2/11/15
Assessment and Management of Soil
Fertility And Vine Health
Jean-Jacques Lambert, Ph.D, CPPSc
Viticulture and Enology, UC Davis
Viticultural Soil Use
•  During the Middle ages, vines were often grown
in the poorest soils (shallow, stony, on slopes).
Deep, fertile soils were reserved for food crops.
•  Increasingly, grapevines have been grown in
deeper, more fertile alluvial soils after the
phylloxera crisis in Europe, and in the new wine
growing countries.
•  From earlier times, the belief persists that “poor”
soils increase stress on vines, lowering yields but
enhancing flavors and aromas.
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The Soil Factor in Viticulture
1)  Depth (extent of the root system)
2)  Texture and structure
3)  Soil water availability
4)  Soil nutrient content
5)  Soil pH and carbonates
6)  Coarse fragments content
7)  Limiting subsoil layers
8)  Soil temperature
9) Organic matter content
Topography (slope) and aspect (orientation)
are interdependent with soil characteristics
Factors Influencing Soil
Fertility
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Soil Components
Soil Textures:
The Texture Triangle
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~arossi/texture%20triangle.jpg
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Coarse Fragments in
Vineyard Soils
Beckstoffer Red Hills Vineyard Co.
Contact With
Tehama fm
“CORNING” SOIL
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Root Counts Vary Considerably With
Soil Type In an Irrigated Vineyard
600
Alfisol II
Mollisol
500
Block 52
Block 53
Block 56
400
300
200
Vertisol
100
0
Depth (cm)
Lambert, in preparation
Soil Nutrient Availability and pH
7.0
The availability of most soil nutrients is
maximal at or near neutral pH (7.0)
http://www.aglime.org.uk/technical07.htm
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The Effect of Soil pH on
Nutrient Availability
Acidic
Alkaline
Nutrient Behavior in Soils
+
+
Sand
+
Sandy loam
+
Sandy soils:
Low organic matter
Large air spaces
Low nutrient status
Free drainage
+
+
+
Sandy clay loam
+
+
+
+
+
Clay
+
+
+
+
High-clay soils:
High nutrient capacity
High water-holding
capacity
Prone to waterlogging
As soils increase in clay content,
Their Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) increases
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CEC of Different Soils
Soil Order
CEC (cmol Kg-1)
pH
Ultisols
3.5
5.6
Alfisols
9.0
6.0
Andosols
5 to 50
-
Spodosols
9.3
4.9
Mollisols
18.7
6.5
Vertisols
35.6
6.7
Aridisols
15.2
7.3
Inceptisols
14.6
6.1
Entisols
11.6
7.3
Histosols
128
5.5
*Soils in red are particularly common in California
Low CEC Soils and Nutrient
Deficiencies
•  Low CEC soils are more likely to develop K
and Mg (and other cation) deficiencies
•  High CEC soils are less susceptible to
leaching losses
•  In sandy soils, a large one-time addition of
cations (K) can lead to leaching losses.
–  The soil cannot hold onto the excess K.
–  More frequent additions of smaller amounts =
better.
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Annual Nutrient Uptake per Vineyard
Hectare (by leaves, stems and berries)
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorous (P; P2O5)
20-70 kg
3-10 kg; 7-23 kg
Potassium (K; K2O)
25-70 kg; 30-84 kg
Magnesium (Mg; MgO)
6-15 kg; 10-25 kg
Calcium (Ca; CaO)
40-80 kg; 56-112 kg
Sulfur (S)
4-8 kg
Iron (Fe)
400-800 g
Boron (B)
80-150 g
Copper (Cu)
60-120 g
Manganese (Mn)
80-160 g
Zinc (Zn)
100-200 g
(1 hectare = 2.5 acres)
Delas, 2000
Average annual uptake of N, P, K
N = 30 kg/ha/yr = 26lbs/ac/yr
P = 4 kg/ha/yr = 3.6 lbs/ac/yr
K = 25kg/ha/yr = 22 lbs/ac/yr
- Leaves fall to the ground and are spread unevenly by wind;
- Prunings are generally reincorporated in the ground;
- Only the grapes are ‘removed’, and the nutrient content of
grapes represents a smaller fraction of the overall nutrient
uptake.
Hence, actual nutrient loss from the vineyard is less than the
overall uptake by the plant.
Source: Delas, 2000
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Nitrogen Removed From
the Soil by One Hectare of Vines
Over One Year
N in lbs/acre
7.8
0.9
0.9
3.9
10.0
1.6
4.9
Yield
(t/ac)
1.9
Champagnol, 1984
Vine Nutritional Requirements
During the Growing Season
High requirement for K
during maturation
Nitrogen
crisis at
bloom
High Mg
Requirement
(growth)
High K
requirement
Phenomenon of
base substitution
in leaves and
berries (Ca/Mg)
High requirements
for P at berry set
High requirement for P at
the end of maturation
Bud break
Bloom
Berry Set
Veraison
Harvest
Créspy, 2007
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Interpretation of Petiole Analysis
Element
Lower limit*
Upper limit*
Units
N
0.4
0.6
% dry wt
P
0.1
0.18
% dry wt
K
1.0-1.5
2.5
% dry wt
Mg
0.4
0.6
% dry wt
Ca
2
4
% dry wt
Fe
110
160
mg/Kg dry wt
Mn
50
100
mg/Kg dry wt
B
25
40
mg/Kg dry wt
Zn
30
60
mg/Kg dry wt
S
0.2
0.3
% dry wt
*Values below lower limit are considered insufficient;
values above upper limit are considered excessive.
Minerals in Musts or Wines
g/L
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Potassium
0.4
1.84
0.97
Calcium
30x10-3
0.20
70x10-3
Magnesium
40x10-3
0.16
90x10-3
Sodium
3x10-3
0.35
25x10-3
Silica
20x10-3
90x10-3
35x10-3
Phosphate
0.10
0.80
0.40
Sulfate
40x10-3
0.60
0.10
Chloride
10x10-3
0.2 (0.8)
58x10-3
Iron
4x10-3
Manganese
1.5x10-3
Zinc
0.9x10-3
Copper
0.12x10-3
Molybdenum
4x10-6
Aluminum
0.76x10-3
Crespy, 2007
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N Uptake and Storage
•  NO3- is taken up by vine roots and distributed in the
different plant organs. It is low in the berries and
resulting juice.
•  It is reduced by the Nitrate reductase system to
ammonia (NH4+) and transported and stored as amino
acids, particularly arginine, proline and the amino acid
amines
•  Nitrate reductase activity is reduced by low
temperatures, low light, and low available nitrate
concentrations.
•  Some grape varieties have naturally high levels (e.g.,
Zinfandel) or low levels (e.g., Muscat) of this enzyme.
Thompson Seedless is intermediate.
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Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen
(YAN)
•  Critical measure of berry N
•  Includes NH4-N and amino acid N (except
proline)
•  Should be in the range of 200-300 mg/L in
juice
•  If YAN is <140 mg/L, fermentation will be
too slow
•  If YAN is too high, fermentation is too
rapid and quality is low
Nitrogen Deficiency
•  Symptoms are not easily recognizable
until deficiency is severe
•  Initially can show reduced vigor
•  In severe N shortage:
–  Uniform, pale green/yellow leaves
–  Reduced shoot growth
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Nitrogen Deficiency
•  N deficiency in a Grenache
vineyard, 2005
Crespy, 2007
Goals of N Fertilization
•  Promote necessary vine vigor and leaf
area for the adequate development and
shading of the fruit
•  Avoid excess vine growth and vigor
•  Must be adjusted for soil type and grape
variety
–  Sandy soils require more frequent and higher
N rates
–  High-vigor varieties require careful control of N
usage
–  Low-vigor varieties may not show greatly
increased vigor with N fertilization
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Nitrogen Excess
•  Symptoms are more clearly defined than
those of N deficiency
•  Excess N can adversely affect yield
•  Foliage is lush and dark green.
•  Vine vigor is excessive, with less
desirable fruit and cane development
•  Shoots have long internodes and are
flattened
•  More of the canes are immature
•  Sometimes associated with reduced fruit
set, but this may also have other causes
Excess N Effects on Merlot Grafted on
Riparia on a Gravelly Soil
A 20-year trial
1- Delayed ending of vegetative growth (excess vigor)
2- Higher suceptibility to mildew, and above all botrytis cinerea
3- Change in sugar metabolism favoring protein synthesis at
the expense of phenolic compound synthesis (drop in quality)
4- Increase in wine N compounds affecting human health
5- Alteration of wine organoleptic properties. Wines from
excess N plots received lower grades in a tasting panel
6- Increase in coulure in sensitive cultivars (Merlot), drop in yields
and increased vigor.
Delas, 2000
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Influence of Excess N Fertilization
on Wine Color "
Cabernet franc
Cabernet
Malbec
Sauvignon
Merlot
Control
N
Control
N
Control
N
Control
N
90.5
72.5
51.5
54.5
60.0
39.5
67.5
56.5
0.77
0.57
0.85
0.69
0.86
0.59
1.15
0.99
Total Polyphenols
(meq)
Color Intensity
(OD 420 + 520
)
(Peynaud, 1972)!
Influence of Excess N Fertilization on the
Concentration of N Compounds in Wine
No N added
Excess N
(100 kg N/ha/Yr)
Total N (mg/L)
265
480
Ethyl Carbamate (µg/L)
4.4
4.4
Urea (mg/L)
0.5
2.4
Arginine (mg/L)
50
105
Histamine (mg/L)
2.2
4.8
Tyramine (mg/L)
0.5
2.7
Putrescine (mg/L)
3.2
9.1
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Influence of Excess N Fertilization on Vigor,
Yield and Grape Quality (Delas, 1993)
No N added "
Excess N (100 kg N/ha/an) "
Pruning Weight (g/vine) "
224 "
302 "
Yield (g/vine) "
1350 "
987 "
Must Sugar Content (g/L) "
192 "
188 "
Total Berry Skin Phenolic
Compounds "
(OD 280 nm x 100) "
59 "
46 "
Berry Skin Anthocyanins"
(mg/100 berries) "
161 "
128 "
Berry Skin Tannins "
(mg/100 berries) "
456 "
310 "
Color Intensity "
(OD 420 + 520 + 620 nm) "
1.72 "
1.39 "
Total anthocyanins (mg/L)
Topping Is Not a Remedy For
Excess N in a Pinot Noir Vineyard
200
Single topping
No N fertilizer
150
Repeated topping
No N fertilizer
100
Single topping
90 kg N/ha added
50
Repeated topping
90 kg N/ha added
0
Day 0 Day 2 Day 4 Day 6
After After
Cold
Press MLF Storage
Adverse effects on wine quality of excess N at bloom
Modified from M. Keller et al. 1999
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Characteristic Mineral Ratios for
Petiole Analysis
Minerals
Normal Ratio
K/Mg
4 - 8 or 2 - 8
N/P
2.5 - 3.5
N/K
0.2 - 0.4
P/Zn
<100
Any significant deviation can signal nutritional problems
Petiole K (% dry matter)
Relationship Between Petiole K
at Veraison and Must K
Must K (g/L)
Delas, Molot and Soyer, 1990
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Relationship of K to Must
Acidity
•  Must acidity depends upon the neutralization by
cations (K, Mg, Ca) of malic and tartaric acid
•  Is insufficient must acidity caused by overfertilization with excess K?
•  There is a positive correlation between leaf K levels
and K concentration in must (previous slide)
•  However, the relationship between K concentration
and the acidity of must or wine is controversial
(Delas, 2000; Boulton 1980)
Excess K
•  °Brix increases, but aromatic and
phenolic compounds do not increase
accordingly
•  Lack of acidity, affecting color and
aging
•  Often, precipitation of potassium
tartrate in the barrel or the bottle
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K Deficiency:
Impact on Fruit and Wine Quality
•  Induces slow ripening
•  Produces acid musts, low color
intensity (reds), astringency and
green pepper and vegetal taste
•  For reds, tannins are astringent and
rough
K Deficiency: Symptoms
•  Leaf browning
•  Effects on berry development
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Petiole K Levels Vary By Rootstock
ALFISOL
INCEPTISOL
HIGH: 1616C, Harmony
LOW: Ramsey
HIGH: 1616C
LOW: Ramsey
•  K tends to increase from Bloom to Veraison, then decrease at Harvest
•  Similar rootstock rank order was seen on both soil types
•  Low K in Berlandieri rootstocks (1103P, 110R, 140R)
Influence of Rootstock on
Potassium Levels in Petioles,
Must and Wine
Rootstock
Petiole K
(% Dry Wt)
Must K
(g/L)
Wine K (g/
L)
Wine pH
Riparia
2.77
1.69
1.20
3.84
SO4
5.77
2.01
1.53
3.94
Fercal
5.42
2.00
1.67
4.00
•  Graves region, gravelly sand soil, Cabernet
Sauvignon vineyard
Delas, Molot and Soyer, 1990
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Mg Deficiency
•  Wines not rounded, unctuosity
•  Reds often lack color
•  Slow malolactic fermentation
(bacteria have high Mg requirements)
Mg Excess
•  Not often found; but fairly common in
California Coast Range in soils derived
form Serpentine rocks.
•  Soils begin to show a Mg problem with a
Ca:Mg ratio of 1:1 or lower.
•  Mg excess reduces vine growth, crop
load, tolerance to water stress, sugar
accumulation and interferes with K uptake
•  A good Mg concentration produces
rounded, full bodied, colored wines
(Meyer, R., 1997)
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Mg Deficiency
Leaf discoloration:
Red (e.g., Gamay, left)
Veins remain green
Leaf discoloration:
White (e.g., Ugni, right)
Veins remain green
Dessication of rachis
Mg and Mg-K Interactions
Induction of Mg Deficiency by
Excess K Fertilization
Control
120 kg K2O/
ha/year
240 kg K2O/
ha/year
Symptoms
K Deficiency
None
Slight Mg
Deficiency
Petiole K/Mg
ratio at
veraison
0.40
6.21
11.36
Yield (hl/ha)
24.1
46.1
40.0
Delas and Molot, 1967-68
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Rootstock Uptake of
K and Mg
High Uptake
of K
High Uptake
of Mg
Strong
Tendency
44-53 Malègue, SO4,
Fercal, 5BB, 99R
These rootstocks
may induce Mg
deficiency
1.103P, 140Ru, 41B,
420A, 3.309C,
Rupestris du Lot
These rootstocks
may induce K
deficiency
Weak Tendency
110R, 161-49c, 1447P,
196-17cl, 101-14
Créspy, 2007
K and Mg Requirements
Veraison K/Mg Ratio, Leaves and Petioles
1
Systematic
K deficiency
2
3
Grenache
Cab. Sauv.
Sauvignon
Gewurtztr.
Riesling
Chardonnay
Pinot
Viognier
Muscat
Altesse b
Chasselas
Chenin
Roussanne
Marselan
Requires
High Mg
4
5
Syrah
Mourvèdre
Cot N
Melon b
Tannat N
Duras N
Aligoté
Rolle b
Cinsault
Cab. franc
Intermediate
Group
6
7
Carignan
Tempranillo
Graciano
Marsanne
Merlot
Grolleau
Terrets
Macabeu
8
9
Systematic
Mg deficiency
Requires
High K
From: Crespy et al., 2007
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Phosphorus Deficiency
•  Leaves reddish, curled
•  Abnormal petiole orientation
P Deficiency
•  Can decrease must fermentation process
•  Can decrease acidity and impact wine
stability and color
•  Rootstocks differ in their ability to take up
phosphorus from the soil, to translocate
phosphorus to the scion, and in their
influence on phosphorus utilization by the
scion
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P Deficiency and Soil Type
•  Calcareous soils, and soils with a
high content of finely divided lime
can complex P
•  Iron rich soils, such as volcanic
soils, can also lock P in Fe
compounds
Fe Chlorosis
Yellowing of leaves,
beginning near
cane extremities
Leaves become
yellow to white
in extreme cases,
and may fall early
(veraison)
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Choice of Rootstocks Based on Active
Carbonate (Drouineau-Galet)
Ca
Below:
Choices:
6%
9%
14%
Riparia
G196-17
3309C
101-14
44-53
R. du Lot
Gravesac
99R
110R
1.103P
SO4
5BB
420A
140Ru
161-49
41B
333EM
Fercal
3309C
101-14
44-53
R. du Lot
Gravesac
99R
110R
1.103P
SO4
5BB
420A
140Ru
161-49
41B
333EM
Fercal
R. du Lot
Gravesac
99R
110R
1.103P
SO4
5BB
420A
140Ru
161-49
41B
333EM
Fercal
17%
99R
110R
1.103P
SO4
5BB
420A
140Ru
161-49
41B
333EM
Fercal
20%
5BB
420A
140Ru
161-49
41B
333EM
Fercal
25%
161-49
41B
333EM
Fercal
40%
41B
333EM
Fercal
>40%
Fercal
Crespy, 2007
Conclusions
•  Soil properties influence vine growth and
fruit quality in irrigated or dry-farmed
vineyards.
•  Soil nutrient management should be site
specific, using the right fertilizers, at the right
rates and at the right time.
•  Rootstock/cultivar and rootstock/soil
pairings both affect yield and vine growth, as
well as fruit and must quality.
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Challenges for the Future
•  Expansion of vineyards in California and
elsewhere
•  Scarcity and high cost of irrigation water
–  Vineyards cannot be fallowed
•  High environmental costs of excess
fertilization
•  Need to conserve soil health
•  Development of sustainable viticulture
practices
THANK YOU !
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References
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bourrié, B., Les carences minérales de la vigne. SADEF-Pole d’Aspach,
Mulhouse, FR, 1999
Champagnol, Elements de Physiologie de la Vigne et de la Viticulture
Générale, Montpellier, FR, 1984
Créspy, A., Manuel pratique de Fertilisation: qualité des mouts et des vins.
Avenir Oenologie, Oenoplurimedia, FR, 2007
Delas, J., Fertilisation de la vigne. Editions Féret, Bordeaux, FR, 2000
Maschmedt, D.J., Soils and Australian Viticulture, Chapter 3 In: Viticulture,
Vol. 1: Resources. Dry, P.R., an Coombe, B.G., Eds., Winetitles, Ashford,
AU, 1988
Nicholas, P., Soil, Irrigation and Nutrition. Grape Production Series No. 2,
No. Australian Institute for Research and Development, Adelaide, AU, 2004
Robinson, J.B., Grapevine Nutrition, Chapter 9 In: Viticulture, Vol. 2:
Practices. Coombe, B.G., and Dry, P.R., Eds., Winetitles, Ashford, AU,
1988
UC Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources (DANR), Grapevine
Nutrition and Fertilization in the San Joaquin Valley. Publication 4087,
UCANR, Oakland, CA, 1978.
White, R.E., Soils for Fine Wines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK,
2003
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