PSY105 General Psychology Laboratory
Fall 2010
Lab Manual
Dr. J. Stephen Mansfield
This course examines and applies the methods and techniques of scientific inquiry used in
psychology, including computer-simulated demonstrations, small group discussion, and
written assignments. You will gain hands-on experience with a sample of the phenomena
studied in PSY101 (General Psychology) and other psychology courses.
The laboratory activities in this course provide beginning psychology students with experience participating in several research activities. Each activity replicates a classic experiment in psychology and/or demonstrates a specific research methodology used in the
study of behavior. The activities use computers for stimulus presentation and/or the storage of responses. In this way, you will obtain experience with the methods and techniques of scientific psychology, and also gain an understanding of how computers are
used in psychology.
The intent of the laboratory activities is to provide you with an understanding of the importance of objectivity and control in attempting to scientifically study and understand behavior. You will also learn to collect and interpret data in order to answer psychological
questions. Finally, you will have the opportunity to apply the results of the activities to your
own experiences and to the behavior of others.
How this course works
After the introductory week, this course consists of 13 labs. The procedure for each lab is
the same: Each class will start with a short quiz about the introductory material (in the lab
manual) for that day's lab. You will then complete the lab activity, after which your TA will
lead you in a group discussion. Each lab also has a homework assignment which is due by
the start of your lab in the following week.
Each lab is graded out of 10 points as follows:
Lab notes quiz (1pt): Before each class, you are expected to read the introductory material in the Laboratory Manual and to review the instructions for that week's lab. There will
be a short quiz on the objectives and introductory material at the start of each lab session.
Lab discussion (3pts): After each lab activity is completed, there will be a group discussion
based on the questions presented in the lab manual. It is important that you participate in
this discussion. At the end of class you will rate your own contribution to the discussion (on
a 0–3pt scale). The TA will also grade your contribution.
Homework (6pts): A short homework assignment is due for each lab. The assignments must
be completed from your personal PSY105 web page. The assignments are also printed at
the end of each lab in this lab manual so that you do not need to be at a computer to
see the questions and to start working on your answers.
Lab Schedule
Laboratory Activity #1: Introducing Psychology
Objectives
•
Explore the validity of people’s preconceptions about human behavior.
•
Demonstrate the range of topics covered by the various sub-fields of psychology.
•
Demonstrate the need for empirical research to answer questions about behavior.
Introduction
It is important to remember that Psychology is a science — it is the science of human behavior. Scientists demand hard evidence before they are willing to accept something as
being true. They search for objective data as evidence for any claim about the nature of
human behavior. For this reason, scientists tend to be very skeptical about statements that
can’t be backed up by empirical evidence. Part of the function of an introductory psychology course is to develop your critical understanding, and to prepare you to evaluate
information that you are presented with. Today’s exercise emphasizes the need for empirical research to answer basic questions about behavior. This means conducting controlled research, rather than just relying on your own intuition.
Instructions
1)
Open a web browser and navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the URL is
http://bit.ly/93foxD ). Select today’s activity: Lab 1. Introducing Psychology.
2)
There are several True/False questions. Read each question on the web page and then circle
either T or F below. Briefly write why you think this is the answer in the space provided (e.g.
did you learn it in a class? is it just a hunch? is it common sense? etc.) You will be able to
check the correct answers after you finish all of the questions.
1. Brain power
T
F
because:
2. ESP
T
F
because:
3. Subliminal
T
F
because:
4. Changing answers
T
F
because:
5. Helping others
T
F
because:
6. Smiling
T
F
because:
7. Adolescence
T
F
because:
8. Eyewitness
T
F
because:
9. Anger
T
F
because:
10. Lie-detection
T
F
because:
11. Mothers
T
F
because:
12. Hypnosis
T
F
because:
13. Autism
T
F
because:
14. Full moon
T
F
because:
15. Names
T
F
because:
3)
After you have answered the questions, click on Check Answers. Go back over your responses and see which questions you answered correctly.
4)
Once you have finished, record your data on your data sheet (your TA will give the data sheet
to you). Return your data sheet to your TA before you leave.
More background (needed for homework)
Questions about behavior can be answered scientifically by making systematic observations, collecting empirical data, and analyzing the results. There are a few terms that are
important to understand when considering empirical research:
An independent variable (IV) is the variable that the experimenter manipulates. A dependent variable (DV) is the thing the experimenter measures. Consider, for example, a
statement from this lab: "People who hold a pencil with their teeth find cartoons to be
funnier than do people who hold a pencil with their lips." To test whether this statement is
true, an experimenter might randomly assign people to two groups: both groups watch
the same cartoon, but one group does it with a pencil in their teeth and the other does it
with the pencil in their lips. Both groups might then rate how funny they think the cartoon
is. The IV in this experiment would be the location of the pencil (teeth vs. lips) — this is what
the experimenter is manipulating; the DV would be the humor rating of the cartoon — this
is what is being measured.
2
Another thing that is important in conducting experiments is that the constructs are defined in measurable terms. This is referred to as defining the variables operationally. For
example, if you wanted to study "hunger," you would need a way to measure the amount
of hunger. You might measure it by the amount of food a person eats in a sitting, or by
how many stomach contractions occur in a specified amount of time, or by a simple rating scale of how hungry the person feels. These would be possible operational definitions
of hunger. To study "depression," you would need to specify how you would measure depression, such as by a score on a depression inventory. The key is that it always needs to
be something you can measure, or count—defining depression as "feeling sad" would
NOT be an operational definition, whereas "number of times a person reports feeling sad"
WOULD be an operational definition. An operational definition is basically a statement of
how you intend to measure the construct.
conducts an experiment in which she stages an emergency (a person falling over),
and manipulates the number of other people present in the room (having her research assistants act as the extra people). Each participant is invited into the room,
which s/he is led to believe is simply a waiting room for the experiment. Some participants are alone in the room, while others are in the room with 5 other people (the research assistants; but the participant believes they are other participants in the experiment). The actor then pretends to fall over. The researcher measures how long it
takes for the participant to help the "victim
What is: a) the IV; and b) the DV in this study? [2 pts]
2.
Here are some examples:
Academic success
Operational definition:
NOT an operational definition:
GPA (higher GPA=more success)
doing well in school
Anger
Operational definition:
NOT an operational definition:
score on an anger survey
feeling mad
Aggression
Operational definition:
NOT an operational definition
number of times a child gets in a fight per week
how much violence a child exhibits
Consider the statement from the lab: "Advertisers are able to shape our buying habits
through subliminal messages." Suppose a researcher tests this statement. On Monday,
she plays subliminal messages over the speakers in a grocery store. The messages
cannot be consciously perceived, but they urge customers to buy Tootie Fruiti cereal.
On Tuesday, the researcher does not play the subliminal messages. The researcher
counts the number of boxes of Tootie Fruiti cereal that are purchased on each day
a) What is the IV in this experiment? b) How does the researcher operationally define
"buying habits" in this study? [2 pts]
3.
One of the statements from this lab was "People who hold a pencil with their teeth
(which forces their mouth into a smiling position) find cartoons to be funnier than do
people who hold a pencil with their lips (which does not force a smile." If you were to
conduct an experiment to test this hypothesis, how might you operationally define
people's perception of how funny the cartoon is? [2 pts]
Discussion questions
Remember, the Discussion questions are for your own use—you will not need to hand
these in. The aim of the discussion is for you to further explore and clarify the material with
the help of your classmates and TA. The Discussion points you earn are based on your
level of participation in the discussion. You should aim to answer at least one question as
well as respond to what other students say. Even if another student has answered a question, you can always add your own thoughts and/or information—be sure to take the
initiative and speak up!
1.
Which of the findings in this exercise did you find the most surprising? Why?
2.
Which of the findings in this exercise did NOT surprise you? Why not?
3.
Some people think psychology is just “common sense.” Why do you think people
think this way?
4.
This lab demonstrated several misconceptions about human behavior. Why do you
think so many people have these misconceptions? You can talk about any of the
specific misconceptions, or address them generally.
Homework questions
Remember that you must submit your homework through the course web page. Log on to
the PSY105 web site (using your last name and the password you gave me during the first
week of class) and then follow the link to ‘Homework’ under the Laboratory Materials section.
1.
Consider the statement from the lab: "The more people present at an emergency,
the greater the chance that someone will intervene to help." Suppose a researcher
3
Laboratory Activity #2: Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
8)
Total hits __________
Objectives
p < ____________
• Learn about the different types of ESP
• Understand the need to test ESP experimentally
• Learn how we can test ESP experimentally
Introduction
Many people believe in extrasensory perception, or ESP. There are 3 main categories of
ESP: Clairvoyance is knowing about an event without directly experiencing it, such as being able to sense that a friend is in trouble; Telepathy is the ability to know what another
person is thinking; and Precognition is being able to see into the future, such as being able
to predict when and where an earthquake will strike.
You may have experienced, or know someone who has experienced, any of these phenomena. However, one or two occurrences does not mean that a person has ESP. In fact,
no claim of ESP has ever stood up to scientific tests. The problem is usually that people
tend to remember instances that confirm what they believe, but forget or ignore instances that do not (this is called the confirmation bias). For example, suppose you are
thinking about your friend, and then she calls you on the phone. You might remember
that experience and think “wow, I have precognition!” You will probably not take into
account the hundreds of times you thought about your friend and she did not call you. So
unless you can predict future events at a rate higher than chance, you probably do not
have precognitive abilities.
This lab will present you with a test of your ESP powers. Your clairvoyance will be tested in
a controlled experimental setting. The computer will choose a card, and you will try to
guess which card it is. After you finish, the computer will tell you whether you performed
above chance or not.
When you are finished, you can see your results on the right side of the screen. Write down
your number of hits and the probability of obtaining that number of hits by chance.
9)
Record your data in the data sheet.
Discussion Questions
1. Why do you think so many people believe in ESP?
2. Psychology emphasizes the importance of gathering experimental data to support
any claims being made. Why might it be especially important to verify claims of ESP
experimentally?
3. This lab reported the p-value for your number of hits. If the value is less than 0.05 your
findings are said to be ‘significant’. What does significant mean in this context?
4. Briefly describe an ESP experience that you or someone you know has had, or one
you’ve heard about somewhere. The experience must be something different from
the one described in the Background for this lab. How can this experience be explained assuming that ESP is NOT involved?
Homework Questions
1.
How is having clairvoyance operationally defined in this lab? [2pts]
2.
Report your number of hits and p value. According to this lab, do you have clairvoyance? [2 pts]
3.
Out of every 100 students, how many would be expected to obtain a significant
number of hits just by chance alone? Explain your answer. [2pts]
Instructions
1)
Open a web browser and navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the URL is
http://bit.ly/93foxD ). Select today’s activity: Lab 2. Extrasensory perception.
2)
At the left of the text saying “Welcome to Advanced ESP Test” there is a little link that says
‘About’. This links to a 9 minute YouTube video that explains the different settings on this web
site, and which gives a brief explanation of how to interpret the results. If you have time during or after the lab, you may want to watch this video to learn more about the procedure.
3)
Under Test Procedures make sure that “Clairvoyance” is selected. On each trial, you will be
trying to determine which card the computer has chosen.
4)
Select “Open Deck.” This means that each card will be returned to the deck after each trial,
so that on every trial all cards have an equal chance of being chosen.
5)
Select “Cards seen”. The computer will let you know whether you were correct on each trial,
and will keep a running tally of how many hits you get.
6)
Set the deck size to “50 cards.” This means there will be 50 trials, enough to make a reasonable determination of whether you are able perform above chance or not.
7)
Click on Start to start the trials and run through the experiment.
4
Laboratory Activity #3: Operant Conditioning
5)
When you understand the instructions, click on the rat that says Sniffy (at the bottom), then
click Exit.
Objectives
6)
Open Sniffy Lite on the desktop.
7)
When Sniffy (your rat) appears, he will engage in a number of naturally-occurring behaviors.
Observe Sniffy for a few minutes to determine his natural behaviors.
8)
As indicated in the instructions, you first need to train Sniffy to associate the sound with a
food reward. To do this, you should administer a food reward whenever Sniffy is near the
magazine. Watch the Lab Assistant window to determine when Sniffy has learned this association.
9)
When the Lab Assistant window says you are ready, begin shaping Sniffy to press the bar.
You need to reinforce successive approximations to the desired behavior.
• Learn the techniques of shaping
• Learn to provide reinforcement contingent upon the desired behavior
• Become familiar with the use of a Skinner box
Introduction
Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) involves using reinforcement
and/or punishment to modify behavior. Today’s exercise focuses on reinforcement. Reinforcement refers to anything that increases a specified behavior. For example, giving a
child a piece of candy when she does her homework should increase her willingness to
do homework; here the candy serves as reinforcement.
10) First, reinforce Sniffy any time he rears up.
11) Once he does that reliably (say, at least 10 or 15 times), only reinforce him what he is rearing
up somewhere along the back wall.
Suppose we want to teach a new behavior using operant conditioning. For example, we
want to teach a seal to balance a ball on his nose. We can’t just wait around for the seal
to balance the ball, and then reward him for it, because seals just don’t spontaneously
balance balls on their noses! Instead, we can use a technique called shaping. In shaping,
we reinforce successive approximations to the target behavior. That is, we build complex
behaviors by reinforcing their component parts. First, we reinforce any behavior that is
even remotely like the target behavior. We might reinforce the seal every time he swims
toward the ball. Once this behavior is mastered, we reinforce behaviors that are closer
and closer to the target behavior. Once the seal has learned to swim toward the ball, we
now only reinforce him for swimming toward the ball and actually touching the ball. Once
he can do that, we reinforce him only when he swims toward the ball, touches it, and puts
his nose underneath it. And so on. Using this technique, we can train people or animals to
do very complex things–e.g. lions riding on elephants or pigeons playing ping-pong.
12) When he does that reliably, reinforce him only for rearing along the back wall in the vicinity of
the bar.
In order to shape an animal’s behavior, we must deliver the reward at just the right time,
immediately after the behavior occurs. If we deliver the reward too soon or too late, a
different behavior will get reinforced. We also need to control other aspects of the subject’s environment. In laboratory studies, we frequently use a special apparatus called an
operant conditioning chamber (also known as a Skinner box, named for the professor
who developed it).
16) When the Lab Assistant screen tells you that Sniffy appears to be properly trained, you can
quit the program
Today’s exercise will allow you to shape a simulated rat to press a bar. You will train the rat
to press a bar to receive a food reward. At the beginning, the rat will be naïve – it does
not know that pressing the bar results in food. So it will not likely press the bar on its own
(just like the seal will not balance a ball on its own). You will have to use shaping to teach
the rat to press the bar.
13) Then make him get even closer to the bar.
14) Eventually reinforce him only when he is rearing right at the bar.
15) He will soon press the bar on his own. Keep an eye on the Lab Assistant window while you
are shaping Sniffy. Also note that Sniffy might by chance press the bar on his own at an early
point in the shaping. This does not mean that he knows to press the bar for food–you need to
stick to your shaping schedule. Also note that you will have to respond quickly to avoid accidentally reinforcing the wrong behavior. Remember, every time you deliver a reinforcer, the
probability of the immediately preceding behavior occurring again will be increased.
Strengthening these behaviors will get you to your goal. Reinforcing the wrong behaviors will
lead you away from the goal.
Discussion questions
1.
Why was it necessary to observe Sniffy’s natural behavior before beginning the
shaping exercise?
2.
What behaviors did Sniffy naturally perform?
3.
What difficulties did you encounter in reinforcing the desired behaviors? What
caused you to sometimes reinforce the wrong behaviors?
4.
What are some other possible behaviors that you could train Sniffy to perform using
shaping? Briefly describe the components of the behavior that you would successively reinforce.
5.
Once Sniffy has learned the desired behavior, he will get reinforced every time he
presses the bar. Do you think this behavior would then continue indefinitely? Why or
why not? What if it was a real rat?
6.
What are some ways in which shaping a real rat would differ from shaping a simulated rat?
Instructions
1)
From the Programs menu (NOT from the desktop icon!), go to Sniffy Lite for Windows and
start up Sniffy Lite Tutor.
2)
Go to Project 1: Operant Conditioning.
3)
Read the instructions up until you see Operant: Extinction at the bottom of the screen. (Use
the rats on the bottom of the screen to navigate forward and back through the instructions.)
4)
TAs: Keep an eye on students’ progress and make sure they stop at the right place.
5
7.
What would happen if, after learning to press the bar, Sniffy was no longer reinforced?
8.
What are some of the possible problems or difficulties you might encounter in attempting to shape a behavior in a real life situation? Identify at least 2 problems.
Homework questions
1.
In order to use the method of shaping, it is necessary to analyze a behavior into its
component parts. Select a very simple behavior that you engage in regularly and
describe at least four specific behavior components that it consists of (in order). [2
pts]
2.
Imagine that you wanted to train Sniffy to stand up and face you and wave his paw.
Describe at least four specific behaviors that you would have to reinforce, in order,
using shaping, to get this behavior to occur regularly. (For example, in the lab today,
four specific behaviors in order were 1. rearing anywhere in the chamber, 2. rearing
at the back wall, 3. rearing at the bar, and 4. rearing at the bar while pressing the
bar). [2 pts]
3.
In real life, feeding an animal in order to reinforce its behavior presents the problem
that the animal will get full and will no longer be hungry after a while. What is one
way that you could attempt to deal with this situation or prevent it from occurring? [2
pts]
6
Laboratory Activity #4: Blind Spot
Instructions
1)
Open the Safari web browser. Navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the
URL is http://bit.ly/93foxD ). Select today's activity: Lab 4. Blind Spot.
2)
You should start by mapping the blind spot, but BEFORE clicking on either of the buttons,
choose which eye you’d like to test. The page is set to map the blind spot in your RIGHT eye.
If you’d prefer to use your LEFT eye click on the pink ‘+’ at the left side of the screen. It will
move to the right side. (The instructions below are for mapping the right eye. If you choose to
map your left eye ask your TA for help if the instructions become confusing).
Introduction
3)
Now click the ‘map blind spot’ button.
The back of your eye (the retina) contains the receptors for seeing, called photoreceptors. The photoreceptors are neurons that respond when they light falls on them. The signals from these receptors are carried by the optic nerve to the brain, where they can be
interpreted. There is one part of each eye where the axons carrying these signals leave
the eye and head back to the brain. This spot is called the optic disk. It is located about
15 to 20 degrees away from the center of your vision, on the side of each eye that is
nearest your nose. The figure below shows some of these features.
4)
If you are testing your right eye you will need to close or cover your left eye, and stare at the
pink ‘+’ with your right eye. Get yourself into a comfortable position as you MUST NOT MOVE
during the mapping process (it only takes about a minute).
5)
While staring at the pink '+', move the mouse cursor to the pink ‘+’ and then move it horizontally across the screen towards the other side. At some point the mouse cursor will disappear
into your blind spot. As you keep moving it across it will reappear again. [If you look directly at
the cursor, of course, it will no longer be in your blind spot, and it will reappear. It is important
that you keep your eye fixed on the ‘+’ throughout the procedure.]
6)
Experiment a little to find the approximate middle of the blind spot. Then click the (left) mouse
button. This will start the mapping procedure.
7)
In the mapping procedure a white dot is displayed on the screen in your blind spot (so you
will not be able to see it), and it gradually moves outwards along a straight line. At some point
it will move out of your blind spot, and you will be able to see it. As soon as you see it press
the <SPACE> key on the keyboard.
8)
This process repeats 11 times, each time in a different direction. Press the <SPACE> key on
the keyboard each time you see the dot. [Remember to also keep your left eye closed and
your right eye fixed on the ‘+’ throughout the procedure.]
9)
When all the 12 directions are tested the computer will display your settings for the edges of
your blind spot. The dots should be are arranged in a circle. Anything inside the circle was inside your blind spot.
Objectives
•
To learn more about how the eyes and visual perception work.
•
To experience your own blind spot.
•
To understand some of the methods used to assess visual perception.
Because of the presence of the optic disk, there are no photoreceptors in that part of the
eye. The result of having no photoreceptors here is that everyone has a natural blind spot
in each eye, a small area in which each eye cannot see. To experience your blind spot,
close your left eye and stare at the plus sign with your right eye. Move the page slowly
toward and away from you—there should be a point where you can no longer see the
black spot. This is because it falls in your blind spot.
10) It takes a bit of practice to get used to this process, so you should repeat this procedure a few
times until you are sure that you understand what is going on, and that you are able to get
points that make a neat circle or oval. If you wish to use the other eye, click on the fixation
point to move it to the other side of the screen. [now you will close you right eye, and stare at
the '+' with your left eye.] Each time click on ‘map blind spot’ and follow the instructions from
step 5.
11) When you feel skilled at this task you can move on to the next step which is to measure the
size of your blind spot using different viewing distances. Reload the page (this erases the
practice measurements you have made so far)
12) Sit with your head about 10” from the screen. Perform the mapping procedure as above (for
either your left or right eye).
We are generally not aware of this blind spot—it takes a carefully organized visual set-up,
the demo above, to be able to detect one’s blind spot. Today’s lab will enable you to
map your blind spot, see how big it is, and to experiment with how your visual system
makes up for the information that is missed due to the blind spot.
13) Now measure the distance from the fixation point to the left edge and right edge of the blind
spot. Also, measure your exact viewing distance from the screen (from your eye to the fixation '+'). Write the distances below.
Viewing distance
13a
Distance from fixation point to...
left edge of blind spot
Right edge of blind spot
13b
13c
7
14) Repeat the procedure sitting about 30 inches from the screen. Write the distances below.
Viewing distance
Distance from fixation point to...
left edge of blind spot
Right edge of blind spot
14a
14b
14c
This diagram shows how the
blind spot projects to a larger
area as viewing distance increases
15) For the longer viewing distance the blind spot should be larger on the screen. Why? As
shown in the diagram to the right, the blind spot is a very small area at the back of our eyes,
but it projects out into space so that the area it covers is larger as the viewing distance gets
longer (in the same way that the mage from a slide projector gets bigger the further away the
screen is). Because of this, it makes more sense to describe the size of the blind spot in
terms of the angle it makes from the eye. We can use simple trigonometry to calculate this
angle from your data.
16) Calculate the angular size for your shorter viewing distance (your TA can help you with the
formula):
angular size = tan-1(box 13c / box 13a) – tan-1(box 13b / box 13a)
___________°
For example: if your viewing distance was 12 inches, and the distance from the fixation to the
left edge of the blind spot was 2.1 inches, and to the right edge was 3.4 inches, then the angular width of your blind spot is:
angular size = tan-1(3.4/12) – tan-1(2.1/12)
= 15.8° – 9.9° = 5.9°
17) Calculate the angular size for your longer viewing distance:
angular size = tan-1(box 14c / box 14a) – tan-1(box 14b / box 14a)
___________°
18) Your values in 16 and 17 should be almost the same. Enter both onto your data sheet.
Most people are not aware of their blind spot. There are numerous reasons for this. For example,
the blind spot is on the nasal side the retina in each eye. Thus, each eye's blind spot projects in
different directions into space so that objects in the left-eye's blind spot can usually be seen by the
right eye, and vice versa. But even with one eye closed, the blind spot does not become immediately apparent in the other eye [try it]. We do not notice a hole in our vision. This may be because
a process called "filling-in" creates a perception of information in the blind spot. This demo will
illustrate the power of your brain's filling in process.
19) Reload the page, then click on the 'Filling In" button.
20) Sit with your head about 10-20” from the screen. The first part of the filling in demo is the
same as the mapping procedure you have already used.
21) Once the computer has mapped your blind spot it will draw a blue circle in the middle of it.
You should not be able to see it, because it is in your blind spot. But, if you like, you can
glance towards the middle of the screen (hold you head position steady) to see the blue circle. Then stare back at the fixation '+' and make sure the blue circle cannot be seen before
continuing.
22) What color do you see in the location of the blind spot? Generally it is the color of the rest of
the screen (in this case a dark gray). If you press the space bar the screen will turn red. Now
what color do you see in the location of the blind spot Do you see a dark black gap?
'+' properly, or your head position has moved. – Try to find a head position so that when you
are fixating in the '+' you cannot see the blue disk.]
24) So far we have examined the filling in of color. Next we'll look at patterns. Pressing the space
bar again should fill the screen with a black, blue, and gray wall-paper pattern. Do the elements of this pattern disappear when they go into your blind spot?
25) Press space again. The wall paper is replaced by a star-burst pattern. There is a gap in the
center which is located in your blind spot. Do you see the gap, or do the lines continue
through the blind spot?
26) Finally, pressing space again will display a face to your blind spot. What do you see?
27) You can loop through these filling demos as much as you like by pressing the space-bar. You
should do it a few times, both after having mapped your blind spot (so that the starburst and
face are displayed in your blind spot) and sitting back so that you can see what it is that you
were looking at.)
23) Pressing the space bar will cycle you through the following colors: RED, GREEN, BLUE,
YELLOW, MAGENTA, and CYAN. For each color make a mental note of what color you see
at the location of blind spot. [NOTE: if you see the blue disk then you are not fixating on the
8
Discussion Questions
1.
What is the blind spot? Why do we have one?
2.
What shape was your blind spot?
3.
Is your blind spot in roughly the same place as other students’ blind spots? Is it about
the same size?
4.
Most likely there are some differences in the size and location of the blind spots of the
class. Why might this be?
5.
Why is the study of blind spots interesting to psychologists?
6.
Why do you think we are not aware of our blind spot?
7.
What patterns "fill in" and which one's don't? What could explain this difference?
Homework Questions
1.
Report the size (in degrees) of your blind spot that you obtained a) using a short
viewing distance, and b) using a longer viewing distance. [2pts]
2.
Why is the blind spot round? [2pts]
3.
In class you discussed that the brain “fills in” the missing information from the blind
spot. What does “filling-in” mean? [2 pts]
9
Laboratory Activity #5: Artificial Intelligence
Objectives
•
Learn about artificial intelligence
•
Learn about the Turing test
•
To develop operational definitions for hard-to-measure constructs
•
Experience classic and modern AI-based machine conversations
Introduction
Can machines, (e.g., computers, robots) think? Your immediate answer to this question
will probably reflect whether you have a dualistic or materialist view of the mind. According to dualism, the mind is non-physical and separate from the body and cannot be explained or understood in purely physical terms. According to this view a computer cannot
have a mind and thus could not think. This is because a computer operates using purely
physical processes, and does not have the non-physical components required for a mind.
According to materialism, the mind is explained in purely physical terms and so it possible
to create a purely physical object (such as a computer) to have an artificial mind. Such a
computer, presumably, would be able to think.
As a psychologist, considering whether or not machines can think should immediately
lead you to ask further questions, such as: “What do we mean when say that something
can think?”, or “How can I assess whether something is thinking?”. This lab will explore
these issues in the context of computer programs that generate conversations (sometimes
called chatbots).
Today’s lab
In this lab you will hold conversations with three chat bots. The first one is called ELIZA.
ELIZA is a classic chatbot, developed in 1966. The other chatbots are called Suzette and
Audrey. These two were developed more recently. Comparing these with ELIZA will illustrate how Artificial intelligence has progressed.
The main focus of this lab is for you to compare Suzette and Audrey. These chatbots are
very different from each other, but it is unlikely that you will confuse either chatbot with a
human. Your task is to determine which one is most like a human.
Instructions
1)
Open a web browser. Navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the URL is
http://bit.ly/93foxD ). Select today's activity: Lab 5. Artificial Intelligence.
2)
Start by exploring the chatbot called ELIZA. ELIZA is intended to replicate the behavior of a
Rogerian psychotherapist (this is a convenient role for the computer as it allows the computer
to assume it knows nothing about the real world, and to not be expected to bring new information into the conversation). ELIZA is a classic chatbot, developed in 1966. Artificial intelligence has progressed a lot since then. Start your conversation by clicking on the ‘Chat’ button. Eliza will greet you.
3)
For this session you should pretend that you have a problem to discuss: imagine that you
have a disagreement with your parents about taking out a loan. Respond to Eliza by typing
into the text line next to the ‘chat’ button. Check your response for spelling and then hit the
‘enter’ key or the ‘chat’ button. Eliza will respond. See how long you can maintain a conversation with ELIZA.
4)
Chatbots work by examining your typed comments for keywords. If a keyword is found, a rule
is applied to generate a reply. If a keyword is not found, they respond with either a generic
reply or with a reference to something you typed earlier. Some of the keywords that ELIZA
looks for are 'computers', 'dreams', 'happy', 'me' etc. Experiment to see how including these
terms in your responses impacts ELIZA's responses.
5)
It is OK if you find ELIZA difficult to chat with. Most people find it hard to obtain much of a
conversation with ELIZA.
6)
Next toss a coin to decide which chatbot to talk to next (heads = Suzette, tails = Audrey).
7)
For Suzette, click on the Suzette link. To start a chat session, type a name (your name, if you
like) into the login box and click on ‘login.’
8)
Start your conversation by typing into the text line, and hit enter. Suzette will respond. Carry
on the conversation in this way.
9)
Suzette has a help function. Type ‘help’ if you want assistance.
The Turing Test
Alan Turing, a mathematician and computer scientist, proposed a method for testing
whether a machine can think (Turing, 1950). Turing acknowledged that thinking is difficult
to define, and so he devised what has now become known as the “The Turing Test”. The
Turing test operationalizes the assessment of whether a machine has intelligence. In the
this test, a human judge engages in two natural language conversations. One of these is
with a human and the other is with the candidate machine. However, the judge does not
know which conversation is which (both conversations might be conducted via a computer keyboard and screen). The judge can direct the conversation in anyway that he or
she pleases, with the goal of identifying which conversation is with the machine. If the
judge cannot reliably determine which conversation is with the machine and which is with
the human, then the machine is said to have passed the test.
Note how Turing’s operational definition quite neatly takes a construct that is difficult to
measure (whether a machine can think) and makes it into something that is practical and
relatively straightforward to assess. If the judge is unable to determine which conversation
is with the machine and which is with the human, then we can assert that the machine’s
responses are no different from human responses, and given that we can assume the
human is thinking, then we can assert that the machine is also thinking. If you are unsure
of the logic behind this, then consider how you might go about determining if your roommate is really a conscious and thinking human like you, or whether you roommate is a
mindless zombie (without consciousness or thought). One way would be to see if your
roommate responds to you in a way that is typical of thinking conscious humans. In the
same way, the Turing test assesses if a computer responds in a way that is typical of thinking conscious humans.
10) After 10 minutes or so, end your conversation.
11) At the end of your chat session cut and paste your entire conversation into an email and send
it to yourself. You will need to refer to this when you answer the homework questions.
12) If you have not yet chatted with Audrey do so now.
13) For Audrey click on the Audrey link, and type a greeting into the textbox. Audrey will respond. Carry on the conversation in this way. During your conversation cut and paste any
interesting interchanges that you have with Audrey into a file that you will be able to mail to
yourself.
14) After 10 minutes or so, end your conversation.
10
15) If you have not yet chatted with Suzette do so now. You will need to return the 105 Labs page
to do this. Here is the short version of the URL — <http://bit.ly/93foxD>
human. Be sure to explain why these examples are indicative of not being a human.
[2 pts]
16) Which chatbot was more human like in its conversation?
 Audrey
 Suzette
Make a note of examples in your transcripts from each conversation that support your judgment.
What features of the conversation, if any, made it obvious that you were chatting to a machine?
17) Now that you have chatted with Artificial Intelligence, list 3 characteristics that distinguish
chatterbox conversations from real conversations.
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
Discussion
1.
Do you think our modern-day understanding of psychology supports a dualistic or a
materialistic view of the mind and brain?
2.
Can you suggest an operational definition for “human conversation” (in other words,
given two or more conversations, can you suggest a way in we could empirically determine which one was most human-like?)
3.
In your opinion, which chatbot was most human? How did you make your decision?
4.
Even if you never felt as if you were chatting with a human, would you agree that at
some points in the conversation it was as if the chatbot was ‘thinking’, or ‘conscious’?
5.
Which chatbot was most, or least, fun to converse with? Why?
6.
Was it easy or hard to have a sensible conversation? What made it hard?
7.
In what way might chatbots be useful in the real world?
8.
What are some advantages or disadvantages of using chatbots instead of humans?
9.
What are some real world situations where it might be important for a chatterbot to
be able convincingly simulate real human conversation?
10. What are some real world situations where a chatterbot may be useful, but simulating
real human conversation may not be quite so important?
Homework questions
1.
In your opinion, which chatbot was most human? How did you make your decision?
[2 pts]
2.
Give two examples from your conversations (one example from each of Suzette and
Audrey) to illustrate the times when they were most human-like in their conversation.
Be sure to explain why these are examples of being like a human. [2 pts]
3.
Describe two characteristics of your conversations (one example from each of Suzette and Audrey) that made it clear that you were chatting with a computer, not a
11
Laboratory Activity #6: Lateral transfer of learning
Objectives
•
Learn about the transfer of learning
•
Learn about the mirror tracing task
•
Measure the bilateral transfer of learning of a visuo-motor task
Introduction
Transfer of learning concerns generalizing one's knowledge and skills from one situation to
another. This is often done without conscious thought. For example, when you first learned
to swim you probably learned in a pool. But once you had learned, then you could swim
in other pools, lakes, the ocean. The chances are that you had no trouble in transferring
your swimming skills to these new situations. Similarly, learning to drive in your parents' car
probably transferred to other cars that you have driven. You did not need to learn to drive
all over again each time you drove in an unfamiliar car.
These are examples of positive transfer (where learning one task helps perform in other
similar tasks.) Later in the semester we will explore negative transfer where prior learning
makes performing a new task more difficult.
Transfer can also occur for performing a task with different parts of our bodies. For example, learning to write using your hands, might make it easier to learn to write using your
feet. Or learning to do something with one hand may make it easier for you to do the
same task with your other hand. This would be an example of bilateral transfer of learning,
and that is what we will explore in today's lab.
The task we will use is called the "mirror-image tracing" task, or the "mirror-drawing" task. In
the classic mirror-drawing task participants are required to trace a star shape on a sheet
of paper while viewing their performance in a mirror. In our lab you will use a computerbased analog of this task. You will move the computer mouse to click on targets that describe a star shape — however the path of the mouse on the screen will be mirror reversed from the physical mouse movements.
This is task will be hard at first, as it involves learning a new mapping between visual feedback (what you see on the screen)and your motor movements (how you move the
mouse). However, after a small amount of practice performance usually becomes more
fluid and you will likely find it easier and easier to complete the task. This makes mirrorimage tracing an ideal task for studying the dynamics of learning.
In this lab we will study the bilateral transfer of learning the mirror tracing task. After obtaining base-line measures for how quickly you can perform the mirror task with each
hand, you will train your right hand to complete the task. After much training, you will then
measure whether the training with your right hand has improved your ability to perform
the task with your left hand.
3)
Your task will be to click on each box in numerical order (starting at 0, ending at 9).
4)
Press the space key on the keyboard to set up your first trial (this opens up the control box).
5)
We will start by collecting base-line measurements. Make sure that the check-box next to
‘Mirror’ is NOT checked, then click on ‘go’.
6)
With your RIGHT hand on the mouse, move the black square over the first box (box zero).
When you click here the computer will start to time your progress. Click, and then click on the
other boxes as quickly as you can in numerical order (to guide you, the next box in the sequence will turn yellow). When you click on box ‘9’ the computer will display the time you took
for that trial. Enter this time in work sheet on the next page.
7)
Do this three more times (press space to initialize each trail, and make sure that ‘mirror; is not
checked), and measure your time once more for your RIGHT hand, and twice for the LEFT.
These 4 measures allow you to assess which hand you are better at for this task. 90% of the
population is right handed, and we’d expect right-handers to perform this task better with their
right hand.
8)
The next two trials establish the baseline for performing the mirror task with your left hand.
Press <space> to initialize each trial and make sure that 'mirror' is checked.
9)
Use your LEFT hand to move the mouse to the zero box (it may be tricky to do this at first).
Click on this box and then click on each box in sequence. Record your time in the worksheet.
Then repeat this condition again (using your LEFT hand again).
10) The next 10 trials are training. The training will be with your RIGHT hand, make sure that the
mirror box is checked for each trial. Record your time for each trial in the work sheet.
11) Finally there are two more mirror trials for the LEFT hand. Record your time for each trial in
the work sheet (trials 17 and 18).
Analysis
12) Start by analyzing the data for the normal condition. Calculate the average time for trials 1
and 2 (RIGHT hand). Record this value in box A. Calculate the average time for trials 3 and 4
(LEFT hand). Record this value in box B.
Which hand was faster at the normal task? ___________
13) Next see how much you improved when you trained your RIGHT hand on the mirror task,
Calculate the average time for trials 7 and 8. This is your average time for your RIGHT hand
before you had training. Record this value in box D.
14) Calculate the average time for trials 15 and 16. This is your average time for your RIGHT
hand after training. Record this value in box E.
15) Calculate how much your right hand improved using this formula:
Learning = 100 × (box D – box E) / box D
=
____________
This value shows how much your time improved as a percentage
of the time you took prior to training. Enter this value on your data sheet.
16) Now see by how much training the right hand improved performance by the left hand
Instructions
1)
2)
Open the Safari web browser. Navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the
URL is http://bit.ly/93foxD ). Select today's activity: Lab 6. Lateral transfer of
learning.
The page shows 10 boxes (numbered 0-9) arranged to make a star shape.
17) Calculate the average time for trials 5 and 6 (LEFT hand before training). Record this value in
box C.
18) Calculate the average time for trials 17 and 18 (LEFT hand after right hand training). Record
this value in box F.
19) Calculate the transfer of learning using this formula:
12
Learning = 100 × (box C – box F) / box C
= ____________% Enter this value on your data sheet.
TIME (sec)
TRIAL
HAND
CONDITION
Discussion
1
R
normal
1.
1.
What is the transfer of learning? Why are psychologists interested in the transfer of
learning?
2
R
normal
2.
2.
Our left hemisphere is dominant for language and our right hemisphere for visuospatial skills. Accordingly, which hand ought to have best performance at this task?
Do your data show any evidence for this?
3
L
normal
3.
4
L
normal
4.
3.
Why is the mirror drawing task hard?
4.
What is being learned in this task?
5.
What strategies did you use to complete the mirror drawing task?
5
L
mirror
5.
6.
How much transfer did you obtain (if any). Was this a surprise?
6
L
mirror
6.
7.
We ignored whether people are left or right handed. What impact might this have on
our study?
8.
Suggest some real-world situations where the bilateral transfer of learning could be
beneficial.?
7
R
mirror
7.
8
R
mirror
8.
Homework
1.
What were your average times for the normal (non-mirror) condition for your left and
right hands? Which hand was faster? Why do you think this is?
9
R
mirror
2.
Report your percentage transfer of learning for the mirror condition. Did training your
right hand improve performance in your left hand?
10
R
mirror
3.
Give an example of transfer of learning from your own everyday experience.
11
R
mirror
12
R
mirror
13
R
mirror
14
R
mirror
15
R
mirror
15.
16
R
mirror
16.
17
L
mirror
17.
18
L
mirror
18.
A. (average trials 1 & 2)
B. (average trials 3 & 4)
C. (average trials 5 & 6)
D. (average trials 7 & 8)
E. (average trials 15 & 16)
F. (average trials 17 & 18)
13
Laboratory Activity #7: Perceptual Processes
4)
Objectives
Write down your data as you go!
Müller-Lyer:
% overshortened before knowing explanation:
_____
Müller-Lyer:
% overshortened after knowing explanation:
_____
•
Show how perception involves the interpretation of sensory events
Ponzo:
% overlengthened before knowing explanation: _____
•
Demonstrate how the situation or context can influence perception
Ponzo:
% overlengthened after knowing explanation:
_____
•
Provide examples of a visual illusion
Horizontal-Vertical:
% overshortened before knowing explanation:
_____
•
Demonstrate one way to measure the strength of an illusion
Horizontal-Vertical:
% overshortened after knowing explanation:
_____
•
Demonstrate how objective data can be used to help understand subjective experience
Poggendorf:
# units before knowing explanation: _____ indicate too near or too far
Poggendorf:
# units after knowing explanation:
Introduction
5)
All of our senses, such as sight, hearing, taste, and touch, provide us with a vast amount of
information about our external world. However, what we perceive is not necessarily the
same as what is “really” out there in the external world. For example, our sense of sight
provides us with information about patterns of light, but we perceive not patterns of light
but rather trees, people, furniture, etc. Likewise, our auditory system picks up patterns of
sounds, but what we perceive are words, music, laughter, etc. So what we perceive is not
necessarily the same as what is really there.
Discussion questions
We can make a distinction between subjective and objective reality. Subjective reality is
what we experience (the tree, laughter, etc.). Objective reality is what is “really” there,
what the object or sound is really like. Several things can influence our subjective reality.
One factor is the context in which it occurs. For example, a loud bang may be perceived
as a car backfiring in one situation, but as a gunshot in another. The sound is the same,
but our perception is influenced by the context. Another factor that influences our perception is our expectations – what we think we are likely to perceive in a situation. For
example, if you are expecting an important phone call, and somebody rings the doorbell,
you may pick up the phone. You would interpret the bell as your phone ringing, since you
are expecting your phone to ring.
In this exercise, you will experiment with four visual illusions: Mueller-Lyer, Ponzo, HorizontalVertical, and Poggendorf. You will be measuring the strength of these illusions. Further
information is provided on the web page for the exercise.
Instructions
1)
Open the a web browser. Navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the URL is
http://bit.ly/93foxD ). Select today's activity: Lab 7. Perception
2)
Click on the Visual Illusions link.
3)
Read through all of the material and run through the exercises. Start with the Introduction,
and use the “previous” and “next” links at the bottom to navigate through the module. You
should do the exercises without immediate feedback to get the most valid measure of your
true perception.
_____ indicate too near or too far
Record your data in your data sheet.
1. What could we change about the stimulus in the Müller-Lyer illusion to make the illusion
stronger? Why do you think this would strengthen the illusion?
2. The activity suggested that knowing the cause of an illusion might reduce its strength.
Do you think this is possible? Do you think a low-level process like perception can be
affected by high-level knowledge?
3. In any experiment, it is important to have a control condition. This generally involves
the “absence” of the experimental manipulation. For example, with the Müller-Lyer illusion, you would be presented with two horizontal lines with no arrows on the end, and
be asked to match them for length; in the Poggendorf illusion, you would be presented with the two slanted lines with no box in between, and be asked to line them
up. Your lab did not have any control conditions. Why would it be important to have a
control condition when measuring these visual illusions?
4. Most of the explanations for these illusions are based on perceiving depth (3D) from
the 2-dimensional (2D) figures. If this is true, what do you think would happen if you
presented these illusions to children, who have had less experience in interpreting 3
dimensions from 2D pictures? Would they be more susceptible or less susceptible to
these illusions?
Homework questions
1.
For each of the four illusions, report your data from BEFORE you knew what the explanations were, and your data from AFTER you knew what the explanations were. (Your
answer should include all 8 measurements). [2 pts]
2.
Based on your data, explain whether knowing the explanation of the illusion weakened the magnitude of the illusion. [2 pts]
3.
There is another visual illusion called the Titchener Illusion [see
picture]. In this illusion, the two center circles are the same
size, but one appears larger than the other because of the
surrounding circles. Describe a procedure that you could use
to objectively measure how strong this illusion is (like we did
with the illusions in class). [2 pts]
14
Laboratory Activity #8: Stroop Effect
Objectives
says and what color it is will be different (e.g. the word “red” written in blue). The third condition is
a control. The words are unreadable, but they are printed in different colors. This allows us to
measure how quickly you can name colors in the absence of reading.
• Demonstrate the distinction between automatic and controlled processes
Remember, in ALL conditions, your task is to name the color, regardless of what the word
says.
• Demonstrate the effect of perceptual/cognitive interference (negative transfer)
The order in which you do the conditions is determined randomly by the computer.
• Demonstrate that reading is a relatively automatic behavior in college-level students
1)
Open a web browser. Navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the URL is
http://bit.ly/93foxD ). Select today's: Lab 8 Stroop effect.
Introduction
2)
Follow the instructions on the screen. Remember that you are always naming the color, not
reading the word. Do all three conditions, in the order they are shown on the page.
3)
Once you finish, you will be presented with your data. You should record everything in the
table below. Write in the condition names in the order you did them at the top of the three
columns. Then write in your reading times for each trial.
4)
Add up the times for trials 1-10. Do not include trial #0 (that was practice) or any trials where
you think the response time was problematic (e.g., you hit the FINISH button too soon, or you
zoned out, etc.). Finally divide the sum by the number of trials, to calculate your average time
(in seconds) for each of the three conditions.
When we first learn a new behavior, it is usually necessary to perform it in a controlled and
deliberate manner in order to be sure to get it right. For example, when you first learned to
ride a bike, you had to pay attention to everything you were doing—it was very effortful.
As we practice more and more, we become faster and more accurate at the task. If we
continue to practice, we over learn the behavior—it becomes even easier, requires less
effort, and we can pay attention to other things. The behavior is said to become automatic. With practice, the task of riding a bike likely became automatic for you--you no
longer had to think much about what you were doing, and could instead enjoy the scenery around you. An automatic behavior is one that occurs without our deliberate or conscious attention. Thus, it is possible to make a distinction between controlled (effortful)
behavior and automatic behavior.
FIRST
SECOND
THIRD
CONDITION
Usually it is good for a behavior to be automatic, since it can then be performed without
any effort or attention. Imagine what it would be like if you had to constantly think about
how to walk! Sometimes, however, an automatic behavior can create problems and interfere with what you want to do. For example, suppose you always take the same route
from school to home—you know the route and can follow it automatically, without really
thinking about where you are going. But if one day you want to stop off at a friend’s
house on your way from school to home, you may find that you automatically head
straight for home, instead of to your friend’s house. This process is called negative transfer—an old over-learned (automatic) behavior interferes with a new behavior—-in the
example, following the route home from school (automatic behavior) interferes with the
new behavior of taking a route to your friend’s house (new behavior).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
In this exercise, you will experience negative transfer using a task developed by J.R.
Stroop in 1935. This effect has come to be called the Stroop Effect. It demonstrates how
reading has become an automatic behavior for us. In the Stroop Effect, trying to make
judgments about the color of a word becomes difficult because you automatically read
the word.
7
8
9
Instructions
10
This task will involve naming the color of words. You will see 10 words in a column on the screen.
The words will be names of colors (red, blue, green, etc., except in the control condition where
they will be ‘######’) and will be printed in different color “inks.” Your task is to name the color of
the ink, regardless of what the word says. For example, if you saw the word “red” written in blue
ink, you would respond by saying “blue” because that’s what color the ink is.
You should name each color silently to yourself (but be sure to make the mouth movements as if
you are speaking aloud). We will time how long it takes you to do this.
SUM
MEAN
5)
Record your mean times on your data sheet. Be careful to enter your data for the correct
conditions.
You will be completing three conditions. In one condition, the words and colors will be congruent,
meaning that what the word says and what color it is will be the same (e.g. the word “red” written
in red). In an other condition, the words and colors will be incongruent, meaning that what the word
15
Discussion questions
1.
What strategies did you use (or could you use) to improve your performance when
the name and font color were different?
2.
How did your data for the control condition differ from the other conditions. Was it
faster, slower, the same?
3.
What are some things that might affect the amount of negative transfer that a person experiences on this task? Why do you think they would have this effect? Be sure
you are thinking of things that would lead to a bigger or smaller DIFFERENCE between
the “same” and “different” conditions, not just things that would slow you down or
speed you up overall!
4.
What do you think would happen if you had to read the word instead of name its
color? How would your reaction time for the “incongruent” condition compare to
that for the “congruent” condition? Why?
5.
This lab dealt with negative transfer, in which an old learned behavior interferes with
a new one. The opposite of this is called positive transfer, where a well-practiced behavior HELPS you learn a new one. Can you think of examples of positive transfer in
your everyday life?
Homework questions
1. According to the theory behind the Stroop effect, which condition should be the most
difficult? Why? [2 pts].
2. Report your average reaction times for the three conditions. Did your data support the
prediction? [2 pts]
3. Suppose we were to repeat this experiment, but we used words in a foreign language
that you do not speak (e.g. using the Russian words for red, green, and blue instead of
English). Would the “congruent” condition still be faster than the “incongruent” condition? Explain. [2 pts]
16
Laboratory Activity #9: Self-reference
not trying intentionally to remember them. You learned the words incidentally, rather
than intentionally. Why do you think this type of task was used? How do you think
your performance would have differed if you had been expecting the memory test?
Objectives
•
Experience participating in a timed judgement study
•
Learn about the use of incidental learning and forced choice tasks
•
Understand some factors that influence mental processing
Introduction
2.
In the second part of this experiment, you had to make a forced choice response
(you had to choose the one word from the previous part of the study. You were not
allowed to select ‘none’, or ‘both’). What advantages/limitations do you see to this
method? What other methods could be used to test your memory for the words in this
experiment?
3.
Why do you think that we are better at remembering self-reference words?
4.
What other types of encoding questions (i.e. questions like “Does the word describe
you”) do you think might help people to remember words? Why do you think these
questions might be helpful?
For this laboratory exercise, it is necessary that you not be fully aware of the predictions.
Therefore a full explanation will be provided once you have completed the experiment.
The study requires you to make judgments about your personality and the personality of
someone who you know quite well, but with whom you do not have a close relationship
with. (You will be provided a list of fictional characters to select from. If you do not know
any of these characters then ask your TA for help.)
Instructions
1)
Open a web browser. Navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the URL is
http://bit.ly/93foxD ). Select today's activity: Lab 9. Self reference effect.
2)
You will be provided a list of fictional characters to select from. If you do not know any of
these characters then ask your TA for help.
3)
Now you will be shown a list of personality traits. For each trait you need to decide whether it
refers to the named person (either you, or the character you previously selected ).
4)
To display each word press the <SPACE> bar on the computer keyboard.
5)
Make your response to the word by clicking on 'Yes' or 'No' with the mouse.
6)
There are 60 words to judge.
7)
It is important that you choose the correct option to the best of your ability. If you are unsure
about the meaning of a word ask your TA for help.
8)
Once you have completed all 60 words, the computer will give you the instructions you need
to complete the lab. You must read these carefully, and ask for help if you are unsure what to
do.
9)
At the end of the study record your data here and on your data sheet.
9a) Recall accuracy for words judged relative to ______________:
_______ %
9b) Recall accuracy for words judged relative to myself :
_______ %
9c) "Yes"
words: ____ recalled (out of ____ ) = _______ proportion correct
9d) "No"
words: ____ recalled (out of ____ ) = _______ proportion correct
Homework questions
1.
What was a) the independent variable in this experiment, and b) the dependent
variable in this experiment? [2 pts]
2.
What is the main prediction of this study? Report your overall recall data, and indicate if the prediction was supported by your data. [2 pts]
3.
Why do you think the act of judging whether a word refers to yourself makes that
word easier to recall? [2 pts]
Discussion questions
1.
This experiment used what is called an incidental learning task. That is, you were not
told that you would be asked later on to remember the words, so you probably were
17
Laboratory Activity #10: Reading
crease the speed of presentation for the next trial (the words will flash more slowly). You will keep
doing this until you find the presentation rate where you can just about get all the words right.
Objectives
3)
You will see a box that says ready. This is where the words will appear, one at a time.
4)
Below that is the START button, which you will use to start each sentence.
5)
The box below the START button indicates how quickly the words will be presented. This is
given in words per minute (wpm). Increasing this number will present the words more quickly.
6)
The show sentence button will be used after each trial so you can check whether you read all
the words correctly.
7)
First you’ll do some practice trials. Click the START button and read (to yourself) the sentence that flashes up. It will go VERY quickly, so be ready for it!
8)
Click the show sentence button to check how many words you read correctly.
9)
Do several practice trials until you feel comfortable with the procedure. If you find the task
easy, you can speed up the sentences by clicking the + button; if it’s hard, slow it down by
clicking the – button (it should be a little hard though, you don’t have to get all the words right
every time).
•
Demonstrate the RSVP method of studying reading
•
Consider the role of eye movements in reading
•
Determine what factors contribute to reading speed
Introduction
Try reading this introduction with your peripheral vision. It isn’t easy, is it? We naturally look
directly at things that are important to us, such as when we are reading words on a page
or screen. But since the words are spread out on the page, we need to move our eyes
around to see them all. These eye movements bring each word into your central vision so
that you can read it easily. The movements your eyes make when you read are called
saccadic eye movements (or just saccades). Your eyes “jump” from one place to the
next on the page (try watching someone else’s eyes as they read a paragraph--notice
that their eyes make jerky movements, not smooth ones!). Between jumps, your eyes fixate on a word (or a few words); then they jump to the next spot. Each saccade takes
about 250 msec (1/4 second) to complete, and is on average about 8 characters in
length. So the amount of time it takes you to read a passage depends not only on how
much time you need to mentally process the words, but also on how many times you
need to move your eyes.
Normally when you read, you view a passage of text on paper or on a computer screen.
But there is another method for presenting text, called Rapid Serial Visual Presentation
(RSVP). In this technique, words are presented one at a time in the same location on a
computer screen. Observers therefore do not need to move their eyes to read each
word--they can keep their eyes fixated on one spot. In this type of reading, your reading
speed depends only on how long it takes you to mentally process the words.
In this lab, you will compare your reading rate with RSVP vs. normal text. Typically, we expect that you will be faster at reading RSVP text because you don’t have to move your
eyes.
Instructions
You will be reading text using the RSVP method and the normal method. The order in
which you do these will be determined randomly by a coin flip. Flip a coin now:
Heads
= first do RSVP, then normal
Tails
= first do normal, then RSVP
1)
Open a web browser. Navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the URL is
http://bit.ly/93foxD ). Select today's activity: Lab10. Reading.
2)
Click on the link for your first condition (RSVP if you got heads, Normal if you got tails)
RSVP procedure (do first if you flipped heads, second if you flipped tails)
This task involves measuring your reading rate for RSVP text. Words will flash up one at a time on
the screen. You will read the words to yourself as fast as you can, and then check to see how
many words you read correctly. If you get all the words right, you’ll increase the speed of presentation for the next trial (the words will flash more quickly), and if you make errors then you’ll de-
10) When you are comfortable, you can start the real trials. Click START and read the sentence,
then check your answer.
a.
If you get every word exactly right, then click ‘+’ to speed up the next trial. It’s ok if you
read the words in the wrong order, or add words—those do not count as mistakes. But a
word is counted as incorrect if you fail to read it or read it incorrectly.
b.
If you make any errors, then click the ‘–‘ button to slow down the next trial.
11) Continue in this manner until you find the fastest presentation rate at which you can read all
the words correctly, without any errors. Then repeat that trial—you need to be able to get 3
trials in a row without making any errors. Keep going until you can do this (you can speed up
or slow down the text as necessary). This is your reading rate.
12) Once you think you’ve found your reading rate, check it to make sure—click the + to increase
the rate, and see if you can do 3 trials in a row without errors at this slightly faster rate (just to
make sure!). If not, then the previous speed was correct.
13) Once you have found you RSVP reading rate, record it here: ________ and in your data
sheet.
14) If you still need to do the Normal reading trials (heads), then click the Back button on your
browser and proceed with those trials.
Normal reading procedure (do first if you flipped tails, second if you flipped heads)
This task involves measuring your reading rate with regular text. You will view three normal passages of text, and the computer will time how long it takes you to read each one. Make sure you
read every word, don’t just skim the passages.
15) Read and follow the instructions on the screen. You will click a button to start reading each
passage, and then click FINISHED as soon as you are done. The first trial will be “practice,”
followed by 3 “real” trials.
16) As you go, write down the following data:
Practice trial (first one):
time taken to read: ________ Reading speed: __________
st
time taken to read: ________ Reading speed: __________
nd
time taken to read: ________ Reading speed: __________
1 real trial:
2 real trial:
18
rd
3 real trial:
time taken to read: ________ Reading speed: __________
17) Calculate your average reading speed: add up your reading speeds for the 3 “real” trials, and
divide by three. Record your average here: _________ and in your data sheet.
18) When you are finished, you should be returned to the starting page. If you still need to do the
RSVP reading trials (tails), then click the link and proceed with those trials.
Discussion Questions
1.
In what ways did the RSVP method feel different from normal reading?
2.
Why do you think a researcher would want to use the RSVP procedure when studying
reading (i.e. why would s/he want to factor out eye movements)?
3.
This lab did not require that you demonstrate comprehension of what you read. How
do you think your performance and/or behavior might differ if your comprehension
had been tested?
4.
What are some factors that might affect your reading speed in either or both of these
reading paradigms?
Homework Questions
1.
What was the independent variable in this experiment? What was the dependent
variable? [2 pts]
2.
Which of the reading tasks (RSVP versus Normal) have you had most prior experience
with? To what extent do you think your previous reading experience might have
been involved in your performance on these two tasks? [2 pts]
3.
How could you modify these tasks such that the experimenter could verify that the
reader was comprehending what s/he was reading? [2 pts]
19
Laboratory Activity #11: Implicit Attitudes
Objectives
•
Understand the difference between explicit and implicit attitudes
•
Think about the nature of prejudice
•
Determine whether you may have unconscious prejudices
Homework questions
1.
What is an implicit attitude? How does it differ from an explicit attitude? [2 pts]
2.
How does the IAT deal with order effects, i.e. the fact that you may have been instructed to pair WHITE with GOOD first, and BLACK with GOOD later on? [2 pts]
3.
How could you determine if order played a role in your responses? [2 pts]
Introduction
The explanatory material for this lab will be provided on the web site. There is no introduction to read here.
Instructions
1)
Open Explorer or Firefox. Go to the PSY105 Lab page, follow “Links to web experiments” and
select today’s activity: Lab 11. Implicit attitudes.
2)
Read the material on the page, then click on Go to the Demonstration Tests.
3)
Read the material on the page, then click I wish to proceed.
4)
Scroll down and select the Race IAT.
5)
Read the instructions and click to begin the test. Continue to follow the on-screen instructions
until you are finished. During the test, be sure you use the same finger from each hand (e.g.
the index finger on your right hand and left hand). Do not use two fingers on the same hand.
6)
When you have finished, you will see a survey—you can skip the survey; go to the bottom of
the page and click Proceed.
7)
You will then be told what type of “preference” you have, if any, based on the results of the
test. Read the material on the page to understand how this was determined.
8)
Next, click on the Background tab along the menu at the top and read the material on the
page.
9)
Click on the FAQ link and read that material.
10) Click on the Understanding IAT Results link and read that material.
Discussion Questions
1.
Some students have argued that it is ridiculous to use reaction times to determine
racial preferences. Do you think this IAT procedure is a valid measure of racial preference? What else could explain a difference in reaction times?
2.
If a person’s IAT shows an automatic White preference, does that mean that the person is prejudiced? Why or why not?
3.
Why do you think that many Americans show an automatic preference for White
over Black?
4.
Would it be ethical to use the IAT as a screening test, such as for a job, a political
office, membership on a jury, etc.? Why or why not?
20
Laboratory Activity #12: Personality
Objectives
•
Demonstrate tests of individual personality traits
•
Demonstrate the use of the computer/web to administer and score personality tests
•
Understand the concepts of validity, reliability, correlation, and norms
Introduction
The study of personality and individual differences involves determining and understanding characteristics and behaviors that make us unique. A large number of tests or inventories have been developed to measure various aspects of personality and individual characteristics. Some of these tests are designed primarily to determine whether a person has
abnormal characteristics, while others are intended to determine where an individual falls
within the normal range of variation. Most personality tests measure one or more specific
characteristics of personality (e.g. tolerance for ambiguity, compulsiveness, leadership,
etc.). Other tests measure a number of different factors and yield a set of scores that constitute a profile. Most tests involve people making true-false judgments about statements,
or selecting descriptions that are true of themselves.
The important questions that must be asked about any personality test deal with its validity, its reliability, and the availability of test norms. Validity refers to the extent to which the
test actually measures what it purports to measure. Reliability deals with the question of
whether you would obtain the same (or similar) scores on repeated administration of the
test to the same individual. Test norms provide representative scores obtained from a control group with which an individual’s score can be compared.
You will take two tests today. One is based on the Myers-Briggs personality test: this test
uses your responses to several questions to classify you as one of 16 personality types. The
other measures your scores on the Big Five Inventory: your responses are used to indicate
how your scores on five personality traits compare to those of the general population.
6)
Click on either of the two links to read the description (Keirsey or Butt and Heiss) of your
personality type. You may wish to print out the description for later reference (don’t close the
window, or you’ll have to take the test all over again to get the information back!)
7)
In a new window navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the URL is
http://bit.ly/93foxD ), and click on the Big Five Inventory link.
8)
Read the instructions and then indicate your response to each item. It is important that respond to every item.
9)
Click on "score test" to obtain your personality profile.
10) Your profile consists of your score on five dimensions. The page shows your percentile for
each dimension. The percentile shows the percentage of the comparison population who
have scores that are lower than yours. For example, if you obtained 10% for neuroticism it
means that only 10% of the population were less neurotic than you.
11) Read the information about the 5 dimensions carefully, and make sure that you understand
what your percentile score means in each case.
12) For each of the five dimensions record your mean score (not the percentile) here:
Open a web browser and navigate to the PSY105 Labs page (a short version of the URL is
http://bit.ly/93foxD ). There are 2 links under today’s activity (Lab 12. Personality).
2)
Start by following the Myers-Briggs link.
3)
Read the information on the screen and then click on Do it! to take the personality test. When
you’ve finished, click on Score it! to find out your personality type.
4)
Record your personality type (e.g., ISFP): ______________
5)
For each of the 4 components below, circle the one the test says describes you, and record
your “strength of preference” for each one.
1.
Extroverted / Introverted
_________
2.
Sensing / Intuitive
_________
3.
Feeling / Thinking
_________
4.
Judging / Perceiving
_________
_______
Concientiousness
_______
Extraversion
_______
Agreeableness
_______
Neuroticism
_______
Discussion questions
1.
Review the definitions of reliability, validity, and test norms given in the Background.
How would you go about assessing the reliability of this personality test? How would
you test its validity? What group(s) of people might provide a good test norm for your
score?
2.
Many personality tests are given as paper-and-pencil tests. How might taking a test
on the computer be different from taking a paper-and-pencil test? What are some
advantages and disadvantages of each version?
3.
The Myers-Briggs test required you to choose from two alternative answers to each
item. The Big-Five test used a rating scale in which you indicate how strongly you
agreed with each statement. What do you think are some advantages and disadvantages to each type of format?
4.
How else were these two tests different? In what ways were they the same?
5.
Which of these two tests do you think gives the best description of your personality?
Why?
6.
Earlier in the semester you wrote down words that described your personality. How
well do these match the findings of today's lab?
7.
What real-world applications might tests like this have?
8.
Many students report that they enjoy learning about themselves in this lab. What do
these tests tell you about yourself that you do not already know?
Instructions
1)
Openness
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Homework questions
1. What was your personality type as revealed by the Myers-Briggs test (e.g., INTJ, ESFP,
etc.)? Write a brief description of this personality type in your own words. [2 pts]
2. How do your scores on both tests compare to your own perception of your personality? If the results differ from your self-perception, why do you think so? [2 pts]
3. Personality tests like these are often used in career counseling situations. What would
be a good career choice for someone with your temperament? Explain why you think
so. [2 pts]
22
Laboratory Activity #13: Analyzing Data
complete story. We also need to consider the standard deviation (i.e., how spread out
the scores are.)
Objectives
• Determine whether performance on any of the lab tasks is related
Imagine that the SD for the Chemistry scores is 6. So her score of 76% is exactly 1 SD above
the mean. Imagine that the SD for the Physics scores is 3. So her score of 62% is exactly 2
SDs above the mean (i.e., she did much better than most people.) This example shows
how a score on a measure can be represented in terms of its relative position in a particular distribution of scores. When we do this in terms of mean and SD we create a standard score. By transforming the data into standard scores it gives us common units that
we can use to compare the results of different tests. The most common type of standard
score is called a z-score.
Introduction
To calculate the Z-score of a measure, first subtract the mean from the measure and then
divide by the SD.
• Integrate the activities studied during this course
• Understand how to summarize and interpret data
• Understand the use of correlation coefficients
Psychologists often collect data on several measures from a large number of participants.
Doing so allows them to establish group norms and to examine the relationship between
scores on the different measures. In this activity, both of these uses will be demonstrated.
We will use the data from the lab activities that you have completed during the semester.
We will review all of these data during this week’s lab.
Describing data: the mean
The mean (also called the average) is an estimate of the central tendency of the data
(e.g., the typical score obtained on a measure). It is calculated by adding up all the
scores and then dividing by how many scores there are. For example, if a student
counted how many cups of coffee eight of his friends drink during a day, he may end up
with the following eight scores: 3 5 2 8 5 4 7 6. The mean number of cups of coffee
drunk is calculated by adding up all the scores (3+5+2+8+5+4+7+6=40) and then dividing
the sum by the number of scores (in this case 8): 40/8 = 5.
Describing data: the standard deviation
The standard deviation (abbreviation: SD) indicates how spread out the data are. Consider these two sets of data, Set A: 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6, Set B: 3 5 2 8 5 4 7 6. Both set A
and set B have the same mean, but the data in Set B cover a wider range than the data
in set A. The SD of a data set is a calculation of the average difference between each
data point and the mean.
You do not need to know how to calculate standard deviations for this class (you will be
taught this in PSY205 and PSY206). Instead you will be given a list of the mean and standard deviation for everyone's scores in each of this semester's lab activities.
Z-scores
Usually we are interested in understanding someone's score in terms of how it compares
to the other scores. For example, imagine that a student received 76% on her chemistry
test and 62% on her physics test. Did she do better on the chemistry test? In some sense
she did, because she got more answers right. But this is not the complete story — maybe
the chemistry test was easier than the physics test. She really needs to know how well she
did relative to everyone else who took the test. In other words, she should compare her
score to the mean score in each test.
Imagine that the mean score on the chemistry test was 70%. In this case her score of 76%
was a little bit above the average. Imagine that the mean score on the physics test was
56%. In this case her score of 62% was also a little bit above the average. Compared to
the means it seems as if she did about equally well in both classes. But this is still not the
Z = ( score – mean ) / SD.
Chemistry:
Z = (76 – 70) / 6
=
6/6
=
1
Physics:
Z = (62 – 56) / 3
=
6/3
=
2
The z-score shows how many SDs the score is away from the mean. Z-scores can be positive or negative. If the measurement is below the mean, the z-score will be negative. If the
measurement is above the mean, the z-score will be positive.
Practice
Calculate the z-scores for another student who scored 67% on chemistry and 67% on physics.
Chemistry
Z = _______
Physics:
Z = _______
Which test did this student do best on?
Correlations
A correlation describes how closely related two variables are. For example, class grades
and attendance are likely to be positively correlated. Typically, the more you go to class,
the better your grades are. For example, exercise and illness might be negatively correlated. Typically, the more you exercise, the less likely you are to get ill. Class grades are
probably not correlated with how tall you are. The relationship between class grades and
how tall you are is an example of two variables that we would expect to have zero correlation.
The correlation coefficient, r, is a number that describes the correlation. Positive = as one
thing (e.g. attendance) goes up, the other thing (e.g. grades) also goes up. Negative = as
one thing (e.g. exercise) goes up, the other thing (e.g. illness) goes down. The correlation
coefficient varies from –1 (a strong negative correlation) to +1 (a strong positive correlation). The closer the number is to 0, the weaker is the correlation. In most psychology experiments it is rare to find two variables that have a correlation much stronger than ±0.5.
Instructions
For today’s lab you will calculate the z-score for each of your measures from the semester that you
recorded on your data sheet. Your TA will give you complete instructions and a worksheet to complete before you leave class today.
23