 8 years;
Female: 5 years
Oestrus cycle:
31 days
Gestation period: 162-186 days
Lactation period:
1 year
Litter size: 1
13
Primate Information - Background Notes
Hamadryas Baboon
Papio hamadryas
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Subfamily:
Anthropoidea
Catarrhini
Cercopithecoidea
Cercopithecidae
Cercopithecinae
Body weight:
Male: 16-20 kg;
Female: 9-11 kg
Head/body length:
56-76 cm
Tail length:
41-61 cm, not prehensile
Longevity:
30 years (wild), 45 years (captivity)
Conservation status: Lower risk (near threatened)
Color
Adult males are silvery grey with long capes over their shoulders and have
distinct red naked skin on the face and around the rump. Females and juveniles
are a light sandy-brown all over.
Habitat and distribution
Hamadryas Baboons occupy semi-desert habitats in the Horn of Africa, Arabian
Peninsula and Ethiopia. They migrate to neighboring mountains during the wet
season.
Group size
The basic social group consists of one adult
male, two or three adult females and their
offspring. A number of groups may
congregate together on cliffs or rocky
outcrops at night. This may result in large
numbers (some reports of up to 400) of
baboons resting together. Only baboons of
the genus Papio have single adult male
(bachelor) social groups. Foraging groups
consist of 30-90 animals organised into
units comprising single adult males and up
to 9 females with their offspring.
Territoriality and aggression
Limited interaction between groups tending
to respect each other’s space. Adult male
interactions can result in aggressive
behaviours, e.g. baring teeth (‘yawning’)
and mock charging. Within a group males
may physically chastise (grabbing, shaking
or hitting) females or juveniles who stray
too far from him. Bands sleep on cliffs or
rocky outcrops but due to the dependence
on water, the troop never moves far from
water sources. Each band ranges over an area
of 30 square km, and may travel 8 to 13 km
in a day. Males will defend females for
breeding purposes.
14
Food and feeding
Generalist omnivores, they feed on grass, flowers, seeds, roots, leaves, insects
and other invertebrates and small vertebrates. Cheek pouches are used to
store food whilst foraging. These are reputed to hold as much as a full stomach.
Daily activity
They sleep at night on cliffs and rocky outcrops. During morning and late
afternoon they may travel up to 10 km searching for food and water. Often they
have early afternoon rest periods.
Group behaviour
Social organisation will vary and is dependent on the availability of food.
Sparse supplies result in the baboons being dispersed into small groups.
Where sleeping sites are scarce, groups will congregate. Young males may
either maintain or loose connection with a unit or live alone. The most stable
unit is the one male unit with grooming being a predominant social behaviour
reinforcing social bonds. Adult males will display aggression towards other
males for possession of females. In times of danger, females gather the young,
and move along at a very fast pace with the males lagging behind and
displaying threatening poses and vocalisations (grunts).
Locomotion
Usually quadrupedal on the ground, although they do climb when threatened
and/or playing.
Communication
A repertoire of postures, facial expressions and vocalisations display the range
of communications.
Development of and care for young
The mother is the primary care-giver for much of the infant’s early life. The infant
remains in close contact with the mother for several weeks, becoming more and
more independent as it gets older and more able to feed and fend for itself.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
Male: 7 years;
Female: 5 years
Oestrus cycle:
30 days
Gestation period:
170-173 days
Lactation period;
239 days
Litter size:
1
Primate Information - Background Notes
Mandrill
Mandrillus sphinx
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Subfamily:
Anthropoidea
Catarrhini
Cercopithecoidea
Cercopithecidae
Cercopithecinae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Male: 25 kg; Female: 11.5 kg
70.0 cm
7.0 cm
40 years (captivity)
Vulnerable
Color
The color of the male’s nose is lacquer red, grooved nasal swellings are
electric blue, and the beard and cheek whiskers are yellow to orange. The
rump and genital organs of males are brightly colored; blue, red and violet.
The coat is brown with a yellowish tinge. Coloration in females is less
marked and absent in the rump area.
Habitat and distribution
The preferred habitat is thick rainforest. Mandrills live in the forested areas of
western Central Africa in Cameroon, south of the Sanaga River, Rio Muni,
Gabon and Congo.
Food and feeding
The preferred diet is fruit, leaves, ground plants, ants and termites, but they
will also raid native plantations for manioc and oil-palm fruits as well as
banana plantations during drier seasons.
Daily activity
Mandrills are diurnal, males range on the ground with females and young
climbing into the canopy to feed.
Group size
They live in groups of about 20-50 individuals which may unite into troops of
150.
Group behaviour
Mandrills form one-male or multi-male groups of 20-50 individuals.
Grooming is an important social activity.
Locomotion
Locomotion is quadrupedal, walking on their palms. They can leap up to 4
metres.
Communication
Prime communication is through facial expression and display of color on
the face and rump. Vocalisation is also important.
Territoriality and aggression
Mandrills are one of the few Old World monkeys to possess cutaneous
glands. The sternal gland is in the triangular area in the middle of the chest
and is covered with modified hairs. Males older than 7 years scent-mark, but
alpha males scent-mark most frequently. A bobbing of the head is the most
common form of threat.
Reproductive information
Oestrus cycle:
33 days
Gestation Period:
220 days
15
Primate Information - Background Notes
De Brazza’s Monkey
Cercopithecus neglectus
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Subfamily:
Anthropoidea
Catarrhini
Cercopithecoidea
Cercopithecidae
Cercopithecinae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail length:
4.5-7.8 kg
40.0-59.5 cm
530-850 mm.
The tail is prehensile in young, but used only for
balancing in adult animals.
25 years (captivity)
No classification
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Color
The body color is grey agouti with black extremities, the tail is black, a white
stripe on the thigh and the rump is white. A distinctive, long white beard is
present.
Habitat and distribution
The preferred habitats are the forested zones from south-east Cameroon to
south Ethiopia and southern Zaire.
Food and feeding
These animals have cheek pouches into which they stuff leaves, fruit, grain
and roots. They are also known to take young birds, eggs, small reptiles and
insects. They forage in the high canopy and then move towards the ground to
eat. They rest from mid morning to mid afternoon.
Daily activity
Being diurnal, they are most active in early morning and late afternoon.
Group size
Groups consist of about 10 animals, a single adult male with several adult
females.
Group behaviour
Troops of 15 to 35 individuals are formed with smaller family groups having
only one adult male. Grooming is an important social activity.
Locomotion
The monkeys move in a low cat-like swagger and also run and swim swiftly.
Communication
They exhibit a series of vocalisations and body language signals.
Development of and care for young
This is predominantly the mother’s domain, with the young walking
independently at 7 days, taking solids at 60 days and fully independent after
180 days.
Territoriality and aggression
These animals range within a territory but avoid open conflict.
Reproductive information
16
Sexual maturity:
Male: 6 years;
Oestrus cycle:
30 days birth season exits
Female: 4 years
Gestation period:
170 days
Litter size:
1
Lactation period:
6 months
Primate Information - Background Notes
Eastern Black-and-white Colobus
Colobus guereza
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Subfamily:
Anthropoidea
Catarrhini
Cercopithecoidea
Cercopithecidae
Colobinae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
6.5-14.5 kg
50-70 cm.
The back legs are longer than the front legs, which
is usually the case for animals that leap and bound
through their habitat.
62.5-88 cm. The tail is used mainly for balance.
20 years (wild); 29 years (captivity)
No classification
Tail length:
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Color
Black-and-white Colobus have a white beard, white mantle, large white tuft at
the end of the tail but are otherwise black. Young are born white and develop
adult pelage from 3 months of age.
Food and feeding
Approximately 30% of all activities are
sitting and feeding. Although they
consume acacia fruit and figs, Blackand-white Colobus are mostly leaf
eaters. They consume 2 to 3 kg of
leaves a day. The diet is low in energy
so they spend a great deal of time
sitting and digesting plant material.
They have a sacculated stomach (there
are 3 to 4 different regions in the
stomach which aid the digestion of the
large amount of vegetation
consumed).
Habitat and distribution
Black-and-white Colobus live in dry or moist, secondary forests where trees are
less densely packed. They are distributed through north Congo, east Gabon,
Cameroon, Nigeria, central Africa, Zaire, Rwanda, Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia,
Kenya and Tanzania.
Daily activity
Black-and-white Colobus are diurnal, arboreal and will feed and travel
distances on the ground and rest in the canopy during the hottest part of the
day.
Group size
A cohesive group of 3 to 15, including an adult male, 3 to 4 adult females and
their young.
Group behaviour
The males tend to leave the natal group, and in fact males become quite
agonistic towards each other. Grooming behaviour is less structured than it is
with baboons, though constant grooming reinforces hierarchy and relations
within the group. Due to the low nutritional value of the food, intermittent feeding
behaviour occurs during the day.
Locomotion
Colobus are quadrupedal on the ground and leap through the canopy of the
forest. They have no thumbs, though opposable toes exist on the feet.
Communication
Territoriality and aggression
The group has a home range of
approximately 15 hectares. They are
highly territorial and will defend their
turf with gestures, vocalisations, leaping,
chasing and fighting.
Body language is used, as are some facial expressions. Limited vocalisations
are used by the males to maintain distance between groups.
Development of and care for young
The newborns are white at birth and the source of great curiosity amongst
females of the group and will be cared for by all females, but only the mother
will feed it. The young lose its birth pelage by three months, at which stage
interest in the infant is greatly reduced. At birth the infant is able to support is
body weight, and clings to the carer’s fur. Males have little to do with the young,
and mother/daughter bonds are very strong and last till maturity is reached.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
Male: 6 years;
Female: 4 years.
Gestation period:
4.5 - 5.5 months
Litter size:
1
17
Primate Information - Background Notes
Ebony-leaf Monkey
Trachypithecus auratus
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Subfamily:
Anthropoidea
Catarrhini
Cercopithecoidea
Cercopithecidae
Colobinae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail:
6.5 - 7.1 kg
46 - 56 cm
The tail is not prehensile, and makes up 69% of
head and body length.
12 years (captivity)
Endangered
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Color
The coat is mostly black with occasional grey patches.
Habitat and distribution
The species are most commonly found in south and south-eastern Asia,
Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and usually at the junction of
mangrove and terrestrial sub-coastal forests.
Food and feeding
The diet consists mostly of leaves, fruits, flowers, cultivated crops, seeds,
epiphytic figs, and dry and decayed wood. They drink very little water.
Daily activity
Ebony Leaf-monkeys are diurnal and arboreal forest dwellers. They feed in
the early morning and late afternoon and they nest in trees at night. The group
will travel between 200 to 500 metres a day.
Group size
Groups number from 13 to 37, usually 2 females to one male, but may exist
as multi-male and multi-female groups.
Group behaviour
The females lead a travelling group during the day. The animals travel on the
ground. All animals congregate in a single tree before dark. The young play
wrestle and groom frequently.
Locomotion
On the ground the animals are quadrupedal, whilst tree movement involves
semi-brachiation in which both arm swinging and leaping are performed
regularly.
Territoriality and aggression
Disputes are usually settled by pulling and
slapping, though biting rarely occurs. If
an outside male defeats the dominant
male of the heterosexual group, he will
kill all the infants so that the females will
come into oestrus. Males will vigorously
defend their territories. If individuals of
two groups come close to each other the
males will approach and fight. The
females and young will retreat. If no
fighting occurs, the groups may stay
within close proximity to each other for
a short while and then move apart.
18
Communication
These animals rarely vocalise, but they do have an alarm call and produce
sounds when travelling. Facial expressions and postures are commonly
employed.
Development of and care for young
All group members carry and care for the young. Infants move from female to
female quite freely.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
Male: 6-7 years;
Oestrus cycle:
30 days
Gestation period:
196 -210 days
Lactation period:
10-12 months
Litter size:
1
Female: 4 years
Primate Information - Background Notes
White-cheeked (Concolor) Gibbon
Hylobates leucogenys
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Anthropoidea
Catarrhini
Hominoidea
Hylobatidae
Body weight:
5.7 kg slender build, narrow chest, high skull,
hooked nose
45-64 cm
Tail absent
33 years (captivity)
Data deficient
Head/body length:
Tail:
Longevity:
Conservation Status:
Color
The male is black, the female is buff or golden, the young is whitish-yellow at
birth changing to grey to black at the age of one. The juveniles will continue to
develop with black fur until they approach sexual maturity, where if the
offspring is female, she will revert to buff when sexually mature.
Habitat and distribution
The animals occur naturally in the extreme south of China and Indo-China,
east of the Mekong River, usually in dense primary forest.
Food and feeding
These animals drink by dipping their arms into the water and licking the fur and
fingers dry. The diet is usually fruit, supplemented with leaves, buds, flowers,
bird eggs, young birds and insects.
Daily activity
The gibbons are diurnal, feeding and resting throughout the day. Females
usually feed with their right hand and hold on their left.
Group size
White-cheeked Gibbons usually occur in a family group of an adult pair with
offspring. The young stay with the parents until sexual maturity.
Group behaviour
The female gibbon is co-dominant, and in this species are a little larger than
the adult males. Adults will groom each other and their young, but sub-adults
will not reproduce.
Locomotion
These animals move exclusively by brachiation.
Development of and care
for young
Both parents care for the young until
sexual maturity is reached. The mother
is the dominant care-giver during the
first year, when the young are able to
cling to her fur. The young are born
hairless. Offspring usually leave at
about 8 years of age, probably at the
time of sexual maturity and the young
adult’s urge to mate.
Communication
The adults sing, often loudly in chorus, at certain times of the day. The call
consists of grunts, squeals and whistles by the males, whilst the females tend
to twitter and produce rising notes.
Territoriality and aggression
Females are usually aggressive towards other females that enter the home
range of approximately 34 hectares. Aggression is usually displayed towards
new arrivals in an area and to recently widowed females.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
Male: 8 years;
Female: 7.5 years
Oestrus cycle:
30 days
Gestation period:
204-214 days
Lactation period:
2-2.5 years
Litter size:
1
19
Primate Information - Background Notes
Sumatran Orang-utan
Pongo pygmaeus abelii
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Anthropoidea
Catarrhini
Hominoidea
Pongidae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Arm span range:
Tail:
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Male: 50-90 kg;
Female: 30-50 kg
1.25 - 1.5 m
2.5-3.0 metres
Tail absent
59 years (captivity)
Critically endangered
Color
Sumatran Orang-utans have a dark, rufous or reddish brown shaggy coat.
Habitat and distribution
Sumatran Orang-utans occur naturally on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra.
They occupy primary forests ranging from swamps near sea level to
mountainous forests at 1500 metres.
Food and feeding
The animals are frugivorous and include a high proportion of wild figs. Many
types of vegetation are eaten as well as mineral-rich soil, insects and
perhaps small vertebrates and birds’ eggs.
Daily activity
Sumatran Orang-utans are diurnal with morning and late afternoon peaks of
activity and a rest period in the middle of the day.
Group size
Individuals usually occur in very small groups or alone. Adult males are
generally solitary.
Group behaviour
Generally, Sumatran Orang-utans tend to be solitary and shy. The male
inhabits a territory, which overlaps those of several females. The males may
be nomadic to seek better feeding areas. Females live with one or two young.
Males will bellow and shake branches when another male approaches.
Locomotion
Brachiation is seldom used by orangutans, especially the larger animals.
Movement in trees involves all four limbs being used to spread the load.
Movement is extremely cautious and does not involve leaping or jumping. On
the ground a quadrupedal gait is used, the upper part of the body being
supported by bunched fists.
Communication
Males use loud calls as a spacing mechanism. Throat sacs add resonance,
which carries sound for one kilometre or more.
Development of and care for young
The young cling to the ventral surface of the females for about a year and
may continue to ride on the mother for 2.5 years. The young seek protection
from the mother until about 7-8 years.
Territoriality and aggression
Most adult males are hostile to one another and have a home range of 2-6 sq.
km.
20
Primate Information - Background Notes
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
Male: 13-15 years;
Oestrus cycle:
30 days
Gestation period:
233-265 days
Litter size:
1, rarely twins
Female: 7 years
Lactation period:
3.5 years
There is clear sexual dimorphism. They may consort for up to 20 days, with
more than 20 copulations in various positions, including face-to-face. Subadult males occasionally force adult females to copulate. Adult females have
no set oestrus cycle, which is stimulated by copulation. Three types of
reproductive behaviour are observed among Sumatran orangutans:
1. Receptive females respond to the bellowing of the dominant male. This
usually lasts for a few hours to a few days. Large males cannot keep up
with the smaller females;
2. Prolonged courtship between a young female and sub-adult male. This
may last for months with the two playing with each other. Play can lead to
copulation;
3. A forced mating by nomadic males on non-receptive, resident females or
by resident males on nomadic females.
Other information
The hands are long, the thumbs very short and the feet are hand-like with
the big toes much reduced. Mature males develop cheek flanges.
21
Primate Information - Background Notes
Western Lowland Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla gorilla
Suborder:
Infraorder:
Superfamily:
Family:
Anthropoidea
Catarrhini
Hominoidea
Hominidae
Body weight:
Head/body length:
Tail:
Longevity:
Conservation status:
Male: 135-275 kg;
1.25-1.75 m
Tail absent
50 years (wild)
Endangered
Female: 70-140 kg
Color
The fur is greyish brown through to black, mature males develop a silver
back.
Habitat and distribution
These animals occur in south-eastern Nigeria, southern Cameroon, Congo,
and Gabon in lowland tropical forests. Western Lowland Gorillas are mostly
terrestrial with mature males nesting on the ground and females and young
nesting in lower branches.
Food and feeding
Western Lowland Gorillas are mainly vegetarian, preferring leaves, shoots,
stems, roots, flowers, fruit and occasionally grubs.
Daily activity
The animals are diurnal and usually build nests every night. They feed early
and tend to rest in the middle of the day.
Group size
Groups may vary from 2 to 30, usually with one silverback male, a few blackbacked sub-adult males, several females and up to 10 young. The groups are
very stable. Adult males that are not dominant tend to be solitary or join up
with other males to form bachelor groups.
Group behaviour
The adult male silverback is the centre of the cohesive group. Females and
young cluster about him while other males are peripheral. All group members
are led by the silverback’s activities. He leads them through their daily rounds
of feeding, travel, resting and nesting. When ‘extra’ silverbacks are with the
group its members usually only react to the dominant silverback, as there is a
linear hierarchy. Unattached males may form groups, which may be
peripheral to the group. Black-backs and females are dominant over
youngsters. Females do not have a hierarchy amongst themselves. Grooming
is not as important a social activity as with other primates, with infants and
juveniles being the most groomed.
Locomotion
Gorillas are quadrupedal, with the weight of the forequarters carried on the
backs of the knuckles. Bipedalism occurs only during chest-beating displays.
Communication
Like other apes, gorillas use a number of vocalisations to communicate. Low
rumbling noises means the animal is displaying non-threatening behaviour.
Degrees of threatening behaviour include staring, coughing, chest beating
and charging. Chest beating indicates excitement in an aggressive or nonaggressive manner.
22
Primate Information - Background Notes
Development of and care for young
In the wild the young remains with the mother for the first three years. After
one month the infant can hold onto the mother, at 3 months it rides prone on
her back and at 6 to 7 months the infant is walking and climbing unaided.
Territoriality and aggression
A group’s home range of 4 to 25 square km may have some overlap of other
groups’ territories. When two groups meet they may ignore each other,
temporarily associate or display hostility with vocalisation and displays.
More often than not, avoidance of contact by detouring is common.
Reproductive information
Sexual maturity:
Male: 11 years;
Oestrus cycle:
31 days
Lactation period:
2 years
Litter size:
1
Female: 8 years
There is marked sexual dimorphism. Males are much larger than females.
There is no fixed breeding season and oestrus is indicated by a slight
swelling of the genitals. Infants are weaned after two years of age.
Other information
The thumbs are rather short and the feet are the most human-like of the
apes. Males have massive sagittal and nuchal crests across the top and
sides of the skull and heavy brow ridges.
23
Primate Information - Background Notes
References and resources
Animal Behaviour
Alcock, J. (1975) Animal Behaviour - An Evolutionary Approach.
Sinauer Associates, Massachusetts.
Eisener, T. and Wilson, E.O. Animal Behaviour. Readings from
Scientific American, W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.
Hopkins, D. and Riordan, D. (1985) Behaviour. Nelson, Melbourne.
Marlen, P.R. (1972) The Marvels Of Animals Behaviour. National
Geographic Society.
McFarland, D. (1981) The Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour.
Oxford University Press.
McGill, T.E. (Ed.) (1973) Readings in Animal Behaviour. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
(Section VII: Social Behaviour contains some interesting studies, in
particular, Field studies of Old World monkeys and apes by S.L.
Washburn, P.D. Jay and J.B. Lancaster.)
Tinbergen, N. (1966) Animal Behaviour. Time-Life International,
Netherlands.
Trivers, R. (1985) Social Evolution. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing
Co., California.
Tuttle, R.H. (1986) Apes of the World, Their Social Behaviour,
Communication, Mentality and Ecology. Noyes Publications, U.S.A.
Primates
Kavanagh, R.H. (1983) Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and
Other Primates, Jonathan Cape. London.
Kummer, H. (1971) Primate Society: University of Zurich. (Contains
an excellent description of a society of Hamadryas Baboons).
MacDonald, D. (Ed.) (1984) Encyclopaedia of Mammals: Vol. 1.
George, Allen and Unwin. Sydney.
Napier, J.R. and Napier, P.H. (1985) The Natural History of the
Primates. British Museum (Natural History)/Cambridge University
Press.
Nowak, R.M. and Paradiso, J.L. (1983) Walker’s Mammals of the
World. Vol. 1. 4th Edition. The John Hopkins University Press.
London.
Schultz, A.H. (1969) The Life of Primates. Weidenfeld and Nicholson.
Great Britain.
Snowdon, C.T., Brown, C.H. and Peterson, M.R. (1982) Primate
Communication. Cambridge University Press.
Smuts, B.B., Cheney, D.L., Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W. and
Struhsaker, T.T. (1987) Primate Societies. University of Chicago
Press. Chicago. (An excellent book containing 40 papers on a wide
variety of topics and species of primates.)
24
Primate Information - Background Notes
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Phone (03) 9285 9355
Fax (03) 9285 9340
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obtained from Discovery & Learning at Melbourne Zoo.
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