Jagannath Institute of Management Sciences
Lajpat Nagar
BBA.ID-II-SEM
ART & ARCHITECTURE HISTORY
UNIT 1 History of Architecture
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Chapter at a glance
1.1Objectives
At the conclusion of the Unit you will be able to:
To understand the architectural characteristics of Greek Temples like
Parthenon and others in different periods during Greek Civilization.
To know the three orders of Greek Temple.
To know the Plan & Elevation of Temples & Optical Refinements
applied by Greeks
To know the further development of temples and other kinds of
architecture in Roman Civilization.
The Colosseum and its importance.
The importance of Aqueduct in Roman civilization.
To understand the characteristics of Cathedrals in Gothic Period.
To know the importance of use of stained glass in Cathedrals.
To understand the development of Gothic Architecture in France, Italy
and England.
1.2 Chapter at a glance
Greek Architecture
  History of Greeks 
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Archaic Period, Classical Period & Hellenistic Period
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Architecture & Materials
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Elevation & Plan of Temples
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Optical Refinements
Three different orders – Doric, Ionic & Corinthian with Examples of Temples
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Town planning
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Amphitheatre & Tholos
Roman Architecture
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 Introduction
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Religious Architecture with Examples
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  Secular Architecture with Examples 
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Interiors of Architecture with Examples
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Domestic Architecture
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Gothic Architecture
  Introduction 
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Features of Gothic Cathedrals
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Grand Façade & Plan of Cathedrals
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Labyrinth
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Materials
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Basic shapes of Gothic arches and stylistic character
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Important cathedrals of Gothic Period in France & Italy
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Features of English Gothic Cathedrals
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Greek Architecture
History of Greeks
The history of Greece can be traced back to Stone Age hunters. Later came early farmers
and the civilizations of the Minoan and Mycenaean kings. This was followed by a period of
wars and invasions, known as the Dark Ages. In about 1100 BC, a people called the Dorians
invaded from the north and spread down the west coast. In the period from 500-336 BC
(Classical Period) Greece was divided into small city states, each of which consisted of a
city and its surrounding countryside.
The Greek civilization was broadly divided in three main periods.
1) Archaic Period (750 – 500 BC)
The age is defined through the development of art at this time, specifically through the
style of pottery and sculpture, showing the specific characteristics that would later be
developed into the more naturalistic style of the Classical period. The Archaic period saw
advancements in political theory, especially the beginnings of democracy, as well as in
culture and art. The knowledge and use of written language which was lost in the Dark Ages
was re-established.
2) Classical Period (500 – 336 BC)
During this period the Greeks began to come into conflict with the kingdom of Persia to the
east, and the death of the Macedonian king and conqueror Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.
In this period Athens reached its greatest political and cultural heights: the full
development of the democratic system of government under the Athenian statesman
Pericles; the building of the Parthenon on the Acropolis; and the founding of the
philosophical schools of Socrates and Plato.
3) Hellenistic Period (336 – 146 BC)
The period between the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great and
the establishment of Roman supremacy, in which Greek culture and learning were
pre-eminent in the Mediterranean and Asia Minor.
Architecture
Greek life was dominated by religion and so it is not surprising that the temples of ancient
Greece were the biggest and most beautiful. They also had a political purpose as they
were often built to celebrate civic power and pride, or offer thanks giving to the patron
deity of a city for success in war.
Architects used sophisticated geometry and optical tricks to present buildings as
perfectly straight and harmonious.
Materials
The Greeks certainly had a preference for marble, at least for their public buildings. Initially,
though, wood would have been used for not only such basic architectural elements as
columns but the entire buildings themselves.
Early 8th century BCE temples were so constructed and had thatch roofs. From the late 7th
century BCE, temples, in particular, slowly began to be converted into more durable stone
edifices; some even had a mix of the two materials.
The stone of choice was either limestone protected by a layer of marble dust stucco or
even better, pure white marble. Also, carved stone was often polished with chamois
to provide resistance to water and give a bright finish.
Elevation of Temples
The Greek Columns consist of the Shaft marked by shallow vertical grooves known as Flutes
and the Capital which is made up of the flaring cushion like echinus (e-ki-nus) and a
square tablet called Abacus. The Entablature is the most complex of the three major parts.
It is sub-divided into the architrave (a series of stone blocks directly supported by the
columns), the Frieze with its Triglyphs and Metopes and the projecting Cornice. On the
longer side of the temple cornice is horizontal or the short side (or facades) it is split open in
such a way as to enclose the Pediment between its upper and lower parts.
In simpler division:1) Foundation or Crepidoma
2) Top step of Crepidoma is called Stylobate
3) The Doric order consist of Shaft (Column) marked by shallow vertical grooves
called Flutes
4) Area above the Capital to Cornice is called Entablature ( in-ta-ble-chur
/char) Capital (made of echinus and abacus)
5) Architrave – series of stone blocks above column
6) Frieze is the wide central section part of an entablature and may be plain
in the Ionic or Doric order, or decorated with bas-reliefs.
7) The Frieze consists of Metopes (me-te-pe) and Triglyphs (tri-gli-ph)
8) The uppermost part of an Entablature is the Projecting Cornice
9) Triangular space between horizontal base and sloping roof of the cornice is
called pediment.
The entire structure is built of stone blocks fitted together without mortar they had to be
shaped with extreme precision to achieve smooth joints. Where necessary, they were
fastened together by means of metal rods or clamps. The columns are composed of sections
called drums. The roof consisted of terracotta tiles supported by wooden rafter.
Wooden beams were used for the ceiling.
Temple Plans
The plans of Greek temples are not directly linked to the order (which concern only
elevation). They may vary according to the size of the building or religious preferences but
their basic features are much alike and we can study them from a generalized typical plan.
1) The Nucleus or Cella or Naos is the room in which the image of the deity is placed.
2) The Porch or Pronaos with its two columns bordered or flanked by Pilasters or
Antea.
3) Often we find a second Porch added behind the Cella is called Opisthodomos to
make design more symmetrical and used as a storage space.
4) In the larger temples this central unit is surrounded by a Colonnade called Peristyle
(Columns), and the structure is then known as Peripteral. The very largest temples of
Ionic Greece may even have a double Colonnade.
The technical names of the style are based on the number of columns at the front of the
temple :1) Distyle - 2 Columns
2)
3)
4)
5)
Tetrasyle – 4 columns
Hexastyle – 6 Columns
Octasyle – 8 Columns
Decastyle – 10 Columns
Very few temples had an uneven number of columns at the front. Examples are Temple of
Hera I at Paestum, Temple of Apollo A at Metapontum, both of which have a width of
nine columns (Enneastyle), and the Archaic temple at Thermos with a width of five columns
(Pentastyle).
Optical Refinements
To loosen up the mathematical strictness and to counteract distortions of human visual
perception, a slight curvature of the whole building, hardly visible with the naked eye, was
introduced. The ancient architects had realised that long horizontal lines tend to make the
optical impression of sagging towards their centre. To prevent this effect, the horizontal
lines of Stylobate and/or Entablature were raised by a few centimetres towards the middle
of a building.
A great deal of effort was made to build temples in prominent positions and, using
sophisticated geometry, architects included optical ‘tricks’ such as thickening the lower
parts of columns, thickening corner columns, and having columns ever so slightly lean
inwards so that from a distance the building seemed perfectly straight and in harmony.
Three Main Orders of Temples
The early Greek builders in stone apparently drew upon three distinct source of inspiration i.e.
from Egypt, Mycenae and Pre-Archaic Greek architecture in wood and mud bricks.
In architecture the Greek achievement has been identified with the creation of
three classical architecture orders – Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.
Doric Temples
The Doric may well claim to be the basic order. The term Doric order refers to the
standard parts and their sequence constituting the exterior of Doric temple.
The Doric is the simplest style, in which fluted column generally rise up directly from the
floor and meet a plain capital. A flat piece made of square above a circle which tops the
column. Above the capital is an Entablature of regular repeating elements, supported a
peaked roof. The triangular spaces that were formed at the end of the temples by the
peaked roof were called Pediments and were used to display sculptures on mythological
themes, featuring god and goddess who owned the temple.
When the Greeks began to build their Temples in stone, they also fell heir to the age old
tradition of architectural sculpture. Like Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian
buildings Greeks too incorporated sculptures with their architectures.
The guardian monsters protruding from the blocks that framed the gateways of fortress and
palaces are a kind of architectural sculpture which probably originated in ancient near east
by Hittites. But the Greeks developed a new kind of architectural sculpture – a work
integrated with the structure yet also a separate entity rather than a modified wall surface
or block.
Examples of Doric Temples
1) Temple of Artemis, Corfu – this temple was erected around 600/580 BC. Here the
sculpture is confined to a zone that is framed by structural members but itself
structurally empty.
The triangular area between the horizontal ceiling and the sloping side of the roof is called
pediment and this place the sculpture is displayed. Technically these carving are in high
relief.
The head of the central figure actually overlap the frame. The purpose of the figure here is to
serve as a guardian with two huge lions, warding off the evil from the temple and sacred
images of goddess within. Because of its symmetrical and ornament character it fits
the shape of the pediment to perfection.
Aside from pediments, there were not many places where Greeks deemed suitable for
architectural sculptures. They might put free-standing figures - often of terracotta – above
the ends and centre of the pediment to break the severity of its outline. They often put
reliefs immediately below the pediment.
The Temple of Artemis is an ancient edifice in Corfu, Greece, built in archaic-style in the
ancient city of Korkyra. It is known as the first Doric temple exclusively built with stone.
2) Siphnian Treasury, Delphi – it was erected at Delphi shortly before 525 B.C. by
inhabitants of Ionic island of Siphnos. Although the building itself is not standing
any longer but it has been convincingly reconstructed at the archaeological
museum at Delphi on the basis of the preserved fragments.
Of this lavish sculptural decor the most impressive part is the splendid frieze. It shows part
of the battle of the Greek gods against the giants. On the extreme left, two lions (who pull
the chariot of Cybele) are tearing apart an anguished giant. In front of them Apollo and
Artemis advance together shooting their arrows. A dead giant, despoiled of his armour lies
at their feet while three others enter from the right.
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3) Temple at Paestum – the best preserved 6 century Doric temple is “Basilica” (
550 B.C.) at Paestum, Italy and another one in its neighbour so called “Temple of
Poseidon”(pe-si-don) ( 460 B.C.) which was built almost a century later.
Both are Doric but one striking difference is in their proportions. The “Basilica” seems low
and sprawling (not only because much of the entablature is missing) while “Temple of
Poseidon” looks tall and compact.
Even the columns themselves are different. Those of the older temple taper far
more definite, their capitals are larger and more flaring.
The “Basilica’s” columns seem to be more burdened by their load than those of the “Temple of
Poseidon” so that the contrast between the supporting and supported members of the order is
dramatized rather than harmoniously balanced in the later building.
The Echinus of the “Basilica’s” capital is larger than in the “Temple of Poseidon”. It
seems more elastic and hence bloated by the weight it carries, almost as if it were made
of rubber.
The shaft of the “Basilica” shows more pronounce taper but also a particularly strong
bulge or curve along with the line of taper so that it too convey the elasticity and
compression compared with rigidly geometric blocks of entablature.
One of the interesting things about the “Temple of Poseidon” is the interior supports of the
Cella ceiling. Two rows of columns each are supporting a smaller set of column in a way
that makes the tapering seem continuous despite the architrave in between.
4) Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens (448 – 432 B.C. )
The Parthenon is a Peripteral Octostyle Classical Doric temple with Ionic features.
It stands on a platform or stylobate of three steps.
In common with other Greek temples, it is of post and lintel construction and is
surrounded by columns ("peripteral") carrying an entablature.
There are eight columns at either end ("octostyle") and seventeen on the sides.
The colonnade surrounds an inner masonry structure, the cella which is divided into two
compartments. The Cella of the Parthenon is unusually wide and somewhat shorter than
in other temple so as to accommodate a second room behind it.
There is a double row of columns at either end of the entrance the architrave above this
columns is more Ionic than Doric
At either end of the building the gable is finished with a triangular pediment originally filled
with sculpture.
The architects were Ictinus and Calicrates and sculptor was Phidias.
5) Propylaea, Acropolis, Athens
Propylaea, the monumental gateway of Acropolis was designed by Mnesicles (nĕsˈĭklēz)
and constructed in 437-432 B.C.
The entire structure was build of marble and included refinements comparable to
Parthenon. The most fascinating features are in the way the Doric temple have
been adapted to another task, on an irregular and steeply rising site.
Of the two porches (or facades) at either end only the eastern one is in fair condition. Its
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resemble Classical Doric temple front except for the wide opening between the 3 and
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4 columns.
The western porch was bordered by two wings. The one of the north considerably
larger than the other one and included a picture gallery. This was the first of its kind to
display paintings.
Along the central roadway that passes through the Propylaea there are two rows of
columns which are Ionic rather than Doric. This is the time when Greek architecture
is moving towards Ionic elements.
The architect Mnesicles who completed the main part within 5 years and the rest had
to be abandoned because of Peloponnesian ( pe –le –pe- nes/nez ) war.
Ionic Temples
Ionic order developed in the eastern part of the Greek Empire, which Greek called Ionia. In
the Ionic order the columns often rest on re-curved base and the capital is more elaborate
forming a double curl. These curls called volutes may represent ram’s horn or stylized
lotus blossoms. Ionic columns are tall and slender compared to Doric columns and
entablature is smaller, so that the whole structure seems lighter, airier more graceful.
Examples of Ionic order 1) Temple of Athena Nike - The Athenian architects who took up the Ionic order
around about 450 B.C. at first thought as suitable only for small temples of simple
plan. Such a building is the little Temple of Athena Nike on the southern flank of
Propylaea probably built in 427-424 B.C. from a design prepared by 20 years earlier
by Callicrates.
2) Erechtheum ( e –rec-the-um)– The larger and more complex is Erechtheum on
the northern edge of Acropolis opposite the Parthenon.
It was erected in 421 – 405 B.C. perhaps by Mnesciles for Propylaea.
It was masterfully adapted on an irregular, sloping site.
The area has various associations with the mythical founding of Athens.
Erechtheum was actually a sanctuary with several religious functions.
The Erechtheum has two porches attached to its flanks, a very large one facing
north and a small one towards Parthenon which is the famous porch Maidens
(Caryatids – ka/re/a/ted).
The roof supported by six female figures on a higher parapet instead of
regular columns.
3) Temple of Apollo at Didyma - The Greeks built the Temple of Apollo at Didyma,
Turkey in 300 – 200 B.C.
The design of the temple was known as Dipteral, a term that refers to the two
sets of columns surrounding the interior section. These columns surrounded a
small chamber that housed the statue of Apollo.
With Ionic columns 120 in total reaching 19.5 meters (64 ft) high, this is evident
from the ruins.
Didyma was an ancient Greek sanctuary on the coast of Ionia. It contained
a temple and oracle of Apollo, the Didymaion. In Greek didyma means "twin", but
the Greeks who sought a "twin" at Didyma ignored the Carian origin of the name. Next
to Delphi, Didyma was the most renowned oracle of the Hellenic world.
Didyma is the mixture of Ionic and Corinthian order. The columns of the Peristyle
were Ionic; the two columns in the east chamber were Corinthian. There were two
engaged Corinthian half-columns against the east wall of the adyton at the top of
the monumental staircase.
It is a monumental, dipteral temple on a seven-stepped Crepidoma (base), with
Decastyle facade and twenty-one columns along the flanks.
Corinthian order (Temples)
The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city of Corinth, but appears to have developed
in Athens.
Corinthian capital was invented as an elaboration of the scrolled Ionic order. Its shape is
that of an inverted bell covered with curly shoots and leaves of acanthus plant, which
seems to sprout from the top of the column shaft.
At first the Corinthian capital were used only for the interiors. The emphasis of
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ornamentation of capital seems characteristic of late 5 century B.C. A century later we do
find them replacing Ionic capitals on the exteriors.
Examples of Corinthian orders –
1) The Monument of Lysicrates in Athens – it was built soon after 334 B.C. and
not really a building. The interior though hollow but has no entrance but it is an
elaborate support for a tripod won by Lysicrates in a contest.
The round structure is resting on a tall base.
The columns here are set into the wall rather than free standing to make
the monument more compact.
2) Hellenistic Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens
The first dateable and well-preserved presence of the Corinthian temple is the Hellenistic
rebuilding of the Olympian of Athens, planned and started between 175 and 146 BC. This
mighty dipteral with its 110 × 44 m substructure and 8 × 20 columns was to be one of
the largest Corinthian temples ever.
Town Planning
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The town planning on a rectangular grid pattern first introduced at Miletus in mid 5
century. It gained a new importance, as did the municipal hall (stoas) lining the market
places where the civic and commercial life of Greek towns was centred.
Private houses too became larger and more ornate then before. The Greek word for the
family or household, oikos, is also the name for the house. Houses followed several
different types. It is probable that many of the earliest houses were simple structures of two
rooms, with an open porch or "pronaos" above which rose a low pitched gable or
pediment. This form is thought to have contributed to temple architecture.
The construction of many houses employed walls of sun dried clay bricks or wooden
framework filled with fibrous material such as straw or seaweed covered with clay or
plaster, on a base of stone which protected the more vulnerable elements from damp. The
roofs were probably of thatch with eaves which overhung the porous walls. Many larger
houses, such as those at Delos, were built of stone and plastered. The roofing material for
substantial house was tile. Houses of the wealthy had mosaic floors and demonstrated the
Classical style.
There were fountain houses (from the 6th century BCE) where people could easily collect
water and for socializing. Regarding private homes, these were usually constructed with
mud brick, had packed earth floors, and were built to no particular design. One- or twostoried houses were the norm. Later, from the 5th century BCE, better houses were built in
stone, usually with plastered exterior and frescoed interior walls.
Theatre
Every Greek town had an open-air theatre. These were used for both public meetings as
well as dramatic performances.
The basic repertory of Greek architecture was increased in one respect i.e. the open-air
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theatre achieved a regular defined shape. Before the 4 century the auditorium had
simply been a natural slope, especially curved, equipped with stone benches. Now the
hillside was provided with concentric rows of seats and with staircase passageway in
regular intervals as at Epidaurus at Argolis (350 B.C.) at the centre is the orchestra, where
most of the action took place. We also find remains of a hall like building that formed the
backdrop and supported the scenery.
Other theatre architecture built by Greek :1) Theatre of Delphi, Phocis
2) Theatre of Dionysus, Athens
Tholos in Delphi
The Tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronoia is a circular building that was constructed
between 380 and 360 BC. It consisted of 20 Doric columns arranged with an exterior
diameter of 14.76 meters, with 10 Corinthian columns in the interior.
Greeks also built stadium, gymnasium and many more architecture but yet the
architectural vocabulary aesthetically as well as technically remained essentially that of
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temples of the late 5 century.
Roman Architecture
The growth of Roman architecture from very start reflected a specifically Roman way
of public and private life. Whatever elements Roman had borrowed from Etruscans
and Greeks were soon marked with an unmistakable Roman stamp.
The links in the past are strongest in temple types developed during the final century
of Republican period (510 – 60 B.C.), the heroic age of Roman expansion.
Religious Architecture
1) Temple of Fortuna Virilis(ve-re-les) – the delightful small “Temple of Fortuna
Virilis” is the oldest well preserved of its kind.
The name is the sheer fancy for the sanctuary seems to have been dedicated to
Roman god harbors – ‘Portunus’
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This temple was built in Rome in the last years of the 2
century B.C.
The importance of this temple is in the elegant proportions of its Ionic column
and entablature, the wave of Greek influence following the Roman conquest of
Greece in 146 B.C.
It is not just a mere copy of Greek temple, a high podium and a deep porch and a
wide cella which engaged the columns of the peristyle. Cella is not divided in parts
but now enclosed a single unified space.
The Roman temple interior is spacious as they required it not only for the image of
the deity but also to display of trophies, statues and weapons brought by their
conquering armies.
2) Temple of Sibyl (sy-bel)– This is another type of Republican temple at Tivoli
erected few decades later then the “Temple of Fortuna”.
This building at first had the shape of traditional peasant round huts in Roman
countryside. But later it was redesigned in stone under the influence of Greek
structures of Tholos types and thus became the model for the round temples of late
Republican times.
Here also we find the high podium with steps only opposite the entrance and
graceful Greek inspired exterior.
The wall made of concrete – a mixture of mortar and graved with rubble (i.e
small pieces of building stone and bricks) – and the potentialities of this material
were developed first time by Romans. While the door and window frames are of
cut stone.
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3) Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia (pri-mi-je-nia)(early 1 century B.C.) –
the oldest monuments in which the qualities of massive size and boldness
of conception are fully evidence in “Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia”.
It is situated in Palestrina, in the foothills of the Apennines (a-pe-ninz) east of Rome
and dedicated to Fortuna (Fate) as a mother deity.
The size and shape of the sanctuary were completely hidden by medieval town
that had been over it.
A series of ramps and terraces lead up to a great colonnaded court, from which we
ascend on a flight of steps arranged like the seats of Greek theater to a semi-circular
colonnade that crowned the entire structure.
Arched openings framed by engaged columns, and entablature play an
important part in the elevation, just as semicircular recesses do in the plan.
The lower terrace is covered by barrel vault which is another characteristic feature
of Roman architecture.
Except the columns and architrave all the surfaces are made of concrete.
The most important thing about this structure is its scale which had been
transformed and articulated so that architectural form seems to grow out of rock.
Comparable project of this structure found in Egypt that is Temple of Hatshepsut.
4) Forums (46 B.C.) – the “Palestrina complex” inspired Julius Caesar, who near
the end of his life sponsored a project planned on a similar scale in Rome – “Forum
Julium” – a great architecturally framed square adjoining the Temple of
Venus Genetrix, the mythical ancestor of Caesar family.
Here merging of religious cult and personal glory even more evident.
This Forum of Caesar set the pattern of all later Imperial Forums which was linked
to it by a common major axis, forming the magnificent architectural sight of the
Roman world.
Unfortunately nothing is left of the Forum today but only a field of ruins that
conveys little of their original splendor.
Secular Architecture
The arch and vaults which we encountered in Palestrina as an essential part of Roman
monumental architecture also formed the basis of construction projects such as cesspits
(drain/sewer), bridges and aqueducts (Canals). These were design for efficiency rather than
beauty.
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The first of its kind which served the city of Rome was in the early as end of 4 century
B.C. Only the traces of it survived today.
There were numerous of these structures in later dates through the Roman Empire. The
exceptionally well preserved aqueduct at Nimes (-nem-) in southern France known as
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“Pont Du Gard” built in early 1 century B.C. Its rugged, cleaned lines that span the
wide valley are a tribute not only to the high quality of Roman engineering but also to the
sense of order and permanence which inspired Romans.
The channel that delivers 20,000 cubic meters of water daily is covered with plates and
resting on 3 rows of arches. It starts a 4km loop trails that take visitors on both side of
the building and documenting the course of water pipe.
Description of the bridge:-
Level
Number of
arches
Length of
level
Thickness of
piers
Height of
arches
Lower (1st
row)
6
142 m
(466 ft)
6 m (20 ft)
22 m (72 ft)
Middle (2nd
11
row)
242 m
(794 ft)
4 m (13 ft)
20 m (66 ft)
Upper (3rd
row)
275 m
(902 ft)
3 m (9.8 ft)
7 m (23 ft)
35 (originally
47)
This is indicative of the great precision that Roman engineers were able to achieve using
only simple technology. It crosses Gardon river and made in limestone fitted without
any binding agent such as mortar.
Colosseum (ka-le-se-em) – the enormous amphitheatre for gladiatorial games and
public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of
famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology in the centre of Rome
completed in 80 A.D.
It is in term of mass, one of the largest single buildings anywhere in the world. When
intact it accommodated more than 50,000 to 80,000 spectators.
The concrete core with its miles of corridor and stairways is a master of
engineering efficiency to ensure smooth flow of traffic to and from the arena.
It utilizes both the familiar barrel vault and a more complex form, the ignore vault
that results from the interpretation of two barrel vaults at right angles.
The exterior which is dignified and monumental reflects the interior articulation of
the structure but clothes and emphasized it in cut stones.
There is a fine balance between vertical and horizontal elements in the framework
of engaged columns and entablatures that contains endless series of arches.
The three classical orders are superimposed according to their intrinsic “weight”.
Doric, the oldest and most severe on the ground floor, flowed by Ionic and Corinthian.
The lightening of the proportions however is barely noticeable. The orders in their Romans
adaptation are almost alike.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 by 157 ft). It comprised a wooden floor
covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is ‘harena’ or ‘arena’), covering an elaborate
underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). It
consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena
where gladiators and animals were held before contests began.
Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor
providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad
platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs.
The tire above senator was for noble class or knights. The next level is for Roman citizens,
which was again divided into two parts – the lower for wealthy citizens and upper for poor
citizens. Stone and later marble sitting were provided for nobles and citizens. Another
level comprises a gallery for common poor, slaves and women.
Interiors
Arches, vaults and the use of concrete permitted the Romans to create vast interiors for
the first time in the history of architecture. These were explored specially in the great
baths or thermae which had become important centers of social life in imperial Rome.
Pantheon – The most striking example of Roman architecture is the famous Pantheon
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in Rome. A very large round temple of the early 2 century A.D. whose interior is the
best preserved as well as the most impressive of any surviving Roman structure.
The building was originally approached by a flight of steps, although later construction
raised the level of the ground leading to the portico, eliminating the steps.
On the outside the cella of the Pantheon appears as an unadorned cylindrical drum
surrounded by a gently covered dome.
The entrance is emphasized by a deep porch of large granite Corinthian columns (eight
in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment.
The junction of cella and porch seems rather abrupt. The porch was designed to form a
part of rectangular colonnaded forecourt which must have the effect of detaching from
rotunda (ro-ten-de). The exterior must have created to put emphasis on the dome.
The dome is not shallow but is a true hemisphere and the circular opening in its centre
admits ample and wonderfully even flow of light. This “eye” is 143 feet above the floor
and this also the diameter of the interior.
The interior of the dome was possibly intended to symbolize the arched vault of the
heavens.
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Basilica – The Basilica of Constantine, Rome was built in early 4 century A.D. (310-20
A.D.).
It derives its shape from the main hall of public baths but even on vaster scale.
It must have been the largest roofed interiors of Roman architecture, whose today only
North passageway is still standing.
The centre tract or nave, covered by 3 groined vaults and rose a good deal higher.
Unlike other basilicas instead of having columns support the ceiling the entire building
was built using arches, a much more common appearance in Roman baths than basilicas.
Another difference from traditional basilicas is the roof of the structure. While traditional
basilicas were built with a flat roof, the Basilica Constantine was built with a folded roof,
decreasing the overall weight of the structure and decreasing the horizontal forces
exerted on the outer arches
Light was provided by two rows of three large windows in five of the six lateral vaults, and
by windows in the sides of the now collapsed cross vaults over the central nave. The
windows in two of the vaults in the surviving N. side of the building give a good idea of
the amount of light inside the building.
The floor in both the central and the lateral spaces were a geometric pattern of squares
with circles and lozenges of multi-coloured marble, similar to the floor in the Pantheon.
Basalica became a chief feature of Roman town whose long halls serving a variety of civic
purposes. One of the chief functions was to provide a dignified setting for courts of law
that give out justice in name of the emperor.
Domestic Architecture – beside great public edifices Roman constructed vast variety
of residential dwellings from Imperial palaces to the quarters of urban poors.
The “domus” is the single family house based on ancient Italic tradition. Its distinct feature
is the atrium, a square or oblong central hall lighted by an opening in the roof around
which the rooms are grouped.
Example of Domestic architecture – The House of Silver Wedding at Pompeii. Here the
atrium has become room of an impressive size with 4 Corinthian columns at the corner
of the opening in the roof give a something of the quality of an enclosed court. There is a
shallow basin in the centre to catch rain water. The roof here slants inward.
The atrium is the traditional place for keeping portraits of ancestors of the family. In
addition to the chambers grouped around atrium, there may be further rooms attached
to the back of the house.
The entire establishment is shut off from the street by windowless walls.
Another kind of residential structure was “Insula” or city blocks which were less elegant
than “Domus”. “Insula” is a good sized concrete and brick building or a chain of such
buildings around a small central court with shops and taverns open to the street on the
ground floor and living quarters of numerous families above. Some of the “Insula” had as
many as 5 stories with balconies above the second floor.
The daily life of craftsmen and shopkeepers who inhabited such” Insulas” was oriented
to the street as it is still to a large extent in modern Italy. The privacy of the “Domus” was
reserved for the minority that could afford it.
Gothic Architecture
Gothic architecture developed at a time when significant social and economic changes
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took place in Western Europe. At the end of 11 and 12 centuries trade and industry
came back to life especially in northern Italy and Flanders. Cities were reborn and
commerce strengthened the connection between them and different region in Europe.
Workers in various professions united in guilds which supervised the production and trade
in the cities. The demand for products encouraged the industry.
This period was also going through Crusades (1096-1291) the religious war or
campaign between Christian and Islam. There were 9 Crusades fought and which
became another reason of increase in trade and commerce.
The word “Gothic” derives from the word “Goth”, the name of German people who
together with Lombards destroyed the Roman Empire. The term “Gothic” is identical
with “German” (“Tedesco”) which was used by the Italians during the Renaissance to
refer medieval art.
Gothic architecture is a style of architecture used in Western Europe in the Middle Ages. It
began in France in the 12th century. The Gothic style grew out of Romanesque architecture.
It lasted until the 16th century.
The term “Gothic” was first coined for architecture and it is in the architecture that
the characteristic of the style is more easily recognised.
The evolution of the concept of Gothic art suggests the way new style actually grew. It began
in architecture for a century from 1150 to 1250 A.D. which became the age of Great
Cathedrals.
The important features of Gothic architecture are the pointed arch, the ribbed vault
and the flying buttress (but-tress), which are explained below.
Gothic architecture is best known as the style of many of the
great cathedrals, abbeys and churches of Europe. It is also the architecture
of many castles, palaces, town halls, universities, and also some houses.
Features of the Gothic style
Pointed arches- Pointed arches were used in Persian architecture, and from 641
AD onwards, they were a feature of Islamic architecture. Knowledge of the pointed
arch spread into Europe through the Crusaders who travelled to the Middle East from
1096 onwards.
Very high towers and spires and roofs. Large Gothic churches and cathedrals are often
very tall. On the inside, the nave is usually at least twice as high as it is wide, which gives
the church a very tall narrow look. Some of the churches in France and Germany have
naves that are three times as high as they are wide. Cologne Cathedral is an example.
The tallest nave is at Beauvais (bo – va) Cathedral which is 157.5 feet high.
Westminster Abbey is 102 feet high.
Clustered columns: tall columns that looked like a group of thin columns bundled
together.
Ribbed vaults: arched ceilings made of stone. In the Gothic style they were held up
by stone ribs. They were always based on perfectly semi-circular shapes.
Stained Glass : A skeleton of stonework with great big glass windows in between.
Gothic architecture usually has a lot of windows. The windows were very often filled
with Stained Glass (made with richly coloured glass) which made coloured light enter
into the building. Stained glass was used for creating a celestial effect in the interior of
the churches and also served a purpose of story-telling pictures. The range of colours in
Gothic Cathedrals includes colours like blue, yellow, red, green and purple.
Tracery: carved stone lace in the windows and on the walls.
Buttresses: narrow stone walls jutting out from the building to help hold it up.
Flying buttresses: They are made with an arch that jumps over a lower part of
the building to reach the outside wall. To strengthen the building, the architects had
to create a support in shape of flying buttresses, the lofty arches over the roof of the
gallery which absorb the pressure of the heavy vaults. Often flying buttresses were
added after the completion of the building.
Statues: of Saints, Prophets and Kings around the doors.
Gargoyle (gar – goi – e – l): the sculptures of animals and legendary creatures.
They look like monsters of half-man and half-beast. These demon looking creatures
carved out of stone are called Gargoyles . Gargoyle is a Latin word, meaning gullet or
drain. That’s what the strange looking creatures are drainpipes. They spout water from
the roof. Each grotesque figure has a passageway inside that carries rainwater from the
roof and out through the gargoyle’s mouth.
Grand facade
The "facade" or West Front of a large church or cathedral is designed to make a
big impression on the worshippers. One of the best known is Notre Dame de Paris.
Plan
As a structure that symbolizes more than any other structure the relation between the
believer and Christ, the Gothic cathedral had a cross-shaped ground plan. The cross-shaped
cathedral’s roof design can be seen from the above.
Most Gothic churches, unless they are entitled chapels, are of the Latin cross (or
"cruciform") plan, with a long nave making the body of the church, a transverse arm called
the transept and, beyond it, an extension which may be called the choir, chancel or
presbytery. There are several regional variations on this plan.
The nave area is generally flanked on either side by aisles, usually single, but
sometimes doubles. The nave is generally considerably taller than the aisles ( i- e- l),
having Clerestory (klir – stor – e)windows which light the central space.
Labyrinth
The great Gothic Cathedrals used a kind of stamp to commemorate the contribution of the
architects to the achievement of their construction. This stamp has the shape of a
labyrinth (maze) on the floor of the nave.
Building Materials
Different building materials were found in different parts of Europe. This is one of
the differences in the architecture between different places.
In France, there was limestone. It was good for building because it was soft to cut, but
got much harder when the air and rain got on it. It was usually a pale grey colour.
England had coarse limestone, red sandstone and dark green.
In Northern Germany, Netherlands, Denmark, Baltic countries and northern Poland
there was no good building stone, but there was clay for making bricks and tiles.
Basic shapes of Gothic arches and stylistic character
The way in which the pointed arch was drafted and utilised developed throughout the
Gothic period. There were fairly clear stages of development, which did not, however,
progress at the same rate, or in the same way in every country. Moreover, the names
used to define various periods or styles within the Gothic differ from country to country.
Lancet ( lant- set) Arch (1190-1240)
The simplest shape is the long opening with a pointed arch known in England as the lancet.
Lancet openings are often grouped, usually as a cluster of three or five. Lancet openings
may be very narrow and steeply pointed. Lancet arches are typically defined as twocentred arches whose radius is larger than the arch's span.
Example - Salisbury Cathedral is famous for the beauty and simplicity of its Lancet
Gothic, known in England as the Early English Style.
Equilateral Arch
Many Gothic openings are based upon the equilateral form. In other words, when the arch
is drafted, the radius is exactly the width of the opening and the centre of each arch
coincides with the point from which the opposite arch springs. This makes the arch higher
in relation to its width than a semi-circular arch which is exactly half as high as it is wide.
Example - Windows in the Chapter House at York Minster show the equilateral arch
with typical circular motifs in the tracery.
Flamboyant Arch (1350-1520)
Flamboyant style is the phase of late Gothic architecture in 15th-century France and Spain.
It evolved out of the Rayonnant style’s (1240-1350) increasing emphasis on decoration. Its
most striking feature is the dominance in stone window tracery of a flame like S-shaped
curve. Wall surface was reduced to the minimum to allow an almost continuous window
expanse. Structural logic was obscured by covering buildings with elaborate tracery.
Flamboyant (from French flamboyant, "flaming") is the name given to a florid style
of late Gothic architecture in vogue in France from about 1350 until superseded by
the Renaissance architecture during the early 16th century.
The term is sometimes used of the early period of English Gothic architecture usually called
the Decorated Style.
The name derives from the flame-like windings of its tracery and the dramatic
lengthening of gables and the tops of arches.
It is characterized chiefly by ornate tracery forms that, by their suggestion of flames,
gave the style its name. Although these free-flowing patterns in lines of double curvature
originated in the English Decorated Gothic
Examples - the west chapels of Amiens Cathedral; the northern spire of Chartres Cathedral.
Depressed Arch (Perpendicular Arch)
The Depressed or four-centred arch is much wider than its height and gives the visual
effect of having been flattened under pressure. Its structure is achieved by drafting two arcs
which rise steeply from each springing point on a small radius and then turn into two arches
with a wide radius and much lower springing point.
The style, known as Perpendicular, that evolved from this treatment is specific to England,
although very similar to contemporary Spanish style in particular, and was employed to
great effect through the 15th century and first half of the 16th as Renaissance styles were
much slower to arrive in England than in Italy and France
Important Cathedrals of Gothic Period:1) St. Denis and Abbot Suger, Paris, France
The Abbey Church of St. Denis was rebuilt between 1137 and 1144 by Abbot Suger (chief
advisor of Louis VI) just outside the city of Paris and is the first kind of architecture in
Gothic Style.
Along with the choir plan, pointed arch and ribbed groined vaults, Saint Denis gave
emphasis to strict geometric planning and quest for luminosity.
“Harmony” (that is the perfect relationship among parts in terms of mathematical
proportions or ratio) is the source of all beauty. Since it demonstrates the law according to
which the divine reason has constructed the universe – that “miraculous” light that floods
the choir through the most sacred windows became the Light Divine – a mystic exposure
of the spirit of God.
Abbot Suger described an ideal church which will fill the church with “most luminous
windows”. He believed that the light which flooded the church would bring faithful closer
to god.
The symbolic interpretation of light and numerical harmony which had been established
over the centuries in Christian thought became the most important characteristics of the
St. Denis Church.
During its rebuilding by Suger used innovative structural and decorative features created
first truly Gothic Building.
It now stands on a large Cruciform building of “Basalica” form, that is, it has a central nave
with lower aisles and clerestory windows. It has an additional aisle on the northern side
formed of a row of chapels. The west front has 3 porches, a rose window and one tower
on the southern side.
In 1837, lightning struck the spire of the north tower (86 metres high) and damaged it
severely. Three years later, the north tower was once again damaged by a storm. The
spire was then disassembled by the architect, as well as the upper part of the tower, and
the original stones were stored at the rear of the basilica.
2) Notre -Dame, Paris, France (1163-1250)
Notre –Dame Cathedral dedicated to “The Virgin Mary” at Paris begun in 1163.
The plan with emphasis on the longitudinal (lengthwise) axis is extraordinary compact
and unified.
The double ambulatory of the choir continues directly into aisles and the short
transepts barely exceed the width of the facade.
The cathedral has a nave and four side aisles. In the nave can be seen a conservative
approach keeping the "look of the wall" which is associated with Romanesque style rather
than Gothic. A Gothic look can be found in the ribbed vaults of six parts (sixpartite).
The façade of the cathedral is designed as a big square divided by vertical and horizontal
lines creating a grid pattern with rose window in the centre. The entrance to the cathedral
looks like a triumphal arch and radiates a sense of power. Thus the west facade gives the
most monumental aspect to the cathedral.
Flying buttresses were added to the structure in 1180. These supports, which lean on pillars
standing around the outer walls of the cathedral, absorb the pressure of the vault outward and
downward. Thus, they liberate the walls from carrying the load. The buttresses (the
“heavy bones” of the structural skeleton) are not visible from inside.
There are five bells in Notre Dame of Paris located in different parts of the cathedral. The
biggest one is Emmanuel, a really big bell with over 13 tons weight which was used to
mark the hours and church services.
3) Charters Cathedral, France (1145-1220)
The foundation of Chartres cathedral is an earlier Romanesque church, from the
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beginning of the 11 century, which was burned down in 1194 by a terrible fire.
But second rebuilding began soon. Thus construction proceeded in several stages and
never entirely finished. The church incorporates an evolutionary rather than a systematic
harmony. For examples, the two west towers though similar are by no means identical.
Moreover their spires (a tapering on top of the church tower) are radically different. The
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north spire on the left dates from the early 16 century nearly 300 years later than the
other.
The most striking feature of the church is flying buttresses whose massing lends a
powerfully organic presence of the semi-circular apse at the east end with its
seven subsidiary chapels.
The western façade shows a game of proportions in the division of the wall into horizontal
and vertical areas. The use of units of two and three parts appears repeatedly. The arches
in the façade appear in pairs and threes.
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The rose window, which is huge, was built in the 13 century and covers an area of
3150 square meters. It was built in drilled stone.
Chartres Cathedral demonstrates the tremendous advantage of the pointed arch. We can
see a combination of the pointed arch with rectangular and irregular bays, and the total
liberation of the ground plan. Here was enabled the construction of various heights of
ribbed vaults growing from one column. The height of the pointed arch could be totally
controlled by the designer.
As for stained glass, Chartres Cathedral is the only one where the original light has
survived. Except for eight windows at the choir and four windows in the transept, which
were demolished in 1791, all the windows have survived since the Middle Ages. The interior
of the church bathes in light dark purple light, and has an indescribable mysterious quality.
The light creates a "supernatural" sense, expressing an escape from everyday life, and
distancing from the material world.
4) Reims (reemz) Cathedral, France (1225-99)
A Gothic cathedral, which continues the tradition of Gothic cathedrals, and also introduces
innovations, is the Cathedral of Reims (1211-1299) which was a stage in the development
of the Gothic style, between Chartres and Amiens. This cathedral was closely related to the
history of the kings of France, and was nicknamed "Queen of the French Churches." Its first
architect was probably Jean D'Orbais.
The novelty of Reims lies in the refinement in architecture and the tight integration
between architecture and sculpture that had never been so close to each other as in
this cathedral.
While Chartres introduced technical solutions, Reims showed wealth of motifs in its details.
The architect of Reims designed a completely new type of window, a window called
"Gothic window" - a tracery window. In the uniform decoration of the capitals of columns,
Rheims uses a unique decorative design that imitates natural leaves, to the extent that was
possible.
The entrance instead of being recessed, are projected forward as gabled porches with
windows in place of tympanum (a triangular place forming in centre of pediment) above
the doorways.
The gallery of loyal statues has been raised till the third storey. The rose window
has become taller and narrower than before.
The multitude of pinnacles further accentuated the restless upward pointing movements.
The Reims has a total finished length of 489 feet (149.2 metres)—about 26 feet (8
metres) longer than Chartres—with an interior length of 455 feet (138.7 metres) and
a nave reaching 377 feet (115 metres). The twin towers in the west facade have a height of
266 feet (81 metres).
5) Amiens (am-yan) Cathedral, France (1220-1270)
In Amiens Cathedral the Gothic style reached the peak of its development. The fire that
broke out in the cathedral in the site, allowed the construction of a new cathedral, which
was built during the years 1220-1270. We know its architects' names - Robert De
Luzarches, Thomas De Cormont and his son.
The breathtaking height has become dominant aim both technically and aesthetically.
Skeleton construction is carried to its most precarious (unstable, shaky) limits.
The inner logic of the system forcefully asserts itself in the shape of the vaults,
stretched tight and as thin as membranes.
In the expanded window area which now includes the triforium so that the entire
wall above the nave arcade becomes a Clerestory.
Features of English Gothic Cathedrals
Unlike French cathedrals, English Gothic cathedrals are moderate in height, and
narrower.
The transepts of the English Gothic cathedrals, unlike the French, are always
noticeably sticking out from the nave at the sides.
The central tower is much emphasized, and the eastern end of the church is squareshaped and serves as a substitute for Romanesque ambulatory. Rarely, the western towers
competed with the central tower.
The western façade was highlighted, but generally less than in France. The entrance
with three gates was not customary.
In most English Gothic cathedrals, unlike in the French Gothic churches, the English
cathedrals' main entrance was not through the western doors, but through a side
door, which had the most beautiful decoration.
6) Salisbury Cathedral, England (1220-70)
The construction of Salisbury Cathedral began at the same year of the beginning
of Amiens Cathedral construction.
Salisbury cathedral has heavy walls supporting the arches. Here we do not find the
skeletal structure, which characterizes the French Gothic cathedrals.
The division of the wall, the arcade, triforium, and clerestory, are highlighted
by separating horizontal bars.
The double transept cathedral is a phenomenon, which was rare in France. The double
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transept idea came, in fact, from Cluny. Since the 11 century, there were close
relations between the Burgundy monasteries and the English ones.
Both in the exterior and interior design, in Salisbury Cathedral there is a prominent
emphasis on horizontal lines.
The lancet windows create a sense of order, simplicity, and even monotony. The
rib vaults are quadripartite.
Originally, the stained glasses of the cathedral were in dark and strong colours. In the
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14 century, a tower dominating the complex was built in the intersection area, 123 m
in height.
7) Milan Cathedral, Italy, Begun in 1386
Work on Italian Gothic churches often continued for hundreds of years. Such was the case
with Milan Cathedral, by far the largest Gothic church on Italian soil, as well as the one
most nearly comparable to northern structure.
Its construction begun in 1386 and was completed in 1910.
It structural design was the subject of a famous dispute between the local architects
and consulting experts from France and Germany.
Only the apse begun first and retain the original flavour of the building, which belong to
the late Flamboyant phase of Gothic architecture.
The main spire is 109 meters high. These can all be investigated up close on a
breathtaking walk on the roof. The huge building is made of brick faced with marble.
The cathedral's five wide naves are reflected in the hierarchic openings of the facade. Even
the transepts have aisles. The great windows of the choir are reputed to be the largest in
the world.
The forest of pinnacles, the tracery panels and the rich embellishment with
statuary identifies it as Late Gothic.
Entrance is from the north side of the cathedral. The Milan Cathedral is one of the largest
cathedrals in the world built on 14,000 square yards. It was designed to accommodate
40,000 worshipers.
UNIT 2 History of Furniture
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Chapter at a glance
1.1 Objectives
At the collusion of the Unit you will be able to:
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Understand the development of history of furniture from 12
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Century till early 18 Century in Europe.
Know the different characteristic of furniture in Gothic period
Know the distinct features of furniture in the period of Tudor,
Jacobean and Late Georgian style.
Know the various elements and motifs in furniture during early
Renaissance and later the Federal Design Furniture
1.2 Chapter at a glance
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Gothic Period
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Introduction
Materials
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Gothic Church & Castle Furniture
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Gothic Chairs
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Gothic tables
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Gothic Beds
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Gothic Chests
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Tudor / Elizabethan
  Introduction 
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Characteristic of Tudor Furniture
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Tudor Beds
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Tudor Chairs
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Tudor Tables
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Tudor Chests
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Tudor Stepped Buffets
Jacobean
  Introduction 
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Materials
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Characteristic of Jacobean Furniture
Renaissance – early
  Introduction 
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Characteristics of Furniture in Italy
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Characteristics of Furniture in France
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Characteristics of Furniture in Spain
Late Georgian
  Introduction 
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Characteristics of Georgian Furniture
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Different Era of Georgian Period
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Federal Design
  Introduction 
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Characteristics of Federal Furniture
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Distinct Feature of Federal Style
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Gothic Furniture
Gothic period design was influenced by Roman and Medieval architecture. Its initial period
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was 1150 to 1550 A.D., but saw a revival in the 19 century by Victorians.
Gothic furniture is characterized by ornate, unique artwork that contains the same
elements found in Gothic architecture. This architectural style is associated with church
design, and Gothic furniture was created to complement it. Specific design characteristics
that appear in the furniture are gargoyles, flying buttresses, and quatrefoil and trefoil
shapes. Pointed arches, tracery, heavy fabrics, and heavy woods are some other
characteristics of this type of furniture.
Believed to have originated in churches in the 13th century, Gothic furniture contains
intricate carvings, decorative paintings, and elaborate sculptures. Initially found in
wealthy homes. Decorating the surface with intricate foliage and motif designs is common
to most Gothic furniture items. Carvings of plants like vines, grapes and maple leaves are
characteristic of this style.
Materials used were varieties of hardwood which includes the walnut, rosewood, oak, and
other heavy woods used were finished with a dark patina.
Gothic furniture is very reflective of Gothic art, and motifs such as the linen-fold, the
rose, and the wheel were imported from architecture and incorporated into furniture.
Colors like gold, forest green, ruby, and purple were used to highlight the rich designs. Rich
fabrics such as leather, brocade, and velvet covered the frames as upholstery. Initially,
Gothic furniture started out by being very practical, simple, and robust.
Gothic church furniture
One of the finest examples of the Gothic period furniture is the cabinet in the treasury of
the Cathedral of Noyon, dating from the end of the 13th century. It represents the
painted Gothic furniture at its best.
All the panels are beautifully painted both inside and outside, and the upper part is richly
decorated with sculptures. The side panels are displaying v-shapes painted in white and
yellow. Most probably, the cabinet was used to store utensils used in the religious
service. In the Medieval churches treasuries there were also portable cabinets, used to
keep precious relics.
Gothic castle furniture
Castles belonged to the upper class, so the furniture was of better quality, and in a
higher number then in ordinary houses.
Gothic chairs
The chairs were highly praised pieces of Gothic furniture. Because they were more
attached to personal use, their precious fabrics were meant to match the richness of their
owners' clothes.
For quite a while, in each room of the feudal residences there was only a chair, that of
the feudal lord, while the other persons were using benches, or flat chests.
In the 12th century, the chairs were either rectangular, with a low back and legs continuing
above the seat, or circular, with the back of the same height as the armrest.
In the 13th century, the polygonal shape became characteristic for the "chairs of
honour" reserved to the lords.
The Gothic style chairs followed the evolution of fashion, their shape adapting to the
new clothing styles. Enriched with sculptures, they became heavier and larger. The chairs
installed in the main hall of the castle became similar to the royal thrones.
Gothic beds
Gothic beds began to gain in luxury starting with the 12th century. They had refined
ornaments, sculpted or painted, with mattresses and blankets richly embroidered.
The bed curtains were attached to transversal beams, with or without a canopy.
The bed is surrounded by lavish draperies, suspended from hooks, cords or wooden rods.
In the 14th century, the wooden part of the bed began to be hidden by curtains, while
the ornamented bed head became higher.
Especially in the princes' residences, beds were draped by precious fabrics, heavily
embroidered with gold threads. The 15th century added to the luxury of mattresses
and blankets.
Gothic tables
The Gothic tables were usually rectangular. In the grand hall of the castles sometimes
there were ornamental, sculpted tables, made of stone or marble.
The rich often had tables made of bronze, silver or gold. It was the custom for lords
and kings to use a separate table to eat, thus these tables were long and narrow.
Gothic chests
The chests were initially meant to be used for travel, but later they became a fixed piece
of the Gothic interior.
In the Middle Ages there was no room without its own chest.
In the 13th century, the craftsmen started to extensively use the "Cathedral" style of
ornamentation, consisting of motifs like the tracery, trefoil, quatrefoil.
The splendid chests were decorated with elaborated sculptures, their panels having
a strong architectural character.
Other Gothic furniture pieces were the sculpted benches, with a shape close to the modern
bench. Sometimes they could serve a dual purpose, resembling a flattened, long chest.
History of Tudor / Elizabethan Furniture
The Tudor period is the period between 1485 and 1603 in England and Wales. The history
begins with the rule of the Tudor dynasty in England whose first monarch was Henry
VII (1457–1509) and lasted until the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603. This event signifies
the end of the Middle Ages in Britain and supposedly the historic beginning of English
Renaissance.
Characteristics of Tudor Furniture
Early Tudor furniture was very similar to the medieval furniture and Gothic furniture
periods preceding it. Ordinary people had very few furniture possessions and even in the
large houses of the wealthy there would be only beds, benches, stools, tables, and
coffers. Chairs were reserved for the owner of homes when presiding over meals in the
hall - their guests made do with joint stools.
Characteristic of this style is the enrichment of every surface with flamboyant carved,
turned, inlaid, and painted decoration in the spirit of the English Renaissance.
Furniture of the Tudor period is large, detailed, and provides a minimum of comfort.
Though England at the time was embarking on its own version of the Renaissance,
homes were still spare in furnishings. To fill the large spaces of the emerging Tudor style
architecture, craftsmen simply made very large furniture.
The Tudor period was one of beautiful woodwork, though it was still heavy and sparse by
modern standards. Sideboards became fashionable as a way to display plate. The feather
bed made an appearance, replacing the straw mattress.
Elaborate four poster beds were the mode.
Tudor furniture was highly ornate, carved and heavy and made of oak, fruitwood
and walnut which were obtained locally.
Tudor Beds
The poor Tudors slept on straw pallets or on rough mats which were covered with a
sheet. There were under covers and a log was used instead of a bolster or pillow.
The wealthy Tudors purchased Four-poster beds. The elaborate four poster beds consisted of a
headboard with carved panels, four carved posts, a tester and valance of embroidered
materials. Heavy curtains were draped from the posts allowing privacy. Sumptuous
embroidered covers made with the finest materials were laid over the mattress
and pillows. The mattresses were made with down and feather.
Tudor Chairs
The poor Tudors could not afford the luxury of individual chairs, in fact, chairs did not become
common items of furniture to sit on. Individual chairs were therefore rare and were designed
with high straight backs. The seat and arms were sometimes stuffed with rushes.
The types of chairs most associated with Tudor era are the ‘settle chairs’ which had high
straight backs and a panelled storage space was built into the bottom of the chair.
Tudor Tables
Wooden benches were the most common type and used for general use. Trestle tables
were used for dinning which enabled quick removal after the meal to make room for
entertainment or for the servants to sleep. There were some free-standing tables which
were occasionally covered with a linen cloth. Chests were used for storage, were also
used as both tables and chairs.
Tudor Chests
Various types of highly practical chests were used during the Tudor period. The chests
used as permanent pieces of furniture which were designed with legs to keep the chests
off the damp floors.
In the crafting of chests, Mortise and Tenon joints are seen. These chests also tended to be
highly ornate and heavy. Some chests were specifically designed for travelling which
came without feet or legs for easier loading and transport. These were extremely
important to the wealthy Tudor way of life where the royal court constantly moved from
one residence to another.
Tudor Buffets
The Tudor furniture referred to as “Stepped Buffets” were a series of wooden planks with
number of stepped shelves. The number of shelves indicated wealth and rank. The
‘Stepped Buffets’ were covered with rich drapes and assembled for use at banquets and
feasts. The finest plates of gold or silver were displayed on the Step Buffet and servants
served from them.
These “Stepped Buffets” were the predecessors of the “Sideboard’ and the word ‘Buffet’
is now in common use to describe a ‘help yourself’ meal of ‘finger food’.
Jacobean Furniture
The Jacobean period encompassed most of the 1600s, beginning with the coronation of
King James in 1603 and ending when King James II fled from England in 1688. Jacobean
style is English Early Renaissance architecture and decoration. It formed a transition
between Elizabethan (Tudor) and pure Renaissance style and was characterized by “very
sturdy” furniture which was usually massive in size, notoriously uncomfortable and made
to last.
Prior to this era, furniture was simple and functional. Seating was limited to plain stools
and benches, and mattresses were often laid directly on the floor.
Jacobean furniture is characterized by simple construction techniques, rectangular lines,
and elaborates decoration. These items were designed first as a way for the upper classes to
flaunt their wealth. Comfort was secondary, and in fact, to the modern owner, Jacobean chairs
and daybeds would be almost unusable except as a showpiece. These astronomically expensive
pieces were designed to stay within the confines of the castle and serve as part of the
inheritance. Beds, chests, and even tables and chairs were built to the same massive
scale as many of the castles and fortresses of the era.
Early immigrants to the American colonies imitated Jacobean furniture as best they could,
developing the Early American style. Later, in the late 1800s and early 1900s, Jacobean
style furnishings enjoyed a brief revival before they were cast aside in favour of more
comfortable pieces. The majority of Jacobean style furniture today is reproductions,
produced during the revival period. Original furniture is incredibly rare outside the UK; even
there, its most commonly found in museums.
Wood
Most Jacobean furniture is constructed of heavy, solid Oak, although Pine was sometimes
used. Maple being slightly easier to work was used to create turned legs.
Characteristics
The most definitive characteristic of Jacobean furniture is the elaborate carvings used as
decoration. Although the furniture itself was constructed primitively with straight lines
and simple Mortise and Tenon Joints, furniture makers of the Jacobean era pulled out all
the stops when it came to decoration, especially later in the era as the Baroque influence
took hold.
Carved panels incorporating lots of scrolls and almost abstract floral designs were popular,
as were inlays and unusual veneers. Paint was sometimes used to further embellish these
elaborate pieces.
The legs of chairs and cabinets, as well as the posts of four poster beds, were frequently
embellished with elaborate turning, but little attention was paid to the feet themselves, which
were usually left as heavy-looking blocks. The legs and backs of chairs were straight up and
down, which made them uncomfortable to sit on and prone to tipping over.
Upholstery was decidedly different than it is today, consisting of very little (if any) padding
and expensive fabrics, including silks, tapestries, and elaborate crewelwork.
Alternatively, many chairs had woven cane seats.
All this led to furniture with a very formal appearance. In fact, what many people refer
to today as the “gothic” style is actually Jacobean.
Early Renaissance Furniture
The Renaissance means "Re-birth", was a cultural movement that spanned the period
roughly from the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and
later spreading to the rest of Europe. The availability of paper and the invention of printing
press resulted in spreading of ideas from the later 15th century, but the changes of the
Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across Europe.
Characteristic of Furniture in Italy
From the beginning of the Renaissance in the early 15th century, there were changes in
furniture forms that were to spread over Europe. The growth of a wealthy and
powerful bourgeoisie caused the building of more substantial houses and a demand for
good furniture.
The furniture of the early Italian Renaissance is often restrained, with beautiful, simple
designs carved in walnut. For more elaborate work, sculpture in low relief
and stucco modelled in intricate patterns were much used. The stucco
was usually gilded all over and picked out in bright colours.
The motifs popular with the Italian carver included- cupids, grotesque masks,
scrolled foliage, and strap work.
The fixed writing desk is the forerunner of the writing bureau which became
an indispensable article of furniture as writing became more general.
The cassone, or marriage coffer (hope chest), was a form on which the craftsman’s skill was
lavished. In addition to elaborate relief work and gilding, these coffers often were painted
on the front and sides and occasionally inside the lid as well, with appropriate biblical
or mythological scenes.
A type of chair called a Sgabello was much favoured at this time in Italy. The seat was a
small wooden slab, generally octagonal, supported at front and back by solid boards cut
into an ornamental shape. An earlier variety was supported by two legs at the front and
one in the rear; a solid piece of wood formed the back.
Another chair of the period was the folding X-shaped chair, sometimes called a Dante chair.
Tables were generally oblong, supported by columns, consoles (brackets), or terminal
figures, with a long central stretcher running from end to end. Italian Renaissance
furniture forms reshaped the furniture of the remainder of Europe.
Characteristics of Furniture in France
The French Renaissance of furniture can be divided into two stages.
First was a period of transition and adaptation; during the reign of Louis XII and the first
part of the reign of Francis I, the pieces were basically Gothic in form, and Gothic
ornament was mixed with the cupids, medallion heads, and grotesque decorations of the
incoming Renaissance style.
During the second phase, from the end of the reign of Francis I, the new style displaced
the Gothic. The more exuberant arabesque shapes of Renaissance decoration, however,
gave way to increasingly architectural design.
The Oak was almost entirely superseded by walnut.
French furniture of the 16th century was remarkably graceful and delicate; it was enriched
with inlay of small plaques of figured marble and semiprecious stones, sometimes with
inlay or marquetry of ivory, mother-of-pearl, and different coloured woods.
Characteristic of Furniture in Spain
Because of the long occupation of Spain by the Moors, a style called “Mudejar”
evolved. While furniture in this style remained in form essentially European, decoration
had an oriental flavour.
A type of cabinet known as “Vargueno” was typically Spanish. The upper part, in chest
form, with drawers inside, had a fall front (a hinged writing surface that opened by falling
forward), often elaborately mounted in wrought iron and backed by velvet, with a
massive iron lock. The cabinets were richly carved, painted, gilded, and inlaid with ivory in
a Moorish manner. There was a tendency for Italian models to be followed in the furniture
of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Late Georgian Furniture
The Georgian furniture style was during the reign of George I, George II, George III in Great
Britain. Georgian style includes home furnishings that date from the mid 18th century to the
mid 19th century. It was also during this time that the first Europeans settled in the America,
so many early American furnishings were inspired by Georgian design.
Characteristic of Georgian Furniture
The most important change that occurred in the furniture in Georgian style was the
replacement of walnut by mahogany. Compared to walnut, mahogany is strong and
durable. It's naturally water resistant, and also offers natural resistance against worms
and other pests.
Much Georgian furniture design characteristics came in direct response to the heavy,
Gothic style of the time. In contrast to these dark and heavy pieces, Georgian furniture
styles are much lighter and more refined.
The legs of furniture are elaborately carved terminating in a pad or ball-and-claw foot
with muted colours.
Brass handles and hardware were common on many types of Georgian furniture, as
were carved egg-and-dart, shell, or lion's-head patterns.
Furniture was designed to match the majestic Neo-Palladian architectures the
aristocracy favoured.
Curved lines left place to straight forms with intricate and abundant ornaments applied
in low-relief.
Separate designers distinguished themselves in the late Georgian period which is
known as the "The Golden Age of Furniture". Important designers were: Thomas
Chippendale, George Hepplewhite, Robert Adam.
Three Different Era of Georgian Period
The Georgian period is often divided into three eras, with a different style of furniture
distinct to each period. The early Georgian era lasted from roughly 1745 to 1780. During
this time, Georgian furniture was characterized by its neo-Palladian design, which was
inspired by art and architecture of Italy. Early Georgian works were often over-the-top in
terms of design and size, and were so expensive that only the very rich could afford them.
By the mid-Georgian period, furniture and design was more heavily based on a neoclassical
style, with additional inspiration from the Greeks and Chinese. Furnishings during this era
emphasized proportion and balance, and pieces were smaller and more affordable overall.
The late Georgian period is often referred to as the golden age of furniture, and it
was during this time that Georgian design hit its peak. The designers Chippendale and
Hepplewhite were two of the most celebrated furniture makers of the period.
Federal Design Furniture
Federal furniture refers to American furniture produced in the Federal Period, which lasted
from approximately 1780-88 to 1820-23. The notable furniture makers who worked in
the federal style included - Duncan Phyfe and Charles-Honoré Lannuier. It was influenced
by the Georgian and Adam styles, and was superseded by the American Empire style.
Furniture in this style are characterized by their sharply geometric forms, legs that are
usually straight rather than curved, contrasting veneers, and geometric inlay patterns on
otherwise flat surfaces. Pictorial motifs, when extant, usually reference the new federal
government with symbols such as the eagle.
This style of furniture is called "neoclassical" or sometimes "American
neoclassical" outside of U.S. borders.
The three decades that followed the formation of the United States are referred to as the
Federal era in recognition of the early development of the national government. The
Federal style of houses and furnishings created during this period was heavily influenced by
the Neo-classical designs favoured in Great Britain since the 1760s, which stemmed from
a renewed interest in classical Greece and Rome.
Like the neoclassical furniture of Europe that inspired it, Federal style furniture looked to
classic Greek and Roman designs for its cues. In fact, neoclassical style got its start in Europe
after the ruins of Pompeii were excavated and examples of Roman furniture were
discovered. In general terms, Federal furniture is wood furniture featuring coloured inlays
and geometric designs.
Characteristics of Federal Design
The most defining characteristic of Federal furniture is that the furniture
pieces are almost always made of Mahogany and they feature several colour
inlays and geometric designs imbibed in them.
Some, more of the instantly recognizable characteristics of this style of
furniture is that it is extremely light, feature long straight lines, tapered legs and
contrasting veneers.
The defining feature of this style though, was that it greatly contradicted the
furniture style that was present at that time. The most predominant of them
was the American Chippendale style. This style relied on using really heavy
wood and heavy intricate designs, which in some respects made the furniture
item, appear overworked and extremely pretentious.
The distinct features of Federal Style furniture are below:
1) Appearance was Graceful and refined
2) The chair arms sloping downwards to meet the posts from the seat.
3) The chair back material was Upholstered and wooden
4)
5)
6)
7)
The shape of Chair back was Fiddle back, rectangular and square.
The material of chair seat was Rush, Upholstered or wood.
The shape of the chair seat was either Horseshoe or square
Drawer had pull Mushroom shaped brass knob and loop bail handle.
8) The fabric was Damask or tapestry.
9) Furniture was finished with Oil varnish or paint.
10) Hardware material used was mainly Brass.
11) Dovetail joint was used.
12) Furniture had a linear quality with gentle curving lines.
13) Motifs used were of pineapple, eagle, star, shell and conch shell,
ribbons, fruit baskets, bunches of grapes, half moons, bellflowers,
fans, vase and many more.
14) Ornamentation was done by Banding, carving, fluting, gilding, inlay
and stencilling.
15) Material was mainly Mahogany but also Black Walnut, Cherry,
Fruitwood, Maple, Rosewood and Satinwood were also used.
Initially the Federal style furniture was put into use in homes of wealthy people
of high social standing, as it signified the great taste for contemporary European
culture. But over a period of time the common man became more familiar with
this style of furniture and started acquiring lesser grade and cheaper forms of
this style till it was entirely ingrained in the culture and lifestyle of Americans all
over the country. Even libraries and other public buildings soon began adopting
this style furniture in their midst.
UNIT 3 History of Furniture
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Chapter at a glance
1.1 Objectives
At the conclusion of the Unit you will be able to:
Understand the impact of classical features of Egyptian,
Greek and Roman civilizations on the furniture during the
periods of its revival.
Know the effect of urbanization, spread of manufacturing and
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mechanization on furniture during 18 & 19 century
in America.
Know about the changes in the characteristics of
furniture after Napoleon Bonaparte declaring himself as
Empire of France.
Know why furniture history changed forever through
the Victorian period.
1.2 Chapter at a glance
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Greek revival Furniture
Introduction
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Characteristic of Greek Revival Furniture
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Characteristics of Seating Furniture
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Characteristics of Tables
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Characteristics of Storage
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Characteristics of Beds
Victorian Age Furniture
Introduction
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Influences on Victorian age furniture
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  Characteristics of Victorian Furniture 
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Materials
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Characteristics of Chairs
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Famous Designers
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French Furniture
Introduction
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Characteristics of French Empire Style Furniture
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Napoleon III Style Furniture
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Greek Revival Furniture
The Greek revival was a movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries,
predominantly in Northern Europe and the United States. A product
of Hellenism, it may be looked upon as the last phase in the development of Neoclassical furniture.
Nineteenth-century American architecture and furniture design was
characterized by a parade of different styles that purported to take their
inspiration from the design vocabulary of the past. In reaction to rapid
urbanization, the spread of manufacturing and mechanization, the massive influx
of poor immigrants, and the Civil War of 1812, wealthy members of American
society embraced Romanticism, the reigning philosophy of the day, which urged a
re-examination of the "simple" ways of the past in order to find happiness in
the more complicated present. The many revival styles generated by this
sensibility, such as Greek Revival, Gothic Revival, Egyptian Revival, Rococo
Revival, Renaissance Revival. Some of these revival styles were only found in
furniture design, while others were used for a house's exterior and interior
design as well.
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By the end of the first quarter of the 19 century, America was feeling the
powerful effects of the Industrial Revolution. While some furniture
manufacturer such as Duncan Phyfe and Allison had already begun to use the
machinery and assembly-line technique, by 1825 it was possible to make nearly
the entire frame for furniture by machine. As a result time honoured pride in
craftsmanship began to decline in favour of mass production. The increasing
demand for comfort influenced the design of furniture and stimulates more
elaborate tufted upholstery. Although many designers and furniture
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manufacturers of the 19 century were convinced they were actually making
replicas of antiques furniture following the lines of earlier models, a close look
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generally distinguish the 19 century piece from the earlier prototype.
Characteristic of Greek Revival Furniture
Some of the characteristics of Greek Revival furniture were straight lines and a
simplistic design, while incorporating finishes reminiscent of gold plating and
marble stonework. Slim lines and satin tapestry were also an important part of
the furniture of this period.
Motifs - Architectural details and motifs come primarily from Greece, but also
from Rome and Egypt. They include egg and dart, bead, and dentil mouldings,
triglyphs and metopes, honeysuckles, anthemion, acanthus leaves, and the fret or
key. Interiors, furniture, and decorative arts exhibit a greater range of motifs
from more sources, including Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Renaissance. These
include sphinxes, battered or pylon forms paw feet, Egyptian or classical figures,
lyres, harps, swans, dolphins, eagles, caryatids, serpents, arabesques, and
columns.
Seating Furniture
Seating furniture often is part of suites of furnishings that include chairs, sofas,
window seats, card tables and pier tables in matching design. Most rooms have
numerous chairs of which the Greek Klismos is the most common antique form.
Leg types include turned, X-shaped, cornucopia, sabre and quadrangular.
Chairs backs may have horizontal, vase, eagle or lyre splats. Animal feet,
brass-paw toecaps, and casters are common. Reeding and carved or painted
classical motifs may highlights backs and rails. Chairs with caned seats usually
have cushions with tassels for comfort.
Fancy chairs are popular versions of klismos style. They have rush seats, turned
legs and stencilled decoration and may be painted black, yellow or green. To
stimulate the gilding, bronze dust may be sprinkled onto still-wet varnish.
Plain sofa, as they are called has identical scrolled ends, a long wooden crest,
and lion’s paw or cornucopia feet. Expensive examples feature carving, reeding
or fluting and veneer.
Tables
Centre tables with round wooden tops often have central pedestals that may be
carved or fluted, resting on a circular, triangular or rectangular feet.
Some centre tables have caryatid, dolphin, scrolled or bracket support.
Card tables have pedestals that may be fluted or shaped into lyres, eagles, or
caryatids.
Dining tables continue to be made in pieces so they can be taken apart when
not in use. Pedestals (called pillar or claw) are heavier and may have richly
carved or brass paw feet. Rectangular pier tables have column or scroll support
the marble tops.
Mirror backs double the apartment size and reflect light. Below the shelf are
rounded or paw feet that may be ebonized or painted green with inlaid brass
rings.
Storage - Chest Drawer, Wardrobe, Desk and Bookcases
The sideboard which dominates the dining room is one of the most impressive
pieces in the house used for display and storage it has drawers and doors on the
sides and a long drawer in the centre with pediment above. Some side boards
have columns or pilasters on the corners and paw feet.
Chests of drawers in bedchambers or bureaus as American call them have
three or four drawers with an overhanging top and columns on each side.
Desks and bookcases have flat tops, glass doors protect books from sunlight.
The less popular “secretaire a abattant” is a rectangular with pediment and drop
front.
Wardrobes are tall and massive with two doors. Columns and or paw feet
may embellish them.
Bed
Four poster beds continue in use but posts are heavier and carved with classical
motifs. A heavy canopy with carved mouldings often rest on the posts. A tall
carved headboard and or pediment add to the grandeur. Bed hangings remain
opulent with swags or other complicated designs forming balances. Over the bed
a rounded canopy may attached to the wall and support draped hangings of
richly trimmed silk, cottons or wool sometimes a contrast lining.
Victorian Age furniture
1837 - 1901
The Victorian age of the United Kingdom was the period of Queen Victoria's
reign from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901.
Influences on Victorian Age Furniture
The Victorian era is known for its interpretation and eclectic revival of historic
styles mixed with the introduction of Middle East and Asian influences in
furniture, fittings, and interior decoration. The Arts and Crafts movement,
the aesthetic movement, Anglo-Japanese style, and Art Nouveau style have
their beginnings in the late Victorian era.
Victorian design is widely viewed as having indulged in a grand excess of
ornament. There was not one dominant style of furniture in the Victorian period.
Designers rather used and modified many styles taken from various time
periods in history like Gothic, Tudor/Elizabethan, English Rococo, Neoclassical
and others. The Gothic and Rococo revival style were the most common styles to
be seen in furniture during this time in history.
There was plenty of furniture made due to change in history of methods of
manufacturer, the machine had taken over and was able to produce mass amounts
of Victorian furniture to satisfy the vast demand by middle class people.
Furniture history changed forever through the Victorian period. It
became desirable to have a home laden with furniture to show the status.
Throughout the history of Queen Victoria identified herself with the middle
class. Therefore the furniture of this period was made for an ever increasing
middle class population in United Kingdom.
Characteristics of Victorian Furniture
The Victorian age furniture draws its influence from gothic forms with heavy
proportions, dark finish, elaborate carving, and ornamentation. Victorian age
furniture has a strong Rococo and Louis XV influence. Exaggerated curves,
lush upholstery and decorative carvings are featured.
Samuel Pratt patented in 1828 the coiled spring for use in upholstery. To
accommodate the springs in chairs, upholstery on seat had to be improved in
quality and seats were made deeper. This meant that chair legs became
shorter. The early part of this period, machines beginning to replace hand
labour in furniture production.
Victorians colours were rich and dark. Ruby Red, Forest Green or Blue with
heavy damask pattern was prominent. The colour palette was initially restricted
until the mastering of chemical process dying. Peacock Greens and Blues,
Magentas, Violets and Raw Pink burst into the scene.
Fabrics were highly patterned. Velvet and damask were of choice for
winter, switching to cotton and chintz for the cooler summer months.
The factories had changed, the designers of Victorian age no longer had
direct contact with the customer.
Materials
Mahogany and Rosewood were the woods of choice with Oak (usually stained
dark) making something of a comeback from the depths of time. Burr Walnut
and Ebony was also used.
Tables had often marble tops.
Iron also made its appearance in the early Victorian furniture style.
Victorian furniture like chiffoniers and sideboards were often inlayed with ivory.
Chairs
Buttoned upholstery of armchairs was with low arms scrolled at the front. Chairs
also had ballooned back and spoon back. Thonet’s steam bent chair was also
very popular.
Chesterfield was made with fat layer of well sprung upholstery named after
Earl of Chesterfield.
Ladies easy chairs were without arms because of the vastness of skirts.
Late Victorian easy chairs removed the fully upholstered arms to help lighten up the
appearance. It sometime had a small drawer fitted in front to hold a spittoon.
Famous Designers of the Victorian Period:1)
2)
3)
4)
William Morris
William de Morgan
Charles Frederick Worth
Charles Eastlake
French Empire style furniture
1804 -1814
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Throughout the early 19 Century the French Empire Style evolved
from court of Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.
The furniture design during the rule of France by Napoleon I (1769 1821) who became Emperor (1804 - 1814) was based on aspects of the
Roman Empire. It is the second phase of neoclassicism which is also
called "Directoire", after a government system.
Characteristics of French/ Empire Style Furniture
French style furniture used classical designs and geometric form while retaining
an air of fineness along with soft draped fabrics and highly polished veneers.
Figured and striped silks made at Lyon were extensively used.
Furniture typically had symbols and ornaments borrowed from the
glorious ancient Egypt, Greek and Roman empires.
The French or Empire style of Furniture displayed the ideal for severe forms in
its simple and rigid lines. It also eliminated almost all curving elements and
curved lines were largely restricted to only chairs and sofa. As a rule the curved
detail was in low relief and was occasionally gilded. Sometimes chairs were
painted in white, grey and straw coloured ground with curved details picked out
either in gold or in a strong contrasting colour.
Strong colours were prevalent in interiors introduced when French gentry
returned from their military session in Egypt. Softer colours were also used, lilac
being one of the most popular.
The furniture was made from heavy woods such as mahogany, fruitwood, yew,
elm, maple and ebony were also used and imported veneers from Africa and
West and East Indies colonies. Marble tops were popular as were Egyptian
motifs like sphinxes, winged griffins, hieroglyphics, urns, lions, cobra and the
Napoleonic symbols, the eagle, the bee, the initials "I" and a large "N."
The use of mouldings was almost abandoned. Even if they occur, they were of a
diminutive character, such as fillet or a narrow band.
Probably the most outstanding feature of the French furniture was its clear cut
silhouette. The corners were sharp and clear and any attempt to soften the
sharp right angles was discarded.
The block like appearance of the cabinet was further emphasized by large
uninterrupted flat surfaces of veneered mahogany. This use of flat uniform
surfaces of polished mahogany gave the cabinet work a singular massive look
that no form of ornamentation could ever relieve. The use of heavy bases was
also introduced to accentuate further the massive and block like appearance
of the cabinet work.
The handles of cabinets were used in form of either round or flat small knobs
ornamented with rosettes or lose ring handles to a circular back plate at the top.
The principle of symmetry was another pronounced feature of Empire style
furniture which was also extended to the arrangement of furniture. Thus
explains the stiff and formal look associated with so many interiors decorated in
the Empire style.
Marquetry and lacquer work were completely discarded. The inlaying of bands
of contrasting wood such as ebony and mahogany was occasionally employed
some of the ambitious pieces of mahogany cabinet were inlaid with bronze
and even silver, while brass and steel were substituted in less costly pieces.
Bronze Appliqués (Ormolu) - The practice of decorating the surface of furniture
with gilded bronze appliqués was an outstanding feature of the Empire style.
The French cabinetmaker realized the necessity for decorating the large flat
surfaces of polished mahogany and he placed the gilded bronze mounts in
accordance with his own artistic taste. The preferred decoration materials were
marble and tortoiseshell which was also used for ornaments.
These bronze appliqués, which were generally flat, were remarkable for the
purity of their outline and composition and for the jewel-like quality of their
workmanship. They were precise and extremely neat, and their chiselled
perfection and their superb chasing and gilding were exquisitely complimented
by the dark polished surfaces. They were found on practically every article of
furniture, and they even appeared on chairs and sofas.
Napoleon III style furniture
Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was president and second
Emperor in France (1852 - 1870). He was born in 1808 and died in 1873.
The Napoleon III (sometimes called Second Empire) period borrowed
elements from all the preceding style.
Mahogany and ebony were used with inlay in box, holly, pear, walnut,
porcelain, tortoise shell, pearl and ivory and ormolu ornaments.
The furniture production in France moved from highly skilled craft to
largely mechanized industry.
Unit 4 History of Furniture
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Chapter at a glance
1.1 Objectives
At the conclusion of this Unit you will be able to :
Know the features of furniture during the reign of Louis XIII, XIV & XV in
France.
Understand the relation of Baroque & Louis XIV style of furniture
Know the relation of Rococo and Louis XV style of furniture.
1.2 Chapter at a glance
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Characteristics of Louis XIII style furniture
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Materials used in the period
Characteristics of Chairs, Tables, Cabinets & Beds of this period
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Introduction
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Introduction
Louis XIV style furniture and Baroque
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Louis XIII style furniture
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Characteristics of Louis XIV style furniture
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Relation between Baroque and Louis XIV style
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Materials of the period
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Characteristics of Chairs, Tables, Beds and Chest / Armoire of this period
Louis XV style furniture – Rococo
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Introduction
Characteristics of Louis XV style furniture
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Relation of Rococo style with Louis XV style
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Materials of the period
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Characteristics of chair, tables, beds & cabinets of this period
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LOUIS XIII (1610-1643)
The Louis XIII style corresponds roughly to the first half of the seventeenth
century, spanning that time during which the essence of the Louis XIV style
was being developed. Because it is full of contradictions and comprises many
incongruous elements, the art of this epoch does not possess a really national
character. Spanish, Flemish, and Italian influences were all at work to
produce a curious intermingling and exchange of ideas.
Louis XIII style is best understood as the product of a more conservative (and
less wealthy) time. Religious wars had consumed resources of France until
the beginning of the Louis XIII era.
Characteristics of Louis XIII Furniture
Furniture was characterized by heavy carvings, and was monumental in scale.
Pieces like the bureau and sideboard featured moulded panelling in
geometric patterns.
The cabinet placed on a stand was a new design for the period.
Storage pieces were typical and reflected the need for a utilitarian function,
even in the pieces made for the king and his court.
The typical design themes were the diamond point, pyramid patterns, and
large-bun feet on cabinetry.
Louis XIII style drew on mannerist and arabesque; the rolling scrolling lines of
arabesque were usually two-dimensional and tended to lay flat as a
decorative element. Mannerist strange figures echoed the Dark Age's
connection to a world explained by superstition.
There is an organic quality to the Louis XIII style that the later styles lack.
By reaching back to the 1500s for design elements, Louis XIII pieces are
brooding and atmospheric. Their monumental design philosophy echoes the
dominance of the church at this time. Soaring humanist ideas and energy
had really not taken hold, as it would in later reigns.
Louis XIII style drew heavily from the furniture styles of Spain, Flanders,
and most importantly, Italy at this time.
At the beginning of the 17th century France greatly prospered. Damasks,
damascenes, fancy velvets, cloths of gold, taffetas, silk, wool, cotton and other
fibre mixtures, poplins, brocade, dimities( hard wearing cotton fabric woven
with stripes & checks), fustians(a thick hard-wearing twilled cloth with a short
nap) as well as fabrics of low price were made, and Italy soon was pushed into
the background.
Not only marquetry, ebony furniture and painted furniture were made, but
the oriental spirit during the age of Louis XIII became conspicuous in the
woods that were used and the styles of the fabrics.
Bedroom furniture became more luxurious and the walls were
commonly decorated with ornamental friezes above panelled wainscots
and bed draperies were used and canopies were in vogue.
Compared to the other three Louis periods, this style is more blunt and
primal, and less bold. It probably has less in common with the other three
later Louis styles that were styles until themselves versus an amalgamation of
styles that had occurred since the beginning of the Renaissance.
Chairs of Louis XIII
Many forms of chairs and sofas became common, and the divan and
console were products of the Louis the Thirteenth time.
Chairs became more comfortable during the Louis XIII, as the concept of a
comfortable place to sit and relax was just emerging. Louis XIII introduced
turnery, a style feature new to the time. Turnery might be used for legs or
stretchers, and these simple shapes created on a lathe can help identify pieces as
Louis XIII style. Ebony and walnut were popular construction materials.
Louis XIII chairs, as a rule, were more comfortable, and were more commonly
used for ordinary domestic purposes. Sometimes they were made in sets, and
were usually upholstered in velvet, brocade, tapestry, and needlework.
The legs of the low-back chair, which is stiff and square at all points, are
sometimes columnar in form, standing on a box frame resting on small bun
feet. The great majority of extant examples have, however, knobbed,
baluster, or spirally turned legs joined with an H-form stretcher, with an extra
stretcher joining the front legs above, which both strengthens and decorates
at the same time.
Cane was imported as seat coverings. Chairs were covered with leather or
fabrics and upholstered very heavily. Reception beds were introduced.
The Louis XIII period saw the introduction of the use of table covers and
scarf. Many of these trends remained in effect through to the great period
of French baroque furniture.
Tables of Louis XIII Style
The Louis XIII tables were richly carved or with the wood gilded with the legs
with or without the stretchers. They could also be enriched with gilded
bronze, marquetry or shell work with many tables’ tops made of marble.
The tables were usually covered with a cloth and a house of leather, serge or
tapestry. The cover reached the floor and above that another cloth was used.
Gradually the term table was dropped from the name and the furniture was
being known as console. The carving of the legs was displayed
mythological subjects.
The very popular Louis XIII style table was the ‘guerdon’ a small round table
on a baluster ending in three legs. It was made of various woods. When
pear-wood was used, it was stained black or painted.
Cabinets of Louis XIII Style
The fashionable ebony cabinets distinguished by their simple, square,
and massive structure.
Generally panelling was an important part of furniture decoration.
Incised foliage and floral scrolls were often engraved on the surface not
enriched with the very flat carvings, which chiefly depicted religious (Biblical),
allegorical or mythological themes.
The heavy exuberance of the decoration proclaimed it to be of Flemish
origin, or at least a slavish reproduction made in France.
The woods of the massive cabinets and chests of drawers were made of
oak, walnut, chestnut and sometimes ebony.
The cabinets of Louis XIII period made by Italian artists were sumptuous with
pilaster of lapis-lazuli, plates of embossed silver, painting and miniatures. The
cabinets with doors were more severe and architectural.
Beds of Louise XIII Style
The bed is highly decorative with wooden frame seldom visible. The posts of
the canopy are covered with the same materials as the curtains, painted or
sometimes plain. A bed was covered with various materials from tapestry,
brocade, damask, silk, velvet to serge, cloth or linen.
Another characteristic of bed was the “lil de baldaguin”, a bed with dais on
three sides. Its frame was of natural wood carved and gilded or covered with
rich material. The baldaquin replacing the canopy and supported by posts was
slightly smaller than the bed.
Louis XIV Style Furniture and Baroque
(1643-1715)
Louis XIV ruled France for 72 years until he died in 1715. It was the longest reign of any
French or other major European monarch. He was born in 1638. Louis XIV style
furniture were marked during the time period from 1643 to 1715.
It marks the transition from the massive rectilinear forms of furniture in the Louis XIV style
to the flat, curving motifs in Rococo forms of Louis XV style.
Characteristics of Louis XIV style Furniture
Baroque furniture is associated with Louis XIV. Louis XIV is a French furniture style of
rounded forms and curved lines.
World trade and the beginnings of empire were bringing a new level of wealth to the
crown, and Louis XIV used furnishings and grandness of the royal palace at Versailles as an
expression of wealth and power. The construction, during his reign, of The Chateau de
Versailles is one of the largest and most extravagant monuments in Europe.
The resources he used to create the 17th-century version of visual shock-and-awe in a
grand castle are also reflected in the more elaborate materials incorporated into the
Louis XIV style.
Louis XIV style borrowed from the Italian Baroque movement, using the sweeping S-curve
as well as bold composition that emphasized dynamic movement, and dramatic sculptural
elements that were symmetrically arranged.
Exaggerated fullness, dramatic juxtaposition of colour, and fondness for the exotic are also
strong themes that distinguish Louis XIV furnishings from Louis XIII.
Gilded carvings of fruit, beasts, flowers, and grotesque masks added visual and emotional
excitement to pieces from this time, but figures tended to be less haunted than similar
carvings from Louis XIII.
Classical motifs such as the pediment, columns, and capitals were also used in Louis XIV
style, but were utilized in new and unusual ways. Masks, heads of sphinxes and satyrs
were all included among the fashionable motifs modelled in gilded bronze.
Motifs like faces of gods, bearded fauns, arabesques, nymphs, goddesses, allegories,
cornucopia, cupids and foliage abounded. The sun was the royal emblem in the French
furniture.
Materials
Among the principal materials were used in Louis XIV furniture where pear, walnut, natural
woods and imported ebony were used. Materials like Walnut, rosewood, and mahogany
brought contrasts in veneering. Various other woods such as almond, boxwood, holly
were also used.
Gilded bronze decoration was popular. Copper, pewter, silver, tortoiseshell, mother-ofpearl was found in the marquetry. Richly carved chairs, canapes and tables, with
scrolled legs, where generally made more brilliant by gilding.
Solid-silver furniture was made, and other materials included ivory, tortoise-shell, brass,
horn. These materials were used to advertise the power of the king.
Oriental lacquer with rich and strong colourful decoration, were greatly admired by Louis
XIV and there was a great demand in France for lacquered cabinets and for lacquered panels
for screens.
Upholstered chairs and canapés were extremely fashionable. As a rule the colours of the
textiles were warm and brilliant, crimson being a favourite.
Embroidered and painted silks woven in China were used in the upholstery work on the
Court furniture as well as for window draperies and bed hangings.
Chairs of Louis XIV Style
The fauteuil or open-arm chair became popular with its more casual dimensions and was
typically carved with popular motifs of flora and fauna. During the Louis XIV reign, the
bureau and the commode came into wide use.
No piece of furniture embodies the characteristics of the Louis XIV style and of the period
itself more than the stately upholstered armchair with its air of imposing strength and
immobility.
Contributing to its greatness is the raked, rectangular upholstered back showing no wood
and of excessive height to frame the lofty headdresses, the seat almost big enough for two,
the great wooden down-curving arms invariably terminating into a wide volute and the legs
solidly joined with a heavy H- or X-form stretcher. The legs are tapering baluster-shaped,
sometimes pedestal-shaped, and very often scroll-shaped.
Beds of Louis XIV Style
Equally characteristic of the Louis XIV period are the monumental beds having four tall
posts, their wood frames covered with fabric and their several sets of hangings that served
as a guarantee against drafts. Since beds were regarded as perhaps the most convincing of
all signs of wealth, the selection of stuffs bordered on extravagance.
Tables of Louis XIV Style
Tables began to be designed for more specific functions such as gaming and writing.
Carved and gilt wood console and side tables with marble tops became the pieces
under the Bourbon monarchs in which decorative richness displayed itself with the
greatest abundance and at times even extravagant excess.
Chests / Armoire of Louis XIV Style
Nevertheless, of all the new furniture introduced at this time, the commode, or chest of
drawer, was destined to have the most brilliant career. Making its debut around 1690,
the commode was generally designed with either two or three rows of drawers.
Also of rectangular plan are the great Louis XIV armoires, with two long panelled
doors, characterized by a projecting cornice which is almost always horizontal and
displays a complicated style of mouldings.
The commode or chest of drawers appeared with ornate brass pulls and key escutcheons.
Louis XV style furniture - Rococo
1722 - 1774
Louis XV of France, born in 1710, is the great-grandson of Louis XIV and was
officially crowned in 1722.
Rococo furniture is associated with the French Louis XV style. The Rococo style which was
virtually synonymous with Louis XV style is an equivalent term for French word “Rocaille”
meaning rock work. However, the term ‘Rocaille’ was not given its present name until late
th
in 18 century France.
Characteristics of Louis XV Style
The pacific reign of Louis XV enables a phenomenal development of the arts. It is the golden
age of French furniture.
In reaction against the Louis XIV style for which furniture had to express a feel of power,
the Louis XV aesthetic privileges lightness, comfort and a sense of intimacy.
Adornments reveal a feminine charm and exotic inspirations typical of the dominant Rococo
artistic style of the period.
The furniture of Louis XV style was with curved lines and asymmetry became the rule
and was expressed in the elaboration of surface ornament.
The fashion for Chinese lacquer had an influence on European. New items appeared:
chiffoniers, writing desks with flaps, card tables, roll-top desks, wooden panelling,
and ladies' furniture: dressing tables, chairs with short armrests, desks, escritoires.
A taste for secrecy, which pervaded French society, resulted in multiple hiding
places incorporated in articles of Louis XV furniture which opened with springs.
Flowers were the favourite motif dominated the theme of the ornament with blossoms,
sprays and tendrils, reeds, branches of palm and laurel. These motifs were used in
decoration of marquetry, in carvings and on wall panels. Overall, bright colours were used,
a change from the more sombre colours of the Louis XIV.
The acanthus leaf, originated in ancient Greece, often elaborately serrated and fringed
became very long and narrow.
Especially fashionable themes were musical instruments, such as the violin, flageolet and
tambourine, hunting and fishing, symbols of love, such as bows, arrows and torches, and
pastoral emblems, such as crooks and the large straw hats of shepherdesses.
Combination pieces, which became a marked feature from around 1750 onwards, testified to
the improvement in mechanical devices. They owed their success to fashionable society who
were always searching for the novel, the amusing and unexpected.
Certain kind of ebenistes excelled in creating all kinds of mechanical devices for
transforming furniture. A taste for secrecy, which pervaded society, resulted in
multiple hiding places incorporated in articles of Louis XV furniture which opened
with springs.
Materials
The most common of timbers used at this time were, boxwood, rosewood, mahogany,
walnut, tulipwood, sycamore and ebony. Gilding and lacquering were also popular at
this time.
There were almost one hundred exotic woods, covering practically the entire range
of different colours used in marquetry work.
The Cherry wood has a fine grain and is a good medium for carving. This type of wood
was used for chairs, tables, commodes, cupboards and other similar articles.
The wood was often painted or in gold leaf. Considerable bronze ornamentation was
an essential part of some items.
The variety of marbles, which were widely used for the tops of commodes and
different kinds of tables
The 18th century was the great century for tapestry furniture coverings and much of the
ambitious Louis XV furniture was upholstered in this manner.
Various kinds of needlework, such as needlework on canvas, were also used in upholstery.
Plain and figured cut silk velvets were used for chair coverings. A silk painted with
flowers, taffeta, and plain, striped or figured satin were fashionable summer textiles.
Other kind of upholstery, such as brocatelle and satin of Bruges, which were not made
of pure silk and were therefore less costly, were also favoured. Utrecht velvet and other
velvet-like fabrics were recommended for seat coverings subject to constant wear.
Chairs of Louis XV Style
Caned chairs and canapés were extremely fashionable under Louis XV, and they were fitted
with loose seat cushions. The frames were generally made of beech, walnut or cherry wood.
Tables of Louis XV Style
Tables, which became simpler and lighter, have one characteristic in common,
that is, cabriole legs.
Medium-sized and small tables reveal all those brilliant and versatile qualities
which marked the achievements of Parisian craftsmen of the golden age.
Of infinite variety and with a legion to names, these elegant tables began to multiply
from around 1750 onward.
For the bedroom there were tables such as the pocket-emptier, jewel-box tables and
bedside tables.
For the boudoirs and the salons, there were small tables or work tables.
The writing furniture the ébénistes embodied with extraordinary felicity the temper
and taste of France.
The simplest kind of Louis XV writing table is the large bureau plat. But the crowning
glory was the bureau à cylinder introduced around the middle of the century and
probably created by Oeben.
Side by side with these large masculine bureaux, the craftsmen produced a variety of bureaux
of the utmost refinement, with delicate marquetry and bronzes, for feminine use.
The tall and upright secrétaire with a drop front (abattant) and interior fitted with
drawers was introduced around 1750
Cabinets of Louis XV Style
The cabinets that were carved in shallow relief and fanciful patterns of tortoiseshell
and ivory inlaid on layers of veneer. Bronze mounts decorated this high-style furniture.
Beds of Louis XV Style
The decorative elements associated with Louis XV beds included marquetry (contrasting
inlay in floral or animal motifs) in floral designs, instruments, birds and insects.
Heavy bronze mounts and floral carvings, especially roses, were applied in
curvilinear forms.
The cabriole leg which curved outward at the knee and inward towards the foot in an “S”
shape was born during this period.
19th century Louis XV style beds were fabricated in carved walnut, rosewood, and
numerous veneers with marquetry details or carved frames with upholstered head and
footboards.
Many of the footboards were constructed in the "corbet" (curved) form. As with the Louis
XVI beds, Louis XV formal beds were finished in bright colour paints with parcel gilding or
with exotic veneers.
Unit 5 History of Furniture
1.1 objectives
1.2 Chapter at a glance
1.1 Objectives
At the conclusion of this Unit you will be able to :
Know the features of furniture during the movement ‘Art Nouveau’ &
International style.
Understand the influences on Art Nouveau & International style of
Furniture.
Know the important designers during these periods.
1.2 Chapter at a glance
Art Nouveau style of Furniture
  Time period of Art Nouveau 
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Influences on Art Nouveau
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Colours of the period
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Characteristics of the style of furniture
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Important designers of the period
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International Style of Furniture
De Stijl Style Furniture
Art Deco style furniture
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Bauhaus style furniture
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  Other International Style 
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Noguchi coffee table
Danish Modern
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Memphis Group
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Eco-design
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Casual Contemporary
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Art Nouveau Furniture
1880 - 1910
The name "Art Nouveau" is French word for 'new art', and it emerged in the late 19th
century in Paris. In several countries a movement appears from1880 to 1910 called Art
Nouveau. This movement also exploded onto the design scene in Paris and London at the
turn of the twentieth century
Influences on Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau exploded onto the design scene in Paris and London at the turn of the
th
20 century.
Art Nouveau was influenced by Japanese art.
The style was also said to be influenced strongly by the lithographs of Czech artist Alphonse
Mucha, whose flat imagery with strong curved lines was seen as a move away from the
academic art of the time.
The late Victorians found this flamboyant and away-from-the-norm design rather shocking,
and it was a love or hate situation for most. Some aspects of Art Nouveau saw a revival in
the 1960s
Art Nouveau shared a lot of the same beliefs as Arts and Crafts. They both believed in
quality goods and fine craftsmanship, but Nouveau embraced the convenience of
mass production. Rococo style also featured, and botanical research and design was
strong throughout.
Art Nouveau furniture used lines and curves as graphical ornamentation and hard woods
and iron were commonly used to provide strong yet slim supporting structures to a
furniture pieces.
Art Nouveau Colour
Period colours were elegant and subtle, and became known as the “greenery gallery”.
Mustard, sage, olive, brown and gold, teamed with lilac, violet and purples, peacock blue,
salmon and robin’s egg blue for the ultimate in elegance. Wallpapers included much of the
highly stylised nature symbols, particularly flowers, feathers, birds and dragon flies.
Fabric also featured much of the same designs.
Characteristics of Art Nouveau Furniture
Natural forms and structures, flowers, birds, fluent lines, colour contrasts, no
symmetry, stretched form. By the forms and material it was an expensive style.
Furniture created in the Art Nouveau style was prominent from the late 19th century to
the advent of the First World War.
Unlike furniture made by the British Arts and Crafts movement, from which it emerged
in stylistic respects, most Art Nouveau furniture was produced in factories by normal
manufacturing techniques, which led to tensions with Arts and Crafts figures in England,
who criticised continental Art Nouveau furniture for not being "'honestly' constructed.
Furniture of Art Nouveau also tended to be expensive, as a fine finish, usually polished or
varnished, was regarded as essential, and continental designs were usually very complex,
with curving shapes that were expensive to make. It by no means entirely replaced other
styles of furniture, which continued to be popular, with Art Nouveau styles largely
restricted to an expensive "art furniture" category.
Most Art Nouveau furniture was based around the greatly influential designer, Charles
Rennie Mackintosh. He was renowned for his extremely high-backed chairs in a glossy
black lacquer. A more conservative option would be more curvy shapes, upholstered
in stylised floral fabrics.
Furniture however, was not a big element of Art Nouveau design, and the focus was
mainly on beautiful and elaborate ornaments.
Art glass was a must. The typical Nouveau glass was iridescent with patterns of liquid oil.
Glasswork also came in more opaque matter, with detailed etched designs. Of particular
mention is the Galle “cameo glass”, which has a raised design cut out of the glass with acid.
Tiffany lamp -shaped like an umbrella with bold colour febrile glass between bronze and
metal latticework was a symbol of the art nouveau period, very expensive, and has now
had thousands of lesser quality imitations made.
Silver and pewter were also popular materials for ornaments, and it is not difficult to
find Mackintosh-style clocks, frames and jewellery boxes
Important designers of Art Nouveau Style
Several notable designers of Art Nouveau furniture were architects who designed furniture
for specific buildings they had also designed, a way of working inherited from the Arts and
Crafts movement; these include Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Antoni Gaudí, Hector Guimard
and Victor Horta.
In America, Tiffany have made especially designs in glass and silver.
The Belgian architect Henry Van de Velde created Art Nouveau furniture.
Other important designers are Carlo Bugatti (1856–1940), Eugène Gaillard (1862–1933) and
Louis Majorelle(1859–1926)
International furniture
Furniture in the 20th century sharply moved from ornate, complicated designs furniture
toward sleek, modern styles. Influences on designers in this period ranged from the 19th
century Arts and Crafts Movement to De Stijl architecture to Shaker furniture. Increasingly,
fibreglass and plywood were used following World War II.
The 20th Century provided us with a great range of modern new furniture created
by innovative and forward thinking designers and architects.
With the introduction of new materials, chrome, PVC, plastic, and exploring the use of
existing furniture materials, laminating timber and steam bending timber lead to a
very broad range of exciting new styles of chairs, tables and sofas never seen or
thought of before.
Because of the greater availability of a wider array of materials than ever before, and
because of an ever-expanding awareness of historical and cross-cultural aesthetics, 20thcentury furniture is perhaps more diverse, in terms of style, than all the centuries that
preceded it. The first three-quarters of the twentieth century saw styles such as Art
Deco, De Stijl, Bauhaus, Wiener Werkstatte, and Vienna all work to some degree within
the Modernist idiom.
De Stijl Style Furniture
De Stijl is a Dutch word for "The Style", also known as neo-plasticism. It was a Dutch artistic
movement founded in 1917 in Amsterdam. In a narrower sense, the term De Stijl is used to
refer to a body of work from 1917 to 1931 founded in the Netherlands.
Proponents of De Stijl advocated pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to
the essentials of form and colour; they simplified visual compositions to the vertical
and horizontal directions, and used only primary colors along with black and white.
Art Deco style furniture
Art Deco was a popular international design movement from 1925 until 1939, in a sense,
an amalgam of many different styles and movements of the early 20th century, including
Neoclassical, Constructivism, Cubism, Modernism, Art Nouveau, and Futurism.
Art Deco is characterized by use of materials such as aluminium, stainless steel, leather,
lacquer, inlaid wood and exotic materials such as ivory, shark skin, and zebra skin. Its
popularity peaked in Europe during the 1920s and continued strongly in the United States
through the 1930s. At the time, this style was seen as elegant, functional, and modern. Art
Deco had a profound influence on many later artistic movements, such as Memphis and
Pop art.
Eileen Gray was a famous Art Deco furniture designer. “Eileen Gray side table” designed in
1927 as a bedside table by Eileen Gray d for herself. Asymmetry of this piece is
characteristic of her "non-conformist" design style in her architectural projects and
furniture. Notably, this piece also has specific utility, as it can be adjusted such that one can
eat breakfast in bed on it.
Bauhaus style furniture
The Bauhaus was a design school Germany created in 1919 and shut down in 1933.
The forms in the Bauhaus furniture are frequently simple and light without decorative
additive just following the needs of the consumer. Used are: steel, glass, bent wood,
leathers and plastic. The most attentive colours are: generally black, white, brown, grey
and chromium. Sometimes the primary colours of the furniture are used sporadically to
accentuate and to give entirely the less dark appearance. Bauhaus furniture was the
preamble of modernism and functionalism.
The Wassily Chair, also known as the Model B3 chair, was designed by Marcel Breuer in
1925-26 while he was the head of the cabinet-making workshop at the Bauhaus. The design
of the chair is most interesting in that it is a symmetrical abstraction of wafer thin,
geometric planes that appears to be suspended in space. The magic of this is sublime
design is to be primarily attributed to Breuer's ingenious use of lightweight tubular steel
and minimalist leather straps.
The Barcelona chair has come to represent the Bauhaus design movement. Many consider
it to be functional art, rather than just furniture. Designed by Mies Van Der Rohe and Lilly
Reich in 1929 for an international design fair in Barcelona, it is said to have been inspired by
both the folding chairs of the Pharaohs, and the 'X' shaped footstools of the Romans, and
dedicated to the Spanish royal family.
Other International Style
Peaking in the 1940s and 1950s, the International Style marked a movement toward
greater simplicity and clarity. Though the movement touched on the visual arts and
architecture, its most famous practitioner is probably Ludwig Miles van der Rohe, who
designed the Barcelona chair, the Brno Chair and the Tugendhat chair. Closely associated
with the Bauhaus School of Art and Design in Germany, the International Style would later
be criticized as being “too serious” and “basic,” although it still remains dominant.
Noguchi coffee table
Noguchi table was designed by Isamu Noguchi (1904 – 1988) was a sculptor, draftsman,
potter, architect, landscape architect, product, furniture and stage designer. Half
American, half Japanese, he is famous for his organic modern forms. He often stated,
"Everything is sculpture, any materials, any idea without hindrance born into space, I
consider sculpture." The Noguchi table” - has become famous for its unique and
unmistakable simplicity. It is refined and at the same time natural, it is one of the most
sought after pieces associated with the modern classic furniture movement.
Danish Modern
Linked to the traditional furniture of Scandinavian designers, the Danish Modern movement
took shape in the 1960s and 1970s. Some of the movement’s characteristics were designs that
drew on organic, flowing shapes and natural materials. Its moment of ascendancy was the 1939
World’s Fair, and subsequently furniture in this style became widely available. Few major
artists are associated with this movement; its importance relies more on popular appeal.
Today, designers draw heavily from any of its precepts, including its organic patterns.
Memphis Group
In the 1980s, the Memphis Group responded against what they perceived to be a lack of
humour in contemporary design. Though originally called the "New International Style" by
founder Ettore Sottsass, the group of designers took its more established name from Bob
Dylan's classic song "Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again." Their work is
characterized by colorful, vibrant themes and inspiration from the Art Deco movement.
Eco-design
Furniture designers have also responded to a number of contemporary ideas and concerns,
including the environmental movement. Less a movement than a group with similar
concerns, the Eco-design participants are concerned with reducing emissions, consumed
resources and waste. Some of the innovative designers associated with the Eco-design
movement are Alexander Julian, Thom Filicia and Alessandro Mendini.
Casual Contemporary
Since the 1990s, furniture design has moved to become personalized and less unified, with
Casual Contemporary becoming the major choice for designers. It draws its influences
from Danish Modern, as well as traditional Shaker designs. This popular movement is
based on flexibility, oversized proportions and relaxed elegance.
Some of the important designer’s name of International style are as follows :Marcel Breuer
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
Eileen Gray
Le Corbusier
Lilly Reich
Walter Gropius
Isamu Noguchi
Ettore Sottsass
Alexander Julian,
Thom Filicia
Alessandro Mendini.
Verner Panton
George Nelson
Eero Aarni