Hedonic Consumption and Consumer Value in Travel
Cynthia M. Webster, Vanessa A. Rennie, Macquarie University
Abstract
More and more, consumers are indulging in products and services purely for their
hedonic benefits. To explore consumer value in hedonic consumption experiences,
the Consumer Value Typology (Holbrook 1986, 1995), in conjunction with the
Subjective Personal Introspection approach, is applied to pleasurable experiences
captured in travel photographs. Results show that hedonic consumption is much more
than self-indulgence and immediate gratification. Certainly, play and aesthetics are
valued, but so are competency, effort and efficiency. Relationships and sharing, as
well as individual growth and development, are all important aspects of pleasure.
Introduction
Increasingly, consumers are engaging in activities simply because they are inherently
interesting, pleasurable, and gratifying. Some hedonic pursuits, like listening to
music or going out to dinner, require relatively little mental or physical effort, while
others, such as leisure travel, can involve a substantial amount of personal investment
and expense. Since, as Waterman (1993, 2005) points out, hedonic experiences while
enjoyable, are not necessarily productive or goal directed, it is intriguing as to why
consumers devote so much to such apparently frivolous and momentary activities. As
such, the aim here is to explore the value consumers derive from pursuits of pleasure.
Hedonic Consumption. Hirschman and Holbrook (1982) identify hedonic
consumption as involving product experiences that stimulate consumers’ feelings and
imaginings. Traditional consumer research has tended to neglect such experiential
aspects of behaviour, resulting in limited understanding of the importance of hedonic
benefits (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). Recent work has directed efforts towards
the pleasurable aspects of products (Chaudhuri 2006; Keiningham and Vavra 2001;
Norman 2004; Postrel 2003). Chitturi et al. (2008) show that products designed to
delight increase customer loyalty, more so than simply satisfying them. While the
business case is gradually becoming stronger for incorporating hedonic benefits, the
reasons behind why consumers value pleasure remain unspecified.
Consumer Value. To explore value in consumption experiences, Holbrook (1999)
developed the Consumer Value Typology. Holbrook’s typology identifies three
dimensions: self-oriented versus other-oriented, intrinsic versus extrinsic, and active
opposed to reactive. Eight types of consumer value result. Both play and aesthetics
are self-oriented and intrinsically satisfying, with play being an active pursuit and
aesthetics more of a reactive, appreciation. Efficiency and excellence are extrinsic and
self-oriented, with efficiency displayed in active and functional deeds, while
excellence is reactive and expressed in the quality of experiences. Status and esteem
are both extrinsic, other-oriented consumer values in that they are utilitarian and relate
to others, with status behaviours as active and deliberately performed to make
favourable impressions on others while esteem is more reactive and exemplified
through material possessions and desired experiences. Ethics and spirituality are the
final two other-orientated, intrinsic value types, with ethics seen in deeds of kindness,
1
compassion and moderation, while spirituality is the appreciation of how an encounter
touches ones’ relationships with other individuals, one’s own self or a greater force.
Method
Together with his Consumer Value Typology, Holbrook’s (1986, 1995) Subjective
Personal Introspection (SPI) approach is used, to examine consumer value in the
hedonic consumption of pleasure travel. SPI is a qualitative, reflective technique in
which researchers consider their own consumption experiences to examine human
behaviours. Holbrook (2005) describes SPI as a type of autoethnography in “which
the author enjoys privileged access to the relevant phenomena of interest” (p.45).
Qualitative research is appropriate as it involves exploring the value of the emotions,
motivations, and inspirations shaping behaviours. As Deshpande (1983) points out:
“qualitative methodologists believe that a complete and ultimately honest analysis can
only be achieved by actively participating in the life of the subject of observation and
gaining insights by means of introspection” (p.106). To legitimate SPI accounts,
Holbrook (2005) advocates the use of supporting evidence, such as photographs,
which are increasingly being used in consumer research (Belk 1991; Holbrook and
Takeo 1998). For these reasons, SPI is used to explore consumer value in travel
through examining photographs taken by one of the authors while traveling through
the USA for six weeks in 2007.
Results
Self-oriented experiences. As many consumers travel primarily for pleasure and to
experience travel for its own sake (Kale et al. 1987), it is not surprising to find the
most evident categories in the travel photos are that of play and aesthetics. Photos
exhibiting active play behavior are found in Exhibits 1.1 through 1.3. Interestingly,
certain play activities involved some level of competence, such as bowling, karaoke,
and playing on the huge piano in FAO Schwartz in New York City (Photo 1.1). Other
play experiences were purely hedonic with no expertise required for enjoyment, such
as hot air ballooning, going on rides at Disneyland (Photo 1.2) and enjoying a slushy
while playing the poker machines in Las Vegas, Nevada (Photo 1.3).
1.1
1.2
1.3
Other photos represent aesthetic value and openly relate to the enjoyment of beauty,
culture and the arts. Beautiful scenery and landscapes have been captured, such as
Mooney Falls in the Grand Canyon, Arizona (Photo 2.1). In addition to natural
scenery, photos of constructed beauty were also taken: Christmas decorations in
Rockefeller Center, NYC (Photo 2.2), the Statue of Liberty, and the Grand Prize
2
Winner of Nature's Best Photography 2007, 'Burchell's Zebras' by Richard du Toit in
the Museum of Natural History, Washington D.C. (Photo 2.3). Although the actual
viewing of these natural and constructed objects required little effort, much of the
appreciation was derived from the information learned.
2.2
2.1
2.3
Efficiency and excellence are also evident in the travel photos, as many travel
activities were both functional and economical. Efficiency is depicted in a photo of the
researcher at the departure gate at Sydney International Airport (Photo 3.1). The photo
shows the commencement of the travel experience. Exertion of human effort while
travelling was required by the researcher: arriving at the airport, carrying luggage and
walking or taking other forms of transportation to explore scenic attractions. The
researcher believes that getting the most value out of her travel experience was due to
how actively she participated in, and not just observed, the experience.
3.1
3.2
Efficiency is also captured in a photo of the researcher’s travel companions on a hike
in the Grand Canyon (Photo 3.2). Only through physical effort were the travelers able
to see beautiful landscape not witnessed by many visiting the canyon. To get down to
Mooney Falls, the travelers had to climb through a dark tunnel and down a steep cliff
face. This strenuous experience was worth it once the Mooney Falls were unveiled.
4.1
4.2
4.3
Examples of excellence can be seen in Photo 4.1 of the Beacon Hotel in NYC. After
the long flight from Australia, a comfortable bed was most welcomed. The photo also
shows the researcher’s backpack lying on the floor. While crediting the space bags
3
inside, the researcher is amazed at the amount of clothes the backpack could hold.
Excellence in logistics and coordination required in manufacturing and transportation
is also seen. Photo 4.2 is of the Budweiser Beer Factory in Jacksonville, FL, where
the researcher enjoyed sampling products. Standing inside Grand Central Terminal in
NYC, the researcher appreciated the complex operations. Whilst in San Francisco,
CA, cable cars were a functional, economic and fun way to travel (Photo 4.3).
Other-oriented experiences. Status is shown in photos of the researcher in front of
iconic buildings, landmarks and natural wonders of the world. Photo 5.1 shows her
standing in Times Square, NYC. Status also is seen in researcher’s fashion label
clothing and her meeting with celebrities. In Photo 5.1 the researcher is wearing Ksubi
jeans and an Oneteaspoon jacket. Photo 5.2 shows travelers dressed up in the Rum
Jungle nightclub in Las Vegas. The researcher took an opportune photo with an
Ambercrombie & Finch model in the organizations NYC store (Photo 6.2) and with
Mickey Mouse in Disneyworld in Orlando, Florida (Photo 5.3).
5.1
5.2
5.3
Photos exhibiting esteem capture the purchasing of souvenirs, one way of impressing
others. When in Santa Fe, NM the researcher bought a pearl ring (Photo 6.1). Other
souvenirs purchased included clothing from Ambercrombie & Finch (Photo 6.2) and
Ghirardelli chocolate from San Francisco. Photos from socially desirable places also
transmit esteem. Examples include: Bourbon Street in New Orleans, (Photo 6.3),
Route 66 in Arizona and Rodeo Drive in Beverley Hills.
6.1
6.2
6.3
The final two other-orientated and intrinsic value types of ethics and spirituality also
are supported with travel photos. A photo of Benjamin Franklin's grave, where the
researcher paid the entry fee, while others did not, is an example of an ethical decision
made (Photo 7.1). Kindness and compassion are represented in a photo of a traveler
celebrating his birthday (Photo 7.2) organized by another traveler. Photos of other
ethical issues included: a photo of a tip jar in Storm Bros. Ice Cream Factory in
4
Annapolis, MD and a picture of the researcher carrying out her rubbish from the
bottom of the Grand Canyon in the Havasupai Indian Reservation.
7.1
7.2
The most powerful type of customer value evident was that of spirituality. Photos of
sculptures indicate respect devoted to the sanctity of life. Witnessing locations
affected by national tragedy was a sobering experience paired with silent moments of
reflection and incredible respect. Photo 8.1 is of the Helping Hand in St Paul’s
Memorial Chapel near the World Trade Center site in NYC, which “represented the
countless hands that came together at St Paul’s to pray, heal, comfort and embrace all
those who walked through our doors after September 11th”. Memorials also were
visited. Photo 8.2 is of the National World War II Memorial in Washington D.C.,
paying tribute to soldiers in World War II. To pay respect to inspirational people in
US history, the researcher visited locations of national significance, such as the
Lorraine Motel where Dr. Martin Luther King was assassinated in Memphis, TN
(Photo 8.3).
8.1
8.2
8.3
Discussion
Exploring travel photos from a consumer value perspective together with SPI, reveals
several features of hedonic consumption that, perhaps otherwise, would not have been
identified. Enjoyment is much more than self-indulgence and immediate gratification.
Results show play and aesthetics certainly are valued, but so are competency, effort
and efficiency. Sharing, relationships and individual growth also are important aspects
of pleasure. Evidently, pleasure is valued only partly for “hedonic” reasons.
Philosophers (Aristotle 1985; Plato 1937), theorists (Fromm 1947; Maslow 1968) and
researchers (Csikszentmihalyi 1992; La Guardia et al. 2000; Ryan and Deci 2000;
Waterman et al. 2003) contend that a “higher” order of pleasure, eudaimonia, is
derived from striving for excellence and engaging in challenging activities requiring
intense, personal involvement. With the serious environmental and social issues now
facing the world, possibly now the time has come for governments, businesses and
individual consumers to turn to more “eudaimonic” consumption experiences.
5
References
Aristotle, 1985. Nichomachean ethics (T. Irwin, Trans.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.
Belk, R.W., 1991. Highways and Buyways: Naturalistic Research from the Consumer
Behavior Odyssey. Association for Consumer Research, Provo, UT.
Chaudhuri, A., 2006. Emotion and Reason in Consumer Behavior. Oxford:
Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann.
Chitturi, R., Raghunathan, R., Mahajan, V., 2008. Delight by design: the role of
hedonic versus utilitarian benefits. Journal of Marketing. 72, 48-63.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., 1992. Flow: The Psychology of Happiness. London: Rider.
Deshpande, R., 1983. Paradigms lost: on theory and method in research in marketing.
Journal of Marketing. 47, 101- 110.
Fromm, E., 1947. Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics. New
York: Fawcett.
Hirschman, E. C., Holbrook, M. B., 1982. Hedonic consumption: emerging concepts,
methods and propositions. Journal of Marketing. 46(3), 92-101.
Holbrook, M. B., 1986. I’m hip: an autobiographical account of some consumption
experiences. In Lutz RJ, editor. Advances in Consumer Research, 13. Provo (UT):
Association for Consumer Research, 614– 618.
Holbrook, M. B., 1995. Consumer Research: Introspective Essays on the Study of
Consumption. Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage Publications.
Holbrook, M.B., 1999. Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research.
London (UK): Routledge.
Holbrook, M. B., 2005. Customer value and autoethnography: subjective personal
introspection and the meanings of a photograph collection. Journal of Business
Research. 58, 45-61.
Holbrook, M.B., Hirschman, E.C., 1982. The experiential aspects of consumption:
consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. The Journal of Consumer Research. 9(2), 132140.
Holbrook, M. B., Kuwaharar, T., 1998. Collective stereographic photo essays: an
integrated approach to probing consumption experiences in depth, International
Journal of Research in Marketing 15, 201–221.
Keiningham, T., Vavra, T., 2001. The Customer Delight Principle. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
6
La Guardia, J., Ryan, R. M., Couchman, C. E., Deci, E, L., 2000. Within-person
variation in security of attachment: a self-determination theory perspective on
attachment, need fulfilment, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology. 79(3), 367-384.
Maslow, A. H., 1968. Toward a Psychology of Being (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Van
Nostrand.
Norman, D.A., 2004. Emotional Design: Why We Love (or Hate) Everyday Things.
New York: Basic Books.
Plato, 1937. The Dialogues of Plato (B. Jowett, Trans.). New York: Random House.
Postrel, V., 2003. The Substance of Style. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
Ryan, R. M., Deci, E.L., 2000. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of
intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist. 55,
68–78.
Stern, B., 1994. Authenticity and the textual persona: postmodern paradoxes in
advertising narrative. International Journal of Research in Marketing. 11,4, 387–400.
Waterman, A. S., 1993. Two conceptions of happiness: contrasts of personal
expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology. 64, 678–91.
Waterman, A. S., 2005. When effort is enjoyed: two studies of intrinsic motivation for
personally salient activities. Motivation and Emotion. 29(3), 165-88.
Waterman, A. S., Schwartz, S.J., Goldbacher, E., Green, H., Miller, C., Philip, S.
2003. Predicting the subjective experience of intrinsic motivation: the roles of selfdetermination, the balance of challenges and skills, and self-realization Values.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 29(11), 1447-58.
7